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From Mud House to Aluminum City: The Emergence of Modern Architecture

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 Journal of Recent Activities in Architectural
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From Mud House to Aluminum City: The Emergence of Modern
Architecture in Nigeria
Obi Nicholas Iheanacho*
Lecturer, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus,
Nigeria
*Corresponding Author: nicholas.obi@unn.edu.ng
ABSTRACT
Classification of Nigerian architecture can be
drawn from the two basic climatic regions of
Northern and Southern Nigeria as evidenced by
the distinct traditional architecture of the
regions. This study focuses on the period which
spans from pre-colonial to the present era,
portraying the genealogy of evolutional trends
in Nigerian architecture. The Nigerian
indigenous architecture was influenced in
general terms by Islamic religion established in
Northern Nigeria, the settlement of returnee
freed slaves from the North and South America,
(notably Brasil) and most especially, the
colonization by the British. Historically,
architectural trends of different styles emerged.
They include; the European trend that led to the
Colonial Style, the Brazilian Trend that led to
the Brazilian Style and the North African
Trends that led to Sudanese Style of
architecture as influenced by Islam. Attempts
made to blend these emerging trends with the
existing traditional architecture gave rise to
what is known as Vernacular Architecture. The
study therefore made an overview of
architectural trends in Nigeria, with reference to
traditional and cultural heritage to
modernization. Designs in architecture reflect
the lifestyle of the people and represent the
symbols of identity as well as technological
advancement of the nation. The study identified
that contemporary Nigerian architecture is
dominated by the International Style. The
demerits of this new trend are; its foreign
outlook, its sustainability in the tropics and the
inadequacy of technological advancement to run
and maintain the buildings. Sustainable
architecture that adapts to climate, local
material, culture and regional identity was
proposed.
Keywords-- Evolutional trends, international style,
local material, regional identity, vernacular
architecture
INTRODUCTION
Historical Background
Nigeria is located in Sub-Saharan Africa,
in the West of African region off the coast of the
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Gulf of Guinea. Nigeria has more than 250 ethnic
groups. According to Ayemoni, (2012), these
groups speak more than 500 dialects that form a
distinguishing factor in terms of socio economic
characteristics. However, the three major ethnic
groups the Hausa-Fulanis in the Northern region,
The Yorubas in the South West region and the
Igbos in the South East region are the most
dominant tribes in Nigeria (Demographics of
Nigeria, 2018). Historically, many towns emerged
as meeting places for nomads and immigrants who
converge together for trade, cultural, socio
economic and religious activities from where they
begin to grow and engage in territorial expansion.
Notable at this period are Daura (Hausa), and Ife
(Yoruba) which grew to be formidable empires.
Kano City in Northern Nigeria became a center for
trade, artisan activities and other specialized trades.
One of the most prominent buildings in Hausa
towns from the 15th Century was the mosque. Other
structures such as houses and fence walls were
built of mud. Other materials include grass, corn
stalks and straw. For the Yoruba in the South West
region, the most prominent structures were the
Oba’s palace and the market which were visible
and dominant at the central areas of cities like Ile-
Ife established in the 11th century and Ilesha and
Ekiti. The settlers at this period lived in compounds
embracing square-shaped houses surrounded with
high walls. Some of the compounds measure more
than half-acre, large enough to carter for a large
family and kinsmen. The large compounds which
were divided into many rooms have only one
entrance maybe done as security measure. Roofing
materials for all structures including Oba’s palace
were thatch until the early 20th century when new
materials such corrugated steel roofing sheets
began to arrive from Europe. However, while
thatched roofing thrived in the traditional style, the
Northern Nigerian towns, early enough replaced
thatch roof with dome shaped mud roof. Climatic
influence, geographical locations and human
physiology dictated the forms and layout of
buildings. For example, curvilinear, conical and
mud-roofed dome shaped structures were very
prominent in Northern Nigeria. Consequently,
