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Nis and Byzantium Xix
Nis and Byzantium Xix
Универзитет у Нишу
Православна Епархија нишка
Нишки културни центар
The Days of St. Emperor Constantine and Helena
Editor
MIŠA RAKOCIJA
NKC
Niš, 2021
Дани Св. цара Константина и царице Јелене
НИШ И ВИЗАНТИЈА
ДЕВЕТНАЕСТИ МЕЂУНАРОДНИ НАУЧНИ СКУП
НИШ, 3 - 5. ЈУН 2020.
ЗБОРНИК РАДОВА
XIX
Уредник
МИША РАКОЦИЈА
НКЦ
Ниш, 2021.
Издавачи
ГРАД НИШ
УНИВЕРЗИТЕТ У НИШУ
ПРАВОСЛАВНА ЕПАРХИЈА НИШКА
НИШКИ КУЛТУРНИ ЦЕНТАР
За издаваче
Градоначелник
ДРАГАНА СОТИРОВСКИ
Ректор Универзитета у Нишу
Проф. др ДРАГАН АНТИЋ
Епископ нишки
ГОСПОДИН АРСЕНИЈЕ (ГЛАВЧИЋ)
Нишки културни центар-директор
СРЂАН САВИЋ
др Миша Ракоција
16
сл. 4 дискусија
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 17
су чудна времена тако да можете But these are strange times and you
видети само виртуелни обилазак can only see the virtual tour of our
нашег града и његових важних city and its great historic sites. Until
историјских места. Све док се the times get normal and you get an
времена не нормализују и добијете opportunity to see Nis in your physi-
прилику да и физички видите Ниш. cal body.
Следеће године, ако све буде Next year, all being well,
у реду, организатори Међународног the organizers of the International
симпозијума византолога, пре Symposium of Byzantologists, dr
свега др Миша Ракоција, имаће Miša Rakocija foremost of all, will
тежак задатак да обележе значајан have a difficult task to mark a sig-
датум: 20 година симпозијума. Ово nificant date: 20 years of the sympo-
је прилика за славље јер није лако sium. This is an occasion for celebra-
одржати континуитет толико дуго у tion because it is not easy to maintain
српским академским круговима где the continuity for so long in Serbian
су препреке бројније од решења. academia where obstacles are more
Сада схватамо да постоје проблеми numerous than solutions. Now we
чак и већи од свих оних на које realize that there are problems even
смо навикли у нашем академском larger than all those we are used to in
окружењу. Мали вирус, ако је our academic environment. A small
уопште био вирус, довољно је моћан virus, if it was a virus at all, is power-
да промени рутину и традицију коју ful enough to change the routine and
организатори покушавају да изграде tradition which the organisers have
и развију. Ове године симпозијум been trying to build and develop. This
је прошао виртуелно, што се чини year the symposium went virtual,
веома модерним али нажалост ми which seems to be very trendy, but
смо посвећени традиционалним unfortunately we are devoted to tra-
начинима, попут личних сусрета, ditional ways, like meeting in person,
интеракције, комуникације и, што interacting, communicating, and best
је најбоље од свега, заједничких of all, going to dinner together, in a
одлазака на вечеру, у добром духу good spirit of Serbian hospitality. Niš
српског гостопримства. Ниш је is noted for its good food and our par-
познат по доброј храни и наши ticipants always remember delicious
учесници се увек сећају укусних ćevapčići and juicy pljeskavice, even
ђевапчића и сочних пљескавица, if they forget memorable presenta-
чак и ако забораве презентације tions. This year, you will only imag-
које су за памћење. Ове године ine what it feels like to go to the best
само ћете замислити какав је осећај restaurant in town after a long con-
отићи у најбољи ресторан у граду ference day and enjoy a good joke,
након дугог конференцијског дана laughter, and friendship.
и уживати у доброј шали, смеху и The theme for this year’s sym-
пријатељству. posium is very well chosen: „In
Тема овогодишњег Praise of Truth or the Resurrection
симпозијума је веома добро of Byzantium.“ I cannot get rid of
одабрана: „Похвала истини или associations to the Covid-19 pan-
Васкрс Византије”. Не могу да се demic since now the buzzword is
ослободим асоцијација на пандемију truth. What is the truth and what are
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 23
Ковид-19, јер је сада реч о којој се the falsehoods related to this global
шушкало истина. Шта је истина event. Evidently, the phenomenon of
а шта су лажи повезане са овим truth and its opposite has always been
глобалним догађајем. Очигледно significant, and every scientific field
је да су феномен истине и његова offers ample material for the explo-
супротност увек били значајани, а ration of truth in that particular area.
свака научна област нуди довољно It seems that our civilization is at the
материјала за истраживање истине crossroads at the moment, since the
у тој одређеној области. Чини се truths many sciences uphold are being
да се наша цивилизација тренутно questioned now.
налази на раскршћу, јер се истине The second part of your top-
које подржавају многе науке сада ic for this year’s conference the
преиспитују. Resurrection of Byzantium is equally
Други део теме овогодишње important. The atmosphere of the
конференцје „Васкрс Византије“, general decline of moral values in
подједнако је значајан. Атмосфера our times calls for the resurrection
општег пада моралних вредности of original values. “A central feature
у наше време захтева васкрсење of Byzantine culture was Orthodox
изворних вредности. „Централна Christianity. Byzantine society was
карактеристика византијске културе very religious, and it held certain val-
било је православно хришћанство. ues in high esteem, including a respect
Византијско друштво је било веома for order and traditional hierarchies.
религиозно и високо је поштовало Family was at the center of society,
одређене вредности, укључујући and marriage, chastity, and celibacy
поштовање реда и традиционалне were celebrated and respected”. As
хијерархије. Породица је била Byzantologists, you are well aware
у средишту друштва, а брак, of these values, though the general
чедност и целибат су се славили и public should be often reminded of
поштовали“. Као византолозима, the core Christian values: grace, hope,
ове вредности су вам добро познате, faith, justice, joy, service, peace, and
мада широку јавност често треба foremost of all, love.
подсећати на основне хришћанске So, even the focus your papers
вредности: милост, наду, веру, will aim at shows the significance of
правду, радост, служење, мир, а пре the symposium Niš and Byzantium.
свега љубав. Gathering positive energy from the
Дакле, чак и фокус на који support of the University, the Church
ће се ваши радови усмерити and City, this event scientifically ex-
показује значај симпозијума plores diverse aspects of Byzantine
Ниш и Византија. Прикупљајући values and traditions. For those of you
позитивну енергију проистеклу из who participate for the first time, I
подршке Универзитета, Цркве и will just briefly present the University
града, овај догађај научно истражује of Niš. Ours is the only state univer-
различите аспекте византијских sity in the south-east of Serbia with
вредности и традиције. За вас који the population of about two million
учествујете први пут, укратко ћу people. The University of Niš has
вам представити Универзитет у over 24.000 students at all levels of
Нишу. Наш је једини државни study, and it comprises 14 faculties
24 Проф. др Весна Лопичић
Миша Ракоција
(Завод за заштиту споменика културе Ниш)
Сл. 6 Црква
на локалитету
Градиште код
Миљковца, поглед
на апсидални
простор (фото. М.
Ракоција)
Fig. 6 Church
at Gradište near
Miljkovac, view at
the apse (photo: М.
