Homeostasis

Secondary 3 Courage and Truth,

and Secondary 4 Faith and Grace
IGCSE Biology (0610)

◀ A micrograph of prostate adenocarcinoma, depicting

normal prostate glands, low-grade prostate cancer, and
high-grade prostate cancer. Prostate cancer, and all types
of cancer, are fundamentally homeostatic imbalances.
Homeostasis
● “Homeostasis” comes from the Greek words homoios (meaning “similar”) and
stasis (“standing still”) — it thus literally has the idea of staying similar.
● Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. It
refers to the fact that the composition of tissue fluid in the body is kept within
narrow limits.
○ An example of this is the way the endocrine system maintains levels of
glucose in the blood. After a meal containing carbohydrates, the product
of digestion is glucose. This glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream,
making the blood glucose levels higher than normal. In response, the
pancreas secretes insulin, which travels in the blood to the liver and
stimulates the removal of glucose from the blood, restoring balance.
Homeostasis
● The concentration, acidity, and temperature of tissue fluid are being adjusted
all the time to prevent any big changes. There exists a set point, which is the
physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates.
○ For example, the set point for human body temperature is about
37 °C, and any significant divergence from this temperature triggers a
mechanism to bring the body temperature back to the set point.
● One significance of maintaining homeostasis is the need for enzymes. Recall
that enzymes are very sensitive to the conditions in which they work: a slight
fall in temperature 0r a rise in acidity may slow down or stop an enzyme from
working — and this would prevent an important reaction from taking place in
the cell.
Homeostasis
● Another important application of homeostasis is the maintenance of tissue
fluid composition. While the cell membrane controls the substances that enter
and leave the cell, the tissue fluid supplies or removes these substances. So, it
is important to keep the composition of the tissue fluid as steady as possible:
if the tissue fluid becomes too concentrated, it would withdraw water from the
cells by osmosis and the body would be dehydrated; and if the tissue fluid
becomes too dilute, the cells would take up too much water from it through
osmosis and the tissues would become swollen (or may even burst).
Homeostasis
● Many systems in the body help with homeostasis:
○ An obvious example is the kidneys, which remove substances that might
poison the enzymes. The kidneys control the level of salts, water, and
acids in the blood. The composition of the blood affects the tissue fluid
which, in turn, affect the cells.
○ Another example of a homeostatic organ is the liver, which regulates the
level of glucose in the blood. The liver stores any excess glucose as
glycogen, and turns glycogen back into glucose if the concentration in the
blood gets too low. Brain cells are very sensitive to blood glucose levels.
If the level drops too far, they stop working properly and the person will
become unconscious (then die if glucose is not injected into the system).
Homeostasis
○ The skin is another example: it helps regulate temperature. As mentioned
before, the maintenance of a constant body temperature makes sure that
vital chemical reactions continue at a predictable rate and do not speed
up or slow down when the surrounding temperature changes. So, the
constant-temperature (warm-blooded) animals have an advantage over
the variable-temperature animals. In the brain of a warm-blooded
animal, there is a thermoregulatory centre. This centre monitors the
temperature of the blood passing through it. It also receives sensory
nerve impulses from temperature receptors in the skin. A rise in body
temperature will ultimately result in vasodilation and sweating, while a
fall in body temperature will result in vasoconstriction and shivering.
Homeostasis
● The brain has overall control of the homeostatic processes in the body: it
checks the composition of blood flowing through, its temperature, its glucose
level, etc. If they would result in a value beyond the set point, then the brain
will send nerve impulses or hormones to the organs concerned so as to make
the necessary adjustments.
Homeostasis
Negative Feedback
● Homeostasis works through a system
of control called negative feedback.
● In negative feedback, the outgoing
impulses counteract the effects
produced by the incoming impulses.
○ For example, a rise in blood
glucose levels triggers a response
that counteracts the rise (i.e. by
releasing the hormone insulin).
Controlling Blood Glucose Level
● In the pancreas, there exists structures known as the islets of Langerhans.
Controlling Blood Glucose Level
● Insulin is produced by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans. So, when the
blood glucose level increases, these beta cells produce and release insulin,
which will eventually end up in the liver.
● Insulin has multiple effects/pathways by which it decreases a high blood
glucose level to maintain homeostasis:
1. it stimulates the liver cells to take up glucose from the blood and store it
as glycogen;
2. it increases the uptake of glucose in all cells for use in respiration;
3. it increases the conversion of carbohydrates to fats; and
4. it slows down the conversion of protein to carbohydrate.
Controlling Blood Glucose Level
● Glucagon, on the other hand, is a hormone that is produced by the alpha
cells of the islets of Langerhans. When blood glucose level decreases, these
alpha cells produce and release glucagon into the bloodstream, which will act
on the cells in the liver to cause them to convert some of their stored glycogen
back into glucose. This process, like the previous, restores the blood glucose
level.
Controlling Blood Glucose Level
● Not Eaten for 8 Hours → 90 to 100 mg/dL (or 90 to 100 mg 100 cm-3 blood)