creation of an intimate relationship to reinstate the
values and customs accepted by a defined social
group played an important role in the definition of
the architecture of the time. In addition, the form
and functions of housing vary with people customs
 Journal of Recent Activities in Architectural
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and culture, as an aftermath of what the populace
considered as important in their shelter. Rikko and
Qwatu, (2011) in the same vein, posited that
different forms of traditional housing adorning
different regions of Nigeria resulted from the
tendency of the indigenous people to adapt to
suitable accommodation dictated by culture and
religious influences, the prevailing climate,
urbanization trends and current socio-economic
activities. The history of Nigerian architecture
cannot be complete without mention to the earliest
civilization; the Nok Culture, which developed
between 500 -200 BC with great influence all over
the central part of present Nigeria. Possessing the
knowledge of iron, enabled early settlers to
penetrate into the hinterland of the rainforest and
settle at ancient city of Ife (present Ile-Ife) and
other areas (Clark, 1984). The specific objectives
pursued in this study were to: elaborate on the
trends of building materials’ advancement in the
evolution of architecture in Nigeria; discuss the
Figure 1: Multi Ethnic Groups of Nigeria.
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significance of modern materials as symbols of
progress in the present-day architecture in Nigeria;
to propose sustainable architecture that adapts to
climate, local materials, culture and regional
identity.
Context of Study
Nigeria is approximately 923,768 km2 in
size. Its East-West distance is about 1,127 km
while North- South distance is 1,046 km.(National
Bureau of Statistics, 2010) with a population of 198
million (National Population Commission, 2018). It
lies between latitudes 4° and 14° to the North and
longitudes 3° and 14° East of Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT). Nigeria is a multi-ethnic nation (Fig.
1) with vast architectural evolution spreading along
different regions determined in line with different
climatic conditions, socio-economic and cultural
background. Rikko and Qwatau (2011).
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PRE–COLONIAL
The Igbo
A typical Igbo traditional house is
characterized by circular/round-wall or rectangular-
wall structure built with mud or earth material
called ulo-aja. The traditional roofing system is
usually pitched due to predominantly prevailing
rainy season in the region. The roof is covered with
thatch mat material (aju, atani, ngwo), the readily
available material in pre-colonial period. The
thatch is tied on timber or bamboo poles weaved in
crossed skeletal frame structure. Rafters are knotted
or tied to the wall below it at different locations to
resist incidences of wind. This is followed by
thatching with grasses and fronds or raffia mat.
Generally, these houses used mostly wooden and
bamboo beams and poles for support system as the
Figure 2: The Igbo Mbari Mud House (Source: Author’s Internet Search).
The Yoruba
The Yoruba pre-colonial architecture was
characterized by an elaborate and functional
courtyard. The Yoruba house style is called
‘Orowa’ in their native language. The houses were
usually laid extensively around the courtyard to
accommodate extended family hierarchy. The
Courtyards were made large enough to
accommodate many domestic and private activities
and they are regarded as the most important spaces
in Yoruba traditional house arrangement.
Construction was mainly by communal labor
arranged within the area. Materials available within
the area were used which consisted thick mud for
the walls, bamboo poles for rafters, while the
covering is done with termite-resistant treated
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only available materials at that time. The
architecture of a family compound made provision
for the family head- an Okpara, a titled elder, or
first son in the family structure. One common
entrance protected with mats made from raffia
leaves thatching was a common feature of typical
family compound. Thatching is done with grasses
or rafia fronds depending on the area; meeting
house (Obi), shrines (Okwu-Alusi) and many rooms
(ime ulo) enough to accommodate the polygamous
family system practiced then. The obi or mbari
stood as a traditional symbolic space in a family
compound specifically reserved for the family head
for entertainment of guests and where libations and
prayers are offered to the gods, spirits or “chi”
before the fetish altars stationed in the obi as
medium of worship.
timber panels unlike the Igbo thatch mat. The thick