Rakocija)
13 http://www.nisandbyzantium.org.rs/srpski.php
14 Ф. Каниц, Србија-земља и становништво II, Београд 1985.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 41
Сл. 9 Поглед на град Ниш са брда Светог Николе, простор византијског епископског
комплекса Св. Прокопија (потоња цркве Св. Николе), где је саграђена џамија, друга
половина 19. века, Ф . Каниц, акварел
Fig. 9 View on the city of Niš from the hill of St. Nicholas, the area of the byzantine
bishopric complex of St.Procopius (after St. Nicholas church), where was built the mosque,
second half of the 19th century, F. Kanic, watercolor
Сл. 13 Базилика у
Ћурлини, основа,
М.Ђ. Милићевић
Fig. 13 The Ćurlina
Basilica, foun-
dations, M.Đ.
Milićević
Сл. 15 М. Валтровић, Д.
Милутиновић, Орљане,
акварел из 1878. године
Fig. 15 M. Valtrović, D.
Milutinović, Orljane,
water-color painting from
1878
Сл. 16 М. Валтровић, Д.
Милутиновић, Орљане,
покушај реконструкције
из 1878.
Fig. 16 M. Valtrović, D.
Milutinović, Orljane,
attempt at reconstruction,
1878.
Сл. 22 Латинска
црква у Горњем
Матејевцу, друга
половина XI века
Fig. 22 Latin
church in Gornji
Matejevac, second
half of XI c
Сл. 23
Претпостављајући
изглед немањине
цркве Св.
Пантелемона а)
према В. Кораћу; б)
према М. Ракоција
Fig. 23 Assumed look
of early Christian
basilica basis а) ac-
cording to М. Коrać
б) according to M.
Rakocija
Сл. 24 Сићево, Бородица Живоносни источник, Сл. 25 Сићево, св. Константин, Јелена и
1644. година Андроник, 1644. година
Fig. 24 Sićevo, The Life-Giving Spring Theotokos, Fig. 25 Sićevo, St. Constantine, St. Helen and
1644. St. Andronik, 1644.
Сл. 28 Латинска
црква у Горњем
Матејевцу, друга
половина XI века
Fig. 28 Latin church
in Gornji Matejevac,
second half of XI c (S.
Ćurčić, Architecture
in the Balkans.
From Diocletian
to Süleyman the
Magnificent, New
Haven and London,
2010)
Miša Rakocija
(Institute for the protection of the monuments of culture of Niš)
RESEARCH OF BYZANTINE AND POST - BYZANTINE MONUMENTS OF NIŠ
The article aims to present main authors and their research results about Bzyantine
and Post - Byzantine heritage of Niš. The area of Niš is characterized by a great diversity of
Early Byzantine, Middle Byzantine and Post - Byzantine monumental heritage. The intention
is to draw attention to unknown cultural heritage from the area of the city of Niš.
It is stressed insufficient research of the urban topography of the medieval Niš as well
as the fortifications that guarded the approach to the city: Komplos (Koprijan), Gradište near
Miljkovac and Mediana. Despite the fact that some of the churches have been published,
whether in the form of a report or in the form of a somewhat more detailed analysis, no
synthesis of these research results has been made. That is the reason why the cultural monu-
ments of Niš are insufficiently known, and thus excluded from the artistic trends of Serbia,
the Balkans and Byzantium.
Thanks to the mentioned researchers, new data were obtained, and together with the
neglected one, a different picture of the past, artistic quarrels and the structure of the city
was formed. Systematic research and exhaustive analysis of church monuments in Niš will
strengthen their place in the Serbian history of art, which is a precondition for their classifica-
tion into generally accepted trends in Byzantine and Post - Byzantine art. The decades-long
work of the researchers enables us to continue with the discovery of the historical and artistic
heritage of the city of Niš, which is yet to come.
37 Исти, Пре могуће обнове цркве Св. Јована у селу Oрљане код Ниша, Гласник
Друштва конзерватора Србије 28, (Београд 2004), 70-74.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 55
Halûk Çetinkaya
(Mimar Sinan University, Istanbul)
Abstrach: This paper aims at shedding light on the new discoveries made
in Iznik / Nicaea. New Byzantine churches were added to the already existing
ones such as the ones within Lefke and Istanbul Gates. Infrastructural work
contributed to our knowledge with another church next to the current museum
building, most probably the monastery of Kerameon. A sunken church, claimed
to be dedicated to Hagios Neophytos and a lintel with the name of the church of
Virgin Mary and an hagiasma attached to that are the new additions to the list.
Keywords: Nicaea, Bithynia, Laskarids.
Foundation of Nicaea
Nicaea was founded by Antigonos Monophtalmos around 322-311 B.C.E.
as Antigonia.1 There is an opinion suggesting that there was a city at the same
site with the name of Attaea since 500 B.C.E. 2 or Helikore since early 4th
century B.C.E.3 both of them lack tangible evidence. Upon defeat of Antigonos
by Lysimachos in 301 B.C.E. it was renamed as Nicaea probably to honour the
wife of the latter. 4 It was bequeathed by the last Bityhian king Nikomedes IV
to Rome in 74 B.C.E. 5 Although Nicaea, together with Nicomedia, was given
the title of Neokoros in 29 B.C.E. 6 she was stripped off of it at the end of 3rd
century A.C.E. 7
Not much from the Roman past of the city other than the theatre and arch-
ways, later turned into city gates, survived. Until the 1st Ecumenical Council
1 Strabonos, Geografikon, tr. Horace Leonard Jones, London 1961, XII - 4. 6-7.
2 W. C. Holt, The walls of Nicaea, The Celator, Vol. 24 no. 4 (April 2010), 6.
3 R. Merkelbach, Nikaia in der römischen Kaiserzeit, Düsseldorf 1987, 10.
4 G. M. Cohen, The marriage of Lysimachus and Nicaea, Historia: Zeitschrift für
Alte Geschichte, Band 22 heft 2 (1973), 354-356.
5 Appianus, tr. Horace White, The Roman history of Appian of Alexandria, London
1899, I-XIII.
6 S. Mitchell, Anatolia Land, men and gods in Asia Minor, vol I, New York 1995, 212.
7 B. Burrell, Neokoroi Greek cities and Roman emperors, Boston 2004, 164-165.
56 Halûk Çetinkaya
meeting Nicaea was not a centre of attraction. Name of the city was mentioned
due to earthquakes of 6th and 11th centuries in the sources. Its second Golden
period was during the Laskarid dynasty of 13th century.
Nicaea has one of the best preserved city walls from the Medieval Age.
On the city walls there are 4 major gates, each facing cardinal directions.
The Second
Ecumenical Council was
held at the church of 12
Apostles in Constantinople
in 786 but upon increasing
problems it was moved to
Nicaea. Sessions were held
in Hagia Sophia of Nicaea
between 24 September and
13 October 787.21 Number
of the participating clergy
vary between 330 and 367.22
But most probably their
number was 343.23
Byzantine churches
Fig. 3 Bema, altar table supports and synthronon. Photo by author.
Сл. 3 Из личне фотодокументације аутора 1- Ayasofya (Hagia
Sophia)
It is located at the in-
tersection of cardo and decumanus in the middle of the city. Since the Ottoman
conquest in 1331 it was used as a mosque at intervals. At present it functions
as a mosque.
Because of the similarities with several buildings from the second half of
5th century it was suggested to be of the same date for the first phase of con-
21 G. Ostrogorsky, Bizans devleti tarihi, (History of the Byzantine State) tr. Fikret
Işıltan, Ankara 2011, 7th print, 165-166.