After Eating Meal Containing Carbohydrate → 140 mg/dL

Two Hours After Eating Meal Containing Carbohydrate → 95 mg/dL

● If the blood glucose level reaches these values:

○ < 80 mg/dL → glycogen in the liver is converted into glucose
○ > 160 mg/dL → glucose is excreted by the kidneys
○ < 40 mg/dL → brain cells affected badly, convulsions and coma
Controlling Blood Glucose Level
“Glucose is the essential metabolic fuel
for the brain. Acute and severe
reduction of brain glucose leads
quickly to impairment of cognitive and
reflex function, autonomic failure,
seizures, loss of consciousness, and
permanent and irreversible brain
damage and, if not rapidly corrected,
can be lethal.”

- Ritter (2017) in Appetite and

Food Intake: Central Control
(2nd Ed.)
Controlling Blood Glucose Level
● Moreover, if blood glucose levels remain too high for long periods of time,
hyperglycaemia can develop. Effects of hyperglycaemia include:
○ damage to blood vessels that are connected to vital organs;
○ increased risk of heart disease and stroke; and
○ kidney disease, blurred vision, and nerve problems.
● Another condition relating to blood glucose levels is diabetes. Diabetes arises
when the production or functioning of insulin goes wrong. There are two types
of diabetes: type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes is the less
common form of the two.
Controlling Blood Glucose Level
● In type 1 diabetes, the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans do not produce
enough insulin. As a result, the patient’s blood is low in insulin and he/she
will need regular injections of the hormone in order to control blood sugar
level (so as to live a normal life).
● This diabetes type is also known as insulin-dependent diabetes.
● Symptoms of type 1 diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes:
○ feeling tired;
○ feeling very thirsty;
○ frequent urination; and
○ weight loss.
Controlling Blood Glucose Level
● Such patients with type 1 diabetes will therefore need to:
○ have a carefully controlled diet;
○ do regular exercise;
○ take regular blood tests to monitor blood glucose levels; and
○ regularly inject insulin to control the blood glucose level.
Sources and References
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Pienta, K.J. (n.d.). Incidence and Etiology of Cancer. [online] Coursera. Available at:
https://www.coursera.org/learn/cancer/lecture/XsshR/incidence-and-etiology-of-cancer [Accessed 25 Jul.
2023].

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica (2022). Islets of Langerhans. In: Encyclopædia Britannica. [online]
Available at: https://www.britannica.com/science/islets-of-Langerhans [Accessed 26 Jul. 2023].

Wang, S. and Qin, L. (2022). Homeostatic medicine: a Strategy for Exploring Health and Disease. Current
Medicine, 1(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s44194-022-00016-9.
Sources and References
Wikimedia Foundation (2023a). Homeostasis. [online] Wikipedia. Available at:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis [Accessed 25 Jul. 2023].

Wikimedia Foundation (2023b). Prostate Cancer. [online] Wikipedia. Available at:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostate_cancer [Accessed 25 Jul. 2023].