mud walls were finished with local sand plaster
which sometimes was applied with artistic
treatment. These houses were arranged into
compounds housing large family units with many
rooms open to the courtyard forming repeated units
of courtyards determined by the size of the family.
This arrangement is called agbo’le which
symbolizes the first family head’s name and serves
as a reminder to family members to uphold the
image of their compound. The importance of
courtyards cannot be overemphasized, in view of
the socioeconomic activities that take place in it
such as cooking, breeding of domestic animals, and
storage of farm produce which are common
characteristics of the compound system.
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The Hausa
Traditional Hausa architecture is quite
elaborate, enough to house the man his wives and
the children. Categorically, in Hausa architecture,
three distinguished features can be observed. They
include; Calligraphy, ornamental and surface
design which are mostly pronounced in the palaces
of Northern Nigerian Emirs. The introduction of
Islam made some additional changes in the Hausa
architectural plans with common features such as
“azure” (male section), made to seclude women
from having contact with male visitors. Materials
used were simple local materials such as mud,
stones wall structure while corn stalks and grasses
Figure 3: Hausa Mud House in Jos, Nigeria (Source: Author’s Internet Search).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The methodology involved studying
existing literatures on evolution of architectural
trends in Nigeria. The instrument involved
collecting data from existing literatures and
research findings. Most of the Literatures were
derived from books, journals, articles and reports
on related topic as well as personal knowledge and
the internet. In the process of carrying out this
study, challenging issues were identified and target
objectives stated and appraisal of existing situation,
conclusions and suggestions were made.
The European Trend and the Development of
the Colonial Style
The European trend took its root between
18th and 19th Century, a period of massive
economic growth which significantly played a
major role in international trade. Production of cash
crops was a major factor for the country’s
development process because the economic gain
derived from export in the international trade
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were used for covering or thatching the roof .Sun-
dried bricks called ‘tubali’ are common materials
used in wall construction, while mixed straw and
mud used plastering walls . Indoor arcs are
observed within the entrance to the compounds.
Most interesting features of typical Hausa
compound include the following: “Zanko” – a
protrusion from roof parapet, “dakis”- rooms, of
which the number is dependent on the number of
wives belonging to the man of the house, “mai
gida.” Others include: “darki girdi”- the kitchen,
“rumfa” –a shsade, Shago – location for unmarried
adult male, and “rijiva” – a well for domestic water
provision located at the center of the compound.
(Payne, 1977). The rapid changes in the Nigerian
development process during the 19th century era
can be attributed to three main factors; the Muslim
Jihads in Northern Nigeria, the Civil Warsamong
theorubas in the Western Nigeria, the European
Atlantic, exporation missionary activities from the
coast into the hinterland. The British influence can
be traced out from Slave trade of 18th century, its
abolition in middle of the 19th century, to the 1914
amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria.
This period witnessed a tremendous change in the
existing architecture of Nigeria as a result of
imported English country house of 18th Century
featuring prefabricated construction with deep
verandahs and overhanging eaves. According to
Adeyemi, (1975-1976), some of the houses were
mounted on stilts and most often they feature a
continuous band of windows running horizontally
across the wall. The influx of new building
materials from Europe marked a new change in the
physical landscape feature of urban settlements.
The most popular materials at this period include
corrugated iron roofing sheets and cement which
made some tremendous impact in the development
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of Nigerian architecture (Denyer, 1978). This is the erected during the period (Fig. 4). The colonial
emergence of colonial style of architecture in style portrays the classical order which influenced
Nigeria which took prominence in the design of the architecture of the period of classic revival of
public and administrative buildings that were England.