22 A. Giakalis, Images of the Divine, Leiden-Boston 2005, 15-16.
23 J. Darrouzès, Listes épiscopales du concile de Nicée (787), Revue des etudes
byzantins 33 (1975), 68.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 59
In a recent study, a date, convincingly, was suggested for the opus sec-
tile at the western entrance of the naos. Most important part of this study was
“fleur de lys”. This emblem was considered to be due to Western mercenaries in
Laskarid army but it is apparently the trade mark of the Laskarids. Fleur de lys
was not only used in opus sectile but on the coins minted as well. A date of first
half of 14th century was suggested basing on the pattern. 39
Inside Ayasofya there are fragments of frescoes. These are limited to three
areas: On the lateral apses or pastophoria, by the arches of windows on the
northern and southern walls and half buried arcosolium type of burial in the
northwestern wall. Among these, frescoes in the northeastern apse are damaged
due to smoke and hardly visible, whereas southeastern ones can still be seen.
Several dates for these frescoes such as between 1204-126340, second quarter of
the 13th century41 and 13th-14th century42 were suggested.
During the restorations of 2007-2009 geometrical patterned frescoes
were discovered by the arches of windows on northern and southern walls of
Ayasofya. Basing on the geometrical patterns 740-787 dates were suggested for
them.43
At the norhtwestern wall of the church there is a half buried arcosolium
type of a burial. Inside the arch is the depiction of a Deesis scene. On the side
Fig. 6 Koimesis
church in
1920’s. Photo by
Theodor Schmit
Сл. 6 Теодор
Шмит, Црква
Успења у
Никеји, Берлин
- Лапциг 1927.
walls of the arch are two men with haloes around their heads. Since there is no
inscription and their faces are hardly visible they cannot be identified. A date of
13th century was suggested for this fresco group.44
In 1081 Nicaea fell to Seldjuk Turks and it became the First Turkish ca-
pital in Anatolia.45
There is no record indicating that Ayasofya was converted into a mosque
during this period. In 1097 1st Crusaders laid siege on the city but it was
Byzantine empire, through secret negotiations with Turks, captured it.46 In 1331
when Nicaea was captured by the Ottomans, sultan Orhan converted Ayasofya
into a mosque.47
Fig. 7 Koimesis
church ruins as of
2019. Photo by author
Сл. 7 Из личне
фотодокументације
аутора
Fig. 8 Location of
Böcek ayazma and
Koimesis church.
Photo by Sedat
Güngördü
Сл. 8 Из личне
документације Седат
Гундорду
tury date was suggesed based on its shape and construction technique which is
very similar to the Early christian martyria in Constantinople.57 (fig 9) In 1745
it was mentioned to be in use by the Armenian community as a subterranean
church.58 In the middle of the building there is a source of water surrounded by
spolia. On one side of a marble block there is menorah and a passage from the
Old Testament. Because of this, a possibe use of the building as mikveh pool
should be taken into consideration. On the other side of the same marble piece
there is the inscription mentioning the repair works of one of the towers on the
city walls by Michael III. Menorah inscription is dated to 4th century whereas
repair inscription of Michael III is dated to 858. 59 Another possibility of this
building’s use is baptistery. But since the main church of the city is Ayasofya,
57 A. M. Schneider, Die römischen und byzantinischen Denkmäler von Iznik - Nikaea,
Berlin 1943, 17.
58 R. Pococke, A description of the East and some other countries, vol. II part II,
London 1745, 122.
59 Annie Pralong, A propos d’un bloc de marbre d’Iznik, Eupsuhia melanges offerts
a Helene Ahrweiler, Paris 2016, 619.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 65
it must have been near that building. Although there are very rare examples in
cities such as Ravenna where there are more than one baptistery, the norm is to
have the baptistery next to the main church of the city.
For its later use an apse to the east was added at an uncertain date. Other
than the apse there are irregularly placed three niches, whose function is unclear.
I am in the opinion of a martyrium for its original function and an early
date as suggested above.
But a multi layered synthronon indicates an early date for its first con-
struction. Two different mural techniques can be observed in the ruins of the
church. One of them is suggested from the first half of the 13th century.64
Most probably it was constructed in 5th-6th centuries and restored after the
earthquake of 1065 and remodelled during the Laskarids in the 13th century.
Dedication of the church is unknown. Two suggestions Hagios Tryphonos65 and
Hagios Antonios66 were made. Since the former one is known to be in the vicin-
ity of the palace this suggestion could be easily eliminated. The latter remains
as a possibility.
Since location of the palace, as I suggested, is starting from Istanbul gate this
location fits for the church. Nearly 45 years after it was suggested, identity of
the church was also found probable by another scholar. 68
Probably an earlier church was at the same location with uncertain dedi-
cation much damaged after the 1065 earthquake and was replaced by the cur-
rent structure. It is interesting to note that a reliquary in Iznik museum is said to
have come from the northern part of the city walls.69 Clearly such a small piece
cannot be used to fortify the city walls and must have come from one of the
churches in the vicinity. This could have been the church of Hagios Tryphonos
and reliquary could have houses relics of the saint. Upon its destruction parts of
it might have been dispersed including the reliquary.
C. Foss, Nicaea: A Byzantine capital and its praises, Brookline 1996, 108-109.
68
5- Church at Arabacı
Sokak (alley)
It is another one of the
churches in the nortwestern
part of the city. It is located
on an empty lot and first ex-
cavations were made betwe-
en 1981-1988.70 A substruc-
ture with a chapel on top of it
was unearthed. Substructure
is twice as big as 8 x 10 met-
res chapel. Chapel has a sing-
le apse. On chapel and subst-
ructure 4 tombs underneath
archivaults have been found.
Due to its construction tech-
Draw. 1- Possible look of the church. Drawing by Derya Ülker nique it is believed to have
Цртеж. 1- Дерија Улкер two construction phases.
First phase is believed from
the Early Byzantine period
whereas the second period, due to cloisonne technique on the walls is believed
to be from the period of the Laskarids.71 There is no suggestion about its dedi-
cation.
6- Church within Istanbul Kapı (Gate)
This church was unearthed during the restoration and excavation works
held in and around Istanbul Kapı in 2018. (fig. 13) It was discovered during
the works with the aim of reaching Roman period road level, in the oval area
between 2nd and 3rd gates. At first roof tile covered tombs and later a single
apse was unearthed. Soon more tombs outside the tripartite basilical church in
the west and south have been found. Alas walls of the church are very low to
observe construction technique. It might have been built during the large scale
reconstruction activities of the Laskarids in 13th century. On one of the towers
of Istanbul Kapı a church dedicated to Saint Nicholas was reported in the last
quarter of the 17th century. 72 Dedication of this church is unknown but a pos-
sibility of Hagios Nikolaos should not be omitted.
Next to the church is the Roman archway with defensive system installed
in the following centuries, namely, portcullis. (fig. 14) Together with the other
major gates such as Lefke and Yenişehir all of them had this system, which was
70 O. Aslanapa, İznik çini fırınları kazısı 1991 yılı çalışmaları (Iznik kilns excavations
1991 season works), 14. Kazı Sonuçları toplantısı, cilt 2, Ankara 1993, 478.
71 Ü. M. Ermiş, İznik ve çevresi Bizans devri mimari faaliyetinin değerlendirilmesi,
(Evaluation of architectural activities in and around Iznik during Byzantine period) Unpub-
lished Doctoral Dissertation at Istanbul University Institute of Social Sciences, Department
of History of Art, Istanbul 2009, 157.
72 J. Covel, Voyages en Turquie 1675-1677, tr. Jean-Pierre Grélois, Paris 1998, 276-278.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 69
not used by the Byzantines. That brings into mind that due to Western mercenar-
ies in the Laskarid army of 13th century this system was introduced. This is the
first time it was recorded in any of the defensive systems from Turkey.
8- Church substruc-
ture near the theatre
During the excava-
tions of 1974 and 1975
this site, approximately 50
metres away from the the-
atre was excavated. In one
of the chambers, traces
of frescoes, like the ones
found in the northern ne-
cropolis were discovered.
Because of the similarities
of frescoes and the con-
Fig. 15 Church within Lefke gate. Photo by Ü. Melda Ermiş struction techniques of the
Сл. 15 У. М. Ермиш, нав. место walls a 4th century date for
the substructure was sug-
gested.73 Since there is no
entry to the archivaulted tombs, an entrance from the superstructure was of-
fered. This church was believed to be a tripartite basilica. A different date, based
on the existing walls suggest a period between 11th to 13th centuries for its
construction.74
11- Church and its substructure on the Şeyh Bedrettin sokak (alley)
It is another church from the northwestern part of the city. Discovered
in 198780 and excavated in later years. (fig 17) During the excavations held in
1992 outside the complex in the west and south tombs were discovered. Later
same year superstructure was unearthed. Next to its apse on its northern and
southern sides more tombs were unearthed. Finally more than 10 tombs were
discovered below the narthex. The church substructure is in the dimensions
of 12 x 20 metres a tripartite basilica. Due to budget cuts excavations discon-
tinued and site was nearly entirely covered by vegetation. Despite noting that
there were two phases of construction observed neither a date nor a dedica-
took place inside the palace.86 It is not logical to have the palace built outside
the city walls. Besides there is no record mentioning that the palace was outside
the city walls. The only possibility left is that as a result of an earthquake entire
western part of the city, including the palace, was devoured by the lake.
86 Eusebius, Vita Constantini - Life of Constantine, tr. Averil Cameron and Stuart G.
Hall, Oxford 1998, III-10.
87 R. Janin, Les Églises et les monastéres des grands centres Byzantins, Paris 1975, 114.
74 Halûk Çetinkaya
15- Church of Virgin Mary and hagiasma identified from the inscription
During the works conducted by local Municipality of Elbeyli it was de-
cided to include the ancient cemetery as well. Some of the material as a result
were carried to the Merkez camii for safekeeping later to be moved to Iznik
museum. (fig. 20) When some of these pieces were moved to the museum gar-
den, a marbel lintel with two peacocks and an inscription was reported that it
might belong to an unidentified church.90 Later during my work in the museum
garden in 2018 the inscription was read. It reads: “She founded this hagiasma of
the church of the Theotokos in expectation of her sins to be forgiven”. Judging
from the shapes of the letters in the inscription a 6th century date might be sug-
gested. It is intriguing though to have a church and hagiasma in the necropolis.
To have the rubbles of a ruined church dumped into an empty area such as
the abandoned necropolis in the North of the city may be a possibility. In this
case a church dedicated to the Theotokos, even the Dormition church men-
tioned above could be a possibility. Another possibility is there that a monastery
88 W. Rabbel – E. Erkul – H. Stümpel – T. Wunderlich – R. Pašteka – J. Papco – P.
Niewöhner – Ş. Barış – O. Çakın - E. Pekşen, Discovery of a Byzantine church in Iznik/Nica-
ea, Turkey: An educational case history of Geophysical prospecting with combined methods
in urban areas, Archaeological Prospection 22 (2015),18.
89 P. I. Kuniholm, Aegean dendrochronology Project: 1994-1995, XI. Arkeometri
sonuçları toplantısı, Ankara 1996, 195.
90 Mustafa Şahin – Christof Berns, Bursa ili yüzey araştırması 2012-İznik, Araştırma
Sonuçları Toplantısı cilt 31/1, Ankara 2013, 50 ve resim 7.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 75
Conclusion
Basing on the historical sources
and traveler’s accounts number of the
Byzantine churches in and in the vicin-
ity of Nicaea was believed to be 26, of Fig. 19 View from the west of the Kerameon monastery
which 11 were within the city.92 church.Photo by author
But recent years increased that Сл. 19 Из личне фотодокументације аутора
number to 15 for the moment. (fig. 22)
In a city which was continuously inhabited more than 2300 years it is not easy
to excavate and to learn more about the topography of the city. As long as con-
struction projects continue more could be added to this number.
Халук Четинкаја
(Мимар Синан Универзитет, Истанбул)
ВИЗАНТИЈСКЕ ЦРКВЕ У НИКЕЈИ
91 Dimiter Angelov, The Byzantine Hellene - The life of emperor Theodore Laskaris
and Byzantium in the Thirteenth century, Cambridge 2019, 43.
92 R. Janin, op.cit.., 118-125
76 Halûk Çetinkaya
Fig. 20 architectural fragment with the inscription of the church. Photo by author
Сл. 20 Из личне фотодокументације аутора
Fig. 21 Hercules
in front of a
quarry
Сл. 21 Херкул у
рељефу испред
каменолома
Fig. 22 Location
of the Byzantine
churches
Сл. 22 Распоред
византијских
цркава
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 77
Ариадна Воронова
(Православни Свето-Тихоновски универзитет, Москва)
Сл. 2 Први план Москве Сигизмунда Герберштеjна, поч. XVI в. Вероватно, користио
je цртеже Кремља, настале пре његове реконструкциjе краjа XV – почетка XVI века,
односно jединствене слике центра Москве, какав се формирао у доба Ивана Калите и
Димитриjа Донског.
Сл. 2 Первый план Москвы Сигизмунда Герберштейна, нач. XVI в. Возможно,
использованы зарисовки Кремля, выполненные до его реконструкции конца XV –
начала XVI века, т.е. уникальное изображение центра Москвы, каким он сложился в
эпоху Ивана Калиты и Дмитрия Донского.
Сл. 3 Москва. Католикон Спаса на Бору, XIV-XVI в., план, пресек. Цртеж А.А.
Мартинова, сред. XIX в.
Сл. 3 Москва. Церковь Спаса на Бору, XIV- XVI вв., план, разрез. Чертеж А.А.
Мартынова, сер. XIX в.
Сл. 5 Москва.
Католикон
Спаса на Бору,
XIV-XVI в.,
разгледница
XIX в.
Сл. 5 Москва.
Церковь Спаса
на Бору, XIV-
XVI вв., от-
крытка XIX в.
галериjа) са главним порталом и делом прозора. Била је то црква са четири стуба и три
апсиде, изграђена од белог камена. Округли западни стубови носе засвођени плафон
галериjа. Архитектура храма комбинује особине владимирско-суздаљске архитектуре
(округли стубови, оквир портала, пиластре) и московске архитектуре раног периода
(портали и нише у облику бродске кобилице, прозори-розете).
11 Првобитна кућна црква породице великог војводе је била једнокуполна без
стубова, направљена од белих камених блокова у подруму, који је сачуван до данас.
И.Я. Качалова, Н.А. Маясова, Л.А. Щенникова, Благовещенский собор Московского
Кремля, Москва 1990, 8.
12 Памятники архитектуры Москвы. Кремль, Китай-город, центральные пло-
щади, Москва 1982, 31.
13 Манастир Симонов основао је 1370-их монах Федор, нећак Сергија Ра-
доњешког. Године 1379. постављена је камена црква у име Успења Пресвете Богороди-
це, а око ње – ћелије за браћу. Свети Сергије Радоњешки сматрао је манастир Симонов
«огранком» Тројице-Сергијеве лавре и увек је ту боравио током посета Москви.