Figure 4: Regional State House, Enugu (1964) (Source: Author’s Internet Search).

Figure 5: First Storey Building in Nigeria in Badagry, South West Nigeria (Source: Author’s Internet Search).

Brazilian Architecture cities returned to West Africa with another style of

The slave trade brought lasting
relationship between Nigerian people and the
people of Europe and America for one thing,
Nigerian slaves who found themselves in the New
World, consequently lost their identity. However,
the Yoruba tried as much as possible to maintain
the peculiar customs that preserve their identity.
The returnee slaves from Brazil after the uprising
around 1800s settled in Nigeria. Later on, many
slaves that regained their freedom the American
Architecture known as Brazilian Architecture
which was completely new to the people Fig. 6(a)
and 6(b). The emerged Brazilian architecture,
generally designed in a two-storey structure,
differed in many ways from the existing traditional
mud houses and the colonial style both in form and
composition finished in cement, and adorned with
ornamental pillars and balustrades. Majority of the
house are still visible in Lagos and in cities of
Southern Nigeria.

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Figure 6: Brazilian Architecture (Source: Author’s Internet Search Source: Author’s Internet Search).

The North African Trend and the Development
of Sudanese Architecture
The main feature of this style is the
application of bricks made from mud, plastering
with adobe, introduction of large logs of wooden
beams jutting out from the wall surfaces Especially
in palaces and mosques (Fig. 7). The wooden
beams are sometimes used as Scaffolding poles
during renovation works. Typical example is
Sudano-Sahelian architecture Found in Jenie-Jeno
dated around 250 BC.

Figure 7: Sudanese Architecture in Zaria, Northern Nigeria (Source: Author’s Internet Search).

Figure 8: Dome-shaped Mud Roof in Zaria, Northern Nigeria (Source: Author’s Internet Search).

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Islamic influence strongly affected the
indigenous architecture of Northern Nigeria as can
be seen from its impact on the form, scale,
proportion and appearance. For example, the dome-
shaped mud roof which is very common and
popular in the Northern region of Nigeria is clearly
visible in North African cities (Fig. 8).
Vernacular Architecture
Vernacular Architecture was established
by the three major ethnic nationalities in Nigeria –
made up of the Hausa, who occupy the area of
Northern Nigeria; the Igbo found in South Eastern
Nigeria and the Yoruba, located in the South West
Nigeria. The vernacular architecture in each ethnic
group has its peculiar characteristics in terms of
culture, religion and prevailing climate of the
region and sense of identity. Similar architectural
characteristics are reflected in ethnic groups that
share similar culture, region and identity as it
relates to their building layout, family size, space
arrangement, openings and decorations used,
roofing type, and the building materials used. Local
building materials were adequately harmonized and
were able to meet housing needs without having
detrimental effect on the environment. There is
need for contemporary architecture to incorporate
the identified vernacular values which embrace
cultural needs of the people and adapt to the
prevailing climate of the area in which they are
established. In the historical evolution of man’s
settlement, external models of buildings played
major roles in the choice of materials and
construction techniques, decoration, size and
rooms’ specifications and overall arrangement of
dwelling units. Langley, (1976) posited that these
models which were later mastered by the people
became the foundation on which vernacular
architecture took its root as an architecture peculiar
to particular people in a country. Though the forms
of vernacular architecture have traditional origin in
Figure 9: Hausa Vernacular Architecture (Source: Author’s Internet Search).
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the socio-cultural life of the Nigerian people, its
interaction with other influences have given birth to
a new vernacular architecture in Nigeria.
(Adeyemi, 1975-76). A good example can be
drawn from the Igbo rural settlements in South East
Nigeria, where family mutual help was applied in
the erection of a dwelling unit, which gradually
went to extinction, giving way to the Brazilian
housing model which demands new materials
application new construction techniques which
spread rapidly.
Hausa
Hausa vernacular architecture is
significantly influenced by religion, socio-cultural
practices, available material as well as climate. The
layout patterns of settlements as well as family
compounds are affected by the culture and social
practices. The three main focal points typical of
Hausa settlement are: the Emir’s palace, which
serves as center for communal administration, the
mosque for religious worship and the market which
serve as a place for trading and social interaction
with neighboring community at least on weekly
bases. The family compounds of the Hausa
community are located around the three focal
points. Studies on typical house dwellings spread in
major cities of Northern Nigeria found remarkable
level of complexity, high level of special
arrangement for privacy from outdoor to indoor
spaces (Sa’ad, 1996). The compounds are most
often fenced with traditional mud wall, grass
matting or “Zana” or contemporarily with concrete
wall. The main entrance hall opening to the street is
known as the “Zaure” as seen in (Fig. 9) which
creates a separation between an outside public zone
and a private inside zone for the extended family.
The Vernacular architecture of Hausa origin can be
said to be an art of shaping the environment that
embraces their traditions, efficiently for their
comforts and needs.
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Yoruba provided with small sized windows and doors and