14 Манастир Спасо-Андроников основао је 1357. године митрополит Алексиј
као задужбину, а назван jе по првом игуману – Андронику, ученику св. Сергија Ра-
доњешког. Према хагиографским подацима, 1354. године митрополит кијевски и све
Русије Алексиј је упао у олују на путу за Цариград. Светитељ се зарекао да ће сагради-
ти храм у Москви у част тог светитеља или празника на чији дан ће сигурно стићи до
залива Златни рог. Дан је пао на прославу Спаса Нерукотворног. Б.М. Клосс, Избран-
ные труды, т. 1: Житие Сергия Радонежского, Москва 1998, 370-371. После пожара
1368. године, у коме је изгорео првобитни дрвени католикон манастира Андроников,
саграђен је камени Спаски католикон, од којег су сачувани бело-камени рељефи са
фрагментима зооморфних и биљних композиција, архаичних у стилу и изведби. 1420-
1427. године Спаски католикон је поново обновљен и опстао је до данас.
15 Древнерусское градостроительство X-XV веков. Под общей редакцией Н.Ф.
Гуляницкого. Москва 1993, 204-206.
16 Г. Симић, Донжон куле у фортификациjи средњовековних градова, Београд
2010, 83-85.
17 Н.Н. Воронин, Зодчество северо-восточной Руси XII-XV веков, т. 2: XIII-XV
столетия. Москва 1962, 180-186.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 87
Сл. 10 Коломна,
црква Зачећа
Светог Јована
Крститеља у
Городишћу, XIV
в.
Сл. 10 Коломна,
церковь
Зачатия Иоанна
Крестителя на
Городище, XIV в.
Сл. 11 Црква светог Николе у селу Каменском XIV в., план, пресек, реконструкциjа
Б.Л. Аљтшулера.
Сл. 11 Никольская церковь в Каменском XIV в., план, разрез, реконструкция Б.Л.
Альтшуллера.
Ариадна Воронова
(Православный Свято-Тихоновский университет, Москва)
УКРЕПЛЕННЫЕ ЗАДУЖБИНЫ В РУССКОЙ АРХИТЕКТУРЕ XIV ВЕКА
И ИХ ОБЩИЕ ЧЕРТЫ В СЕРБСКОЙ СРЕДНЕВЕКОВОЙ АРХИТЕКТУРЕ
Анђела Гавриловић
(Институт за историју уметности,
Филозофски факултет, Београд)
овог рада, који има за циљ да понуди једну могућност њеног тумачења
превасходно у складу са најближим околним сценама из циклуса Великих
празника, али и појединачним фигурама (сл. 1).
Историографија. У науци су сцене Христовог живота у поткупол-
ном простору сопоћанског католикона у погледу свог значења различито
тумачење. Доста давно је изнето мишљење да једноставна садржина со-
поћанских монументалних фресака у олтару и наосу „као да је потчињена
идеји о Христу-жртви“.4 Убрзо је изнето и једно другачије гледиште према
којем су сопоћанске фреске у поткуполном простору слика инкарнације,
у олтару жртве, а у западном травеју смрти и васкрсења.5 Уз овај став,
наведене су и сцене под куполом на које се он односи: композиције из
Христовог живота од Благовести и Рођења до Преображења, а овај исказ
је допуњен реченицом да је „уобичајено читање циклуса, у континуите-
ту од источног, преко јужног и западног зида, у Сопоћанима избегнуто,
а образоване су мале, затворене целине у појединим деловима храма“.6
Насупрот овог другог мишљења исказано је и становиште да Сретење и
Дванаестогодишњи Христос у храму засигурно нису репрезентанти ин-
карнације.7 Уз овај последњи поменути став изнето је и следеће: „...ако
је догма о Инкарнацији Господа Исуса Христа у сопоћанском потлупол-
ном простору основна идеја, онда би ваљало очекивати да се Рођење нађе
у горњој зони јужног зида, а не на северном зиду. Уз то треба помену-
ти да је Сретење на јужном зиду, и оно површином и висином у распо-
реду Великих празника има очигледну предност у односу на Рођење“.8
Такође, Иван Ђорђевић који је заговорник трећег наведеног става каже
да је управо јужни зид оно место где творац идејног програма одређене
цркве нешто посебно жели да искаже.9 У контексту до сада реченог, по-
водом сцене Сретења у Сопоћанима наведимо и још један, по нама важан
и исправан став, да се оно својом позицијом не истиче у односу на оста-
ле сцене.10 Када је значење програма сопоћанског поткуполног простора
у питању запажања Оливера Томића о епифанијама и пројављивањима
Божанске преомудрости су од нарочитог значаја.11 Посебно истичемо и
његово запажање поводом композиције Дванаестогодишњег Христа који
учи у храму да: „Преостаје могућност да је творац сликаног програма у
цркви свете Тројице, у жељи да поткуполни простор повеже са епифанија-
ма Христовог детинства и почетка овоземљске делатности, прибегао избо-
Сл. 4 Дванаестогодињши Христос учи у храму, фреска, католикон Сопоћана, око 1265
Fig. 4 Twelve-year-old Christ teaches in the Temple, fresco, Catholicon of Sopoćani,
around 1265
Тумачења црквених писаца, одабране аналогије у делима умет-
ности и Служба празника Сретења. Када говоримо о значењу и тума-
чењу сцене Сретења, чини нам се да је исправније говорити о „значењима
и тумачењима“ ове композиције. Будући да представља део сакралног би-
блијског наратива, који је сам по себи вишезначан, и опис овог догађаја је
такав. Сретење тако носи различите нијансе значења. Када је о егзегези
овог догађаја реч оне су различите у зависности од одабраног јеванђеоског
стиха који описује овај догађај и најзад самих тумачења, а када је о умет-
ности реч и у зависности од контекста околних сцена односно програма
цркве у целини. Како сцена није програмски везана за олтарски простор,
могућност другачијег тумачења од уобичајеног се чини оправданом17.
Програм сопоћанског поткуполног простора у ужем и ширем смислу речи
додатно би указивао на такву могућност.
Да се Сретење може протумачити у специфичном контексту
Христовог доласка у телу тј. појаве Бога у људском обличју, најпре по-
казују тумачења црквених писаца. Велики удео у опису, објашњењу и ве-
личању догађаја Сретења у писаним саставима покрива његово тумачење
у кључу Христове људске природе – појаве Бога у телу.
Један од првих писаца који у светлу Христовог Божанског
Оваплоћења тумачи Сретење у хомилији посвећеној Светом Симеону и
Ани јесте (Псеудо–)Методије Олимпски (? –311): „Њега је журио да за-
в. М. Живковић, Најстарије зидно сликарство Богородичине цркве у Студеници и
његова обнова у XVI веку, Београд 2019 (Филозофски факултет, необјављена докторска
дисертација), 357–359.
17 За уобичајено односно најчешће тумачење сцене Сретења у контексту
Христових страдања и жртве в. доле напомену број 28 у овом раду.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 99
ова два света догађаја. Што је важно да укажемо на овом месту јесте
да присуство Исаијине визије у служби Сретења показује да олтар у
композицији Сретења не мора нужно бити искључиво довођен у идејну
везу са контекстом жртве, већ може представљати и слику Исаијине визије,
што речито поткрепљује минијатура Сретења из Минхенског псалтира (сл.
7).41 Додајмо обазриво и то да би у овом смислу и Сунчева светлост која
допире кроз сопоћански прозор веома вешто и прецизно уклопљен тако да
„физички“ представља део саме сцене и Светиње над светињама, могла у
контексту свега реченог у симболичком смислу представљати „светлост
Светиње“ односно „светлост за откровење народима“ из Лукиног стиха
(Лк 2.32) у којој бројни црквени писци препознају самог Христа.42 Ово
гледиште би поткрепљивала околност да је светилиште изображено у
мермеру, као и Храм премудрости у сцени испод Сретења, и на тај начин
поред светости којом је већ испуњено, оно задобија и статус нерукотвореног,
које је саздала Света Премудрост божија, с обзиром на чињеницу да се под
сликом олтара подразумева долазак у телу Христа Бога.43 Како ова питања
превазилазе оквире нашег рада, оставићемо их за даља истраживања.