The Yorba is among Nigerian major
ethnic groups located within the South- West
geopolitical zone of Nigeria. Their vernacular
architecture embraces a rectilinear compound with
a central courtyard spread in cubical shape where a
rectangular impluvium is located. Its characteristic
feature is the provision of one entrance (Enu, Ilo)
that leads to the compound. The shape of the rooms
is usually, in square or rectangular form. The
rooms which are positioned in linear pattern are
arranged to face the courtyard, which forms the
center of activities (Fig. 10). The wall plane is
made of courses of mud materials, mixed with
vegetative materials such as straw, as additives and
adhesives added to enhance bonding. The ceiling
materials were made of mat from palm fronds or
split-bamboo which are placed on wood beams.
The roof consist of pitched pyramidal wood
framework (Aja), covered with woven thatched-
mat tied to the framework with rope fibers.

SCHEMATIC LAYOUT SOFT RADITIONAL/VERNACULARHOUSE-TYPES

Figure 10: Yoruba Vernacular Architecture (Source: Author’s Internet Search).

Igbo eastern states of Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu

The Igbo constitutes a major ethnic group
in Nigeria found in the South East geopolitical
zone of Nigeria. They spread mostly on the eastern
and lower parts of the great River Niger but with
greater parts located in eastern part. They
predominantly inhabit the lands of the major
and Imo. They speak the common Igbo language
and are known to be very industrious mainly on
commercial activities (Chukwu, 2015). The Igbo
compounds surrounded with an earthen fence wall
have common feature of a single entrance gateway
which potrays the status symbol of compound head
and the family (Okoye, 2002). The Igbo building

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forms are usually rectangular or circular in shape.
Roof forms are determined according to the
building form, thus, rectangular buildings had
hipped roofing while circular buildings had conical
roofing. The windows were small in size and
usually few in number while the veranda is located
in front of the houses (Dmochowski, 1990). The
building usually has three sections made up of
Men’s rooms most often separated from the
women’s rooms and the children’s section.
Materials for construction include mud, clay and
grasses from palm. These materials have been
proved to withstand local weather conditions. Clay
is used for adobe walls to regulate temperature
between indoors and outdoors because of the
prevalent hot humid conditions of the area. The
house roofing system is made to be steep and
pitched in order to withstand the prevailing tropical
rainfall which is prevalent in the area (Nsude,
1987) Fig. 11 and 12.

Figure 11: Igbo Pre-Colonial Vernacular Architecture.

Figure 12: Igbo Pre-Colonial Vernacular Architecture. (Source: Author’s Internet Search).

Modern Architecture resort to designing weather sensitive buildings

In Nigeria, the late 1930s witnessed a new
trend in architecture known as the modern
movement became popular among Nigerian
architects characterized by modern flat roof, which
seemed to be inadequate to solve the tropical
rainfall. In the Nigeria, architects at this period
because of local conditions. The first example of
this style is the late 1950s’ Shell BP building now
National House (Fig. 13) and Co-op Bank built in
Lagos. The architects at this time were expatriates
whose target was to introduce modern buildings as
practiced in their native countries and young
architects who trained abroad.

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Figure 13: National Oil and Marketing Building (Eagle House), Lagos- Former Capital and Commercial City
of Nigeria (Source: Author’s Snapshot 2020).

They came with all the desire of the new
generation dream changing the city landscape with
modern architecture. Notably among them include
Arc. Olumuyiwa in his Management House at
Idowu Taylor Street in Victoria Island, Lagos,
James Cubitt’s Senate Building in University of
Lagos and Mobil Building in Lagos (Prusnal-
Ogunsote, 1993). Other good examples of
International Style that can be classed into the Pure
Modern Trend abound. They include; TAG Bank,
(Fig. 14) Abuja, American International School,
Abuja (Fig. 15).

Figure 14: TAG Bank, Abuja -New Capital City of Nigeria (Source: Author’s Snapshot 2020).

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The International Style dominates
contemporary modern architecture of Nigeria. Its
history dates from pre-independence time and its
peak-period in the seventies and early eighties. It is
characterized by simple geometrical forms coupled
with exposed parapet walls. It usually the basic
features include external walls finished in concrete,
steel components, and often icoporated with sun
shading devics made from aluminum. Examples
can be drawn from the Senate building of Ahmadu
Bellow University, ABU, Zaria. Other examples
include; Management House Building CSS
Bookshop House, all located in Lagos city. (Fig.
16).

Figure 15: American International School, Abuja--New Capital City of Nigeria (Source: Author’s Snapshot
2020).

The first group of architects who received
their traing abroad showcased the ideas of
modernism in the international style. Most High
Rise buildings all over major cities in Nigeria are
of the International Style where the architects made
emphasis of simplicity and functionality in their
designs. Generally, it featured concrete flat roof
and curtain walling system without any regard to
the indigenous cultural identity, prevailing climatic
conditions, artistic decorations with ornaments and
motifs. Its environmental impacts can be in both
positive and negative dimensions. Apart from its
positive impact of producing remarkable landmarks
in Nigeria, its imported technologies affect
negatively the promotion and progress of the
indigenous building sector.

Figure 16: CSS Bookshop, House, Lagos (1965) by Godwin Hopwood (Source: Author’s Snapshot 2020).

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Figure 17: IBRU Building, Apapa, Lagos (Source: Femi Majekodunmi Associates Brochure).

The New West African Style
The New West African Style was an
attempt to provide climate responsive buildings
that will be sensitive to the tropical environment of
Nigeria. Thus, local climate became revant in
choice of building form. Typical examples include:
James Cubit Architects building and Mobil
building in Lagos (1991) which made provision for
cross ventilation and tinted/reflective glasses. The
firms of Deji Onyenuga and Partners and Niger
Consultants recognized and applied cross
ventilation in their designs. The importance of
climate in the architecture of the tropical
environment was emphasized. In the same vein, the
Firm of Olumiyiwa Architects recognized the use
of vegetation and water fountains as applied in
Management House building, Architecture House
and Eko Meridien Hotel, all in Lagos to improve
the microclimate of the area. Another approach, by
the firm of Environmental Development
Consultants introduced staggered windows and
deep overhang in their design of United Bank for
Africa UBA in Hadejia, Kano and Guaranty Trust
Bank, Kano (Fig. 18).

Figure 18: Guaranty Trust Bank, Kano (Source: Author’s Snapshot 2020).

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Figure 19: National Institute of Policy, Abuja -New Capital City of Nigeria (Source: Author’s Snapshot 2020).

Figure 20: The Panorama of Marina, Lagos – Aluminum City (Source: Author’s Snapshot 2020).

CONCLUSION surviving ones should not be alloed to go into

The emergence of modern building
materials has transformed the physical appearance
of the Nigerian urban landscape. The
inconveniency of roofing a circular house with
corrugated sheeting consequently changed the basic
traditional organic form of buildings to regular
geometric architecture. Initially, survival of
traditional architecture seemed to favour
rectangular shaped houses than circular shaped
ones. Although, traditional and vernacular
architecture invokes the spirit of history and
cultural identity, modern cities cannot be turned
into museums of outdated houses. However, the
extinction, rather they need to be preserved, or if
possible blend with the modern architecture. This
paper has highlighted the dominance tendency of
the International Style the contemporary Nigerian
architecture. Notable buildings that adorn Nigerian
major cities include the works of the following
architects; Ronald Ward’s First Bank Building,
Lagos; Techno-Export’s National Arts theatre,
Lagos; Design Group’s Broking House, Ibadan,
South West Nigeria; and Femi Majekodunmi
Associates’ NAL Towers, Lagos. Others are James
Cubit and Partners’ Chellarams Building, Lagos;
Inchscape Architects’ IMB Plaza and Interstate
Architects’ Central Bank Headquarters, Abuja of

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which the author is a member of the Design Team,
etc. Though the buildings may signify symbols of
progress and modernism as argued in some school
of thought, that Nigerian urban centers and capital
cities should blend in line with landscape outlook
of other cities of the world. The challenges that go
with this assertion is the level of country’s
technological advancement such as fire fighting for
high-rise buildings, thermal control of excessive
glazing, running lifts and elevators with electric
power, anti-terrorism, modern maintenance and
cleaning technoogy and ICT. The challenges ahead
for prospective Nigerian architects are to think
about sustainable architecture that adapts to
climate, local material culture and regional identity.
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