У служби Сретења се Христос показује као Онај „који се јавио
пре векова од Оца, рођен из утробе девојачке“, кога је у Храм унела
„неискусобрачна мати.“44 Симеон је видео „истинитог Бога,“ „Онога који
Јесте“,45 „јединородног и безначалног оцу,“ „који се оваплотио и са људима
поживео,“ Онога „који је на херувимима ношен и од серафима опеван“,
Сл. 8 Сретење,
минијатура,
Томићев
псалтир, око
1360
Fig. 8
Presentation of
Christ in Temple,
miniature, Tomič
Psalter, c. 1360
58 Исто, л. 162а.
59 Patrologia Graeca 69, 416 A.
60 РС НБС 221, л. 162б.
61 Исто, л. 163а.
62 О сликарству ове цркве детаљно А. Голац, Зидно сликарство цркве
Преображења Христовог у манастиру Зрзе, Београд 2019 (Филозофски факултет,
необјављена докторска дисертација); о сцени Преображења посебно в. А. Голац
Чубрило, Фреска Преображења у манастиру Зрзе, Патримониум 18 (2020) 401–410.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 107
Anđela Gavrilović
(Institute of Art History, Faculty of Philosophy, Belgrade)
THE PROGRAMMATIC CONTEXT OF THE SCENE OF THE PRESENTATION
OF CHRIST IN TEMPLE IN THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY TRINITY IN SOPOĆANI
(AROUND 1265)
The Church of the Holy Trinity in Sopoćani (fresco decorated around 1265), the en-
dowment of the Serbian King Stefan Uroš the First (1243–1276) is one of the most important
monuments of Serbian medieval art of the 13th century, which due to its exceptional values
became part of UNESCO World Heritage in 1979 along with the Church of Saint Peter and
Paul, Tracts of Saint George and Old City of Ras. With its beauty and abundance of painted
subjects, Sopoćani have long been capturing scholars’ attention, especially with their wall
paintings, thus, over time an extensive and diverse biography was formed on this monas-
tery. Due to disagreements in historiography about possible interpretations of the scene of
Presentation of Christ in Temple in the context of the Sopoćani’s painted program, we have
chosen it as the main topic of the present paper, which aims to offer a possibility of its inter-
pretation in accordance with the closest surrounding Great Feasts’ scenes and other scenes
(ill. 1). Based on the interpretation of the Church Fathers, the text of Service of the Feast of
the Presentation of Christ in Temple and the narrowest circle of neighboring frescoes – feasts
and individual figures shown in the area under the Sopoćani’s dome, we have pointed out
the possibility that the Presentation of Christ in Temple can be interpreted as an allusion of
Christ’s coming in flesh (ill. 1–9). An important analogy for such an interpretation is found in
the miniature of the Munich Psalter (second half of the 14th century), on which the doors of
the Holy of Holies are decorated with the representation of the Annunciation (fol. 62r; ill. 7).
The scenes of the Nativity of Christ, the Transfiguration and Twelve-year-old Christ Teaches
in Temple are all interpreted in the same context and in the same methodological way - based
on the writings of church writers, examinations of the feasts’ services and the surrounding
painted program (ill. 2–6, 9).
fig. 7 Illustration of headdress ktetor, church in fig. 8 Illustration of headdress of despottiss, Church
Treskavac (1350-1360), scetch by M. Savić in Pološko (1343-1345), scetch by M. Savić
сл. 7 цртеж оглавља ктиторке, црквa у сл. 8 цртеж оглавља деспотице, црквa на Малом
Трескавцу (1350-1360), цртеж према М. Граду на Преспи (1343-1345), цртеж према М.
Савић Савић
fig.9 Illustracion of headdress of Kali, Church in Mali fig. 10 Illustration od headdress of Ozra,
Grad on Prespa (1368-1369), scetch by M. Savić Chirch in Psača (1365-1371), scetch by M.
сл. 9 Цртеж оглавља Кали, црква на Малом Граду Savić
на Преспи (1368-1369), цртеж према М. Савић all сл. 10 Цртеж оглавља Озре, црква у Псачи
illustrations are made by M. Savić (1365-1371), цртеж према М. Савић
the absence of decoration. Still, it also spreads a bell at the top and is lower
concerning the previously mentioned. It is made up of arranged trapezoidal ap-
plications with the broader side up, and it is different in the way it is made. It
would correspond to the descriptions from medieval records in which the crown
from the parts is mentioned. 15
From Byzantine written sources, we learn that Byzantine empresses’
crowns differed in shape from the crowns worn by emperors. Also, art sources
confirm that they were more decorated with jewels and intricately artistically
processed and that they could have surpassed the value of the emperor’s crown.
In addition to empresses, noblewomen also wore crowns, and their portraits
from the 14th century testify to that. We saw these crowns in the previous exam-
ples: high, open with a pointed shape at the upper end, and slightly curved to the
top. The degree of decoration with valuables such as jewels and pearls was, as
expected, higher among the rulers, and the difference was in the use of scarves.
It is noted that noblewomen wore their crowns directly on their hair, unlike
rulers who had hair nets or a veil under the crown.16 In medieval Serbia, there
were goldsmith centers near the courts and mines, and jewelry making was
raised to artistic creation. „Serbian crowns“ are known, crowns called ,,coje“,
but it remains unknown what they were characterized by in appearance, except
fig. 33; М, Глигоријевић, Сликарство тепчије Градислава у манастиру Трескавцу,
Зограф 5, (Београд1974), 48.
15 Б. Радојковићм, Накит код Срба од XII до краја XVIII века, Београд 1969, 33.
16 M. G. Parani, Reconstructing the reality of images, Byzantine material cultureand
religious iconography, Leiden-Boston 2003, 79.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 115
fig. 11Illustration of headdress of the youngest daugh- fig. 12 Illustration of headdress of ktetor′s
ter white church of Karan (1340-1342), scetch by M. daughter from Donja Kamenica (XIVth cen),
Savić scetch by M. Savić
сл. 11 цртеж оглавља најмлађе кћерке, Бела црква сл.12 цртеж оглавља ктиторове кћерке из
Каранска (1340-1342), цртеж према М. Савић цркве у Доњој Каменици (XIV), цртеж
према М. Савић
that they were rich in artistry and concentrated in the material.17 It is reliable
that, after the ruler, the rulers from the middle of the 13th century began to be
its owners.18
Another form of head jewelry found in portraits of noblewomen is a
wreath or tiara (diadem).19 The type of medieval jewelry that originated from
stematogirion (byzantine crown wreath), that is, has its origin in Byzantine
jewelry, and as such, spread in the Balkans. Written sources record precious
wreaths owned by ladies of noble birth. Among the most famous is the descrip-
tion of the wreath stored in the Dubrovnik treasury by Mrs Jelena, the daughter
of Prince Lazar.20 A small number of archaological finds partially complete the
picture of the appearance and manner of wearing wreaths. It is assumed that the
jewelry made of a large number of tiles could be sewn on a ribbon in a row as
a base.21 It differs from the beginnings in the number of tiles from which it was
made and in the decoration because it was decorated with pearls and jewels.22
17 About the names of the crowns see: Б. Радојковићм, Накит код Срба од XII до
краја XVIII века, 30-32.
18 Г. Томић, Накит средњовековних некропола друге половине XIII до XV века,
in: Накит на тлу Србије из средњовековних некропола од IX-XV века, ed. Ј. Јевтовић,
(Београд 1982), 16-17.
19 The wreath changed from Byzantine court jewelry to lay jewelry. About the wreath
see: Б. Радојковићм, Накит код Срба од XII до краја XVIII века, 27, 142-143.
20 Ibidem, 35-36,143-144, 35-36, 143-144.
21 V. Bikić, Vizantijski nakit u Srbiji, modeli i nasleđe, 34, fig. 9/4.
22 Б. Радојковићм, Накит код Срба од XII до краја XVIII векa, 145.
116 Dragana Frfulanović Šomođi, Milena Savić
crown worn by the wife (fig.8) of the despot Jovan Dragušin on the founder’s
composition in Pološko28 is also a wreath with jagged ends on the upper side,
with rich decoration in the form of pearls.29 Fascinating is the specimen of
the wreath worn by the youngest daughter (fig.11) of Struja and her husband
župan Brian in the White Church in Karan.30 It is a thin wreath with a series of
horizontally placed pearls along the lower edge, while the upper part is profiled
with highly raised shapes in the shape of lilies.31 The wreath is unusual in form
and, thus, in contrast to the applied style on other family members’ headdresses.
The listed examples of headdresses with a wreath are few, especially unusual
because they do not have adequate similarity measures, especially when consid-
ering the combination with other headdress elements.
Počelica, as the leading jewelry in combination with a scarf, is a more
straightforward type of women’s headdress. It is considered characteristic jew-
elry of the 14th century in the area of countries that were under Byzantine cul-
tural influence.32 According to archeological findings from the cemetery, it is
often the main decoration of women on today’s Serbia and Bulgaria territory.
Počelica were made of a series of small and thin tiles that were sewn on a
strip of textile or leather. According to the found specimens, it is known that
they are made of different materials and not always expensive, which speaks
of the prevalence of use among the wider social stratum, predominantly among
women, but also children.33 Archaeological finds for počelice are somewhat
more numerous concerning wreaths, so a better picture of the material, making
techniques, and applied motifs in decoration is obtained.34 The tiles found so
far on Serbia’s territory are made of a more modest material by the method of
imprinting with gilding on the surface. According to the technique and motives,
the počelica is made of silver with gilding from Knjaževac, more precisely, the
find from the grave near the Church of the Mother of God in Donja Kamenica.35
When it comes to the aristocratic compositions of the 14th century, the
portrait of Princess Ozra (fig.10) in Psača stands out as an impressive example
of wearing a počelica.36 Her počelica is made up of a series of blue and red jew-
els surrounded by pearls. It was assumed that a similar form could have been on
the girl’s portrait, the daughter of the ktetor from Donja Kamenica (fig.12). Her
mother (fig.13) also wears a počelica, but as part of a more complex headdress.
In the part of the lower cap and the middle of the forehead, it has a row of six
alternately placed fields of jewels and tiles with pearls or processing in some
goldsmith’s technique. So far, the most common example of comparison was
with the one from Markova Varoš, whose tiles with precious stones are inserted
into filigree flowers.37 There is a greater degree of similarity with the Dobrič
počelica due to the alternately arranged round and square tiles with a middle
rock. These examples date back to the 14th century.38
Like the previous one, Doja39 from the Zemen church has a type of head-
dress that cannot be broken down into elements (fig.15). On the lower part of
her hat’s hoop, there is a series of square applications that are identical in floral
motif and dementia. According to the method of their processing, the technique
used in the production of tiles is instructed.40 However, it cannot be said with
certainty whether this is a headdress, as it would be in the Donja Kamenica
founder’s case, or whether the cap is decorated in a circular shape with počelica
tiles.41
The cap as a decoration is also known in the countries of Byzantine cul-
ture. The shape of a small round cap has been known since the 10th century, as it
is often found in depictions of holy women in fresco painting.42 Of the historical
portraits, we see her in the picture of sevastocrator Desislava on the portrait at
Bojana. Her hat rests directly on her head and is additionally fastened with a
transparent veil tied under her chin.43 Of course, different models appeared in
the broader area, so it isn’t easy to follow the caps’ shapes applied in all seg-
ments. During the 11th and 12th centuries, trapezoidal hats also appeared, and
their variants were observed during the following centuries.44 It is known that
since the Middle Byzantine period, large and high caps have not been preferred
by women.45 The ceremonial head ornament was increasingly replaced by hats
in the late 14th and 15th centuries, and various influences aided in the creation
46 Б. Радојковић, Накит код Срба од XII до краја XVIII века, 39. – The author
says that two types of hats stand out as dominant: bereta and skufija.
47 Л. Мавродинова, Земенската църква. История, архитектура, живопис, София,
1980, 190, fig. 88, 192; И. М. Ђорђевић, op. cit., 168; Е. Манова, Видове средновекoвни
облекла според стенописите от XIII-XV в. в югозападна Бьлгария, 35, fig. 13
48 K. Атанасова, Женските забраждания през Второто българско царство-
варијанти и визия, in: Великите Асеневци, еd. Иван Тютюнджиеб, (Велико Търново
2016), 449, T. I. – The author classified the hat of the founder Doja as a high type of hat.
49 Е. Манова, op. cit., 35. – The author says that there are examples of similarities
with the hats of Hungarian noblewomen of the 14th and 15th centuries.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 121
each other and form a pillow’s shape. There are no examples of comparisons
for this form of hat, so it may be possible to interpret it as a product of a local
workshop or the founder’s wishes following the influences of the environment
and the region’s cultural tradition.50
Defined in terms of the material from which they were made are the
hats worn by the founder and her two relatives (fig.17,18,19) in the Staničenje
church.51 From the colour and shape, it can be concluded that they are textile
hats in an inverted trapezoid shape. In the part that rests on the head, the tex-
tile hoop is decorated and reinforced with embroidery and strings of pearls,
while the rest of the hat is decorated with embroidery and jewelry.52 These hats
are neither high nor wide, unlike those worn by two noblewomen (fig.20) in
Kalotino.53 Despite the more significant damage to the frescoes,54 it can be
seen that the caps of the Kalotino nobles are broadly fan-shaped and that they
are more specific in the cut shape. In the analysis made so far, it was assumed
that the caps had reinforcement in the hoop area around the head and that the
rest was of a more relaxed shape.55
Earrings are a favourite type of jewelry and are equally present among the
ordinary world and noblewomen and rulers. The confirmation is in the archives,
archaological findings, and art sources.56 In our selected examples of a portrait
of medieval Serbia and Bulgaria, dominate the type of large lunar earrings, also
known as ,,oboci“.57 Since the time of the Palaeologus to countries under its
cultural influence, these earrings have spread from the Byzantine court.58 As
a type of rich jewelry, lunar earrings are first found in portraits of rulers59 and
50 Д. Фрфулановић, Украси за главу на портрету ктиторке цркве у Доњој
Каменици, 479-481. fig. 19, 21, 22, 23. - The author makes examples of comparisons with
the folk costumes of the Vidin and Timok regions.
51 Б. Цветковић, Ктиторски портрети, in: Црква Светог Николе у Станичењу,
ed. M. Васић, (Београд 2005), 89-92, 95-98, fig. 31, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41.
52 Ibidem, 92. - states that in terms of decoration with rich jewelry and the way of
dressing, there are no real parallels, but examples can be made of comparisons with churches
in the Donja Kamenica, Kalotino, Zemen and Karalukovo. - n. 315-318. (with older litera-
ture)
53 Е. Манова, op. cit., 42-44, fig. 16, 17.
54 К.Йовчев, Свети Никола Калотина, Средновековните църкви в Българиа, on:
https:// medchurches. livejournal.com /8898.html?f bclid=Iw AR1gVBr vBz_voz76IT 5Hfof-
dI_l4tp GOQy2 TYL0DI09 otLM9CJ3 2jUnAGD8 #cutid1
55 К. Атаносова, Българският средновековен костюум on: http://badamba.info/
BySource/kalotina.html
56 Б. Радојковић, Накит код Срба од краја XII до краја XVIII века, 132-136.
- Earrings are jewelry that was gladly worn in the Middle Ages, both in the case of rulers,
noblewomen, and among the general population, especially from the middle of the XIV cen-
tury. About oboci see: И. М. Ђорђевић, op. cit., 143-146, 156-157, fig. 75.
57 About name of the oboci see: V. Bikić, op. cit.,11, 52; Б. Радојковић, Накит код
Срба од краја XII до краја XVIII века, 41.
58 M. G. Parani, Reconstructing the reality of images, Byzantine material cultureand
religious iconography, 29-30.
59 Portraits of Queen Simonida in Gračanica, Stari Nagoričino, the King’s Church,
of Queen Jelena in the White Church of Karan, in Kučevište, in Ljuboten, in Pološko, in the
122 Dragana Frfulanović Šomođi, Milena Savić
then noblewomen.60 The most numerous are examples from the 14th century,
which speaks of their popularity in that period, but they are still developing
during the 15th century. Lunar earrings are known in two types that we find
in portrait fresco paintings of the late Middle Ages of the Balkan countries.61
One is lunar-round, and they are made up of one or two rows of pearls along
the edge of a round, central field. It is an older type, which belongs to the 20s
to the 50s of the 14th century. They are gradually transformed into another
kind - lunar-radial or fan-shaped earrings made of radially placed tubes around
a round central field. It is a younger type in vogue from the 30s to the 80s of
the 14th century.62 Confirmation of their appearance and manner of wearing is
found in the portraits of Queen Simonida. She introduces them to the fashion of
decorating the Serbian environment so that the application can be further traced
through the portraits of Queen / Empress Jelena. 63
Church of St. Nicholas Bolnički in Ohrid, as Empress Jelena is shown in Decani, in Les-
novo. - Б. M. Стевановић, Српско средњовековно сликарство као извор за лунуласте
наушнице, Зборник Матице српске за ликовне уметности 47, (Нови Сад 2019), 16-22;
the portrait of Theodora, the wife of the trapezoidal emperor Alexius III Comnenus, shows
lunar tips earings. see: M. G. Parani, op. cit.,30.
60 Д. С. Павловић, Представе властелинки у српском зидном сликарству,
Зборник Народног музеја-Београд, Историја уметности XXXIII/2, (Београд, 2018), 18-
19; eadem, Акцецоар на портретима српске властеле у средњем веку, Зборник Музеја
примењене уметности 15, (Београд 2019), 12-13; E. Dimitrova, O. Zorova, Haute couture
of Macedonia Byzantina: Fashion, Jewelry, Accessories,250-262.
61 The first division was made by J. Ковачевић, see: Ј. Ковачевић, op.cit. 106-110,
143-146, fig. 75; from written sources they are also known as Serbian, but due to their distri-
bution in Greece and Bulgaria, it can be freely said that earrings from other Balkan countries
and Byzantium, see: Б. Радојковић, Накит код Срба од краја XII до краја XVIII века,
133-140.
62 Б. Радојковић, Накит код Срба од краја XII до краја XVIII века, 135-137.
63 With the enumeration of all the portraits of Queen Simonida and Queen Jelena
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 123
and the sorting of lunar earrings by type in the performances of Queen / Empress Jelena and
older literature. see: Б. M. Стевановић, Српско средњовековно сликарство као извор за
лунуласте наушнице,16-22, fig. 2.3.5.10
64 Д. Војводић, О живопису Беле цркве каранске и сувременом сликарству
Рашке, 147, fig. 9.- due to the damage to the fresco in the area of the head, it was difficult to
recognize the earring.
65 Ј. Ковачевић, op. cit., 42, fig. 15, T. XX
66 Ibidem, 63, fig. 30 – For the oboce he says they are rich, round, and large.
67 Б. Радојковић, Накит код Срба од краја XII до краја XVIII века, 136.
68 Ј. Ковачевић, op. cit. , 65, T. XLIII
69 Pantries in Dragiževo, Gorno Orizari, Vršac and Skopje. see: Б. Радојковић,
Накит код Срба од краја XII до краја XVIII века, 137.
70 Д. Павловић, Акцецоар на портретима српске властеле у средњем веку, 12-13.
71 Д. Војводић, Српски властеоски портрети и ктиторски натписи у
Богородичиној цркви у Ваганешу, Косовско-метохијски зборник 5 (2013), 5-6, fig.
4,10,11; Ђорђевић, op. cit., 164.
72 J. Ковачевић, op. cit., 53, fig. 89.– the author described them as earrings of a spe-
cial shape.
124 Dragana Frfulanović Šomođi, Milena Savić
beads of pearls and one on each side. It is dark blue and difficult to distinguish
from the background, but we could assume that it is from the group of precious
or semi-precious stones. Unusual in the way of wearing are the earrings of the
ktetor Doja. They are attached to the ear and have the shape of three circu-
lar strings of pearls. Kesar Kali has low pearls that hang from the wreath and
frame the face, ending at the ear. However, earrings as jewelry could be miss-
ing, not so often, but there are also those examples - the founder of Treskavac
and Princess Ozra in Psača.
An almost indispensable part of the woman’s headdress was a cover in the
form of a scarf, i.e., a fabric made for that purpose. The names of these textile
forms in medieval written sources related to the central Balkans area are dif-
ferent. Some of them are known only by their description, material, or manner
of wearing, but these are the determinants by which this headgear differed in
women. The most famous is the headscarf, widespread not only in the Balkans
but also in Western Europe. Numerous written and artistic sources confirm its
application in the broader social circle, regardless of social status. They are
quadrangular in shape, measuring one to two meters, mostly white, without
large decorations, and were worn over the head, falling on the shoulders. The
rectangular scarf was also known in medieval Serbia as a cover (pokrivače). A
more expensive type of cover was a veil, worn by women of the ordinary world
without ornaments, and on portraits of rulers and noblewomen of happiness
from under a wreath or crown or hung on a crown, falling behind the back.73
In that context, we should also observe the selected examples of analy-
sis. However, it is impossible to recognize the type of fabric on the portraits of
noblewomen, which would more closely determine the kind of headband. The
most numerous examples are the use of one scarf. It could have been under the
crown, the main decoration, as in the portraits of the despotess Ana Marija in
Lesnovo and Ohrid, the ktetor in Treskavac, the despotessa and the ktetor’s
daughter in Donja Kamenica. However, there are few examples of scarves with
decoration in woven and embroidered techniques. On the scarf of the despot-
ess Ana Marija in Lesnovo, motifs in the form of horizontal lines are coloured,
while on the portrait in Ohrid, this fabric is without decoration and falls on
the shoulders. Their different way of wearing alludes to two different types of
textile headgear. The girl in the ktetor’s composition in Donja Kamenica also
wears a white cloth that covers her head and falls on her shoulders, but in her
case, the jewelry is in the form of a počelica.
There are more numerous examples where the scarf falls from the crown,
i.e., the cap, to call this type of fabric a veil. The three ktetor’s daughters from
Karan, the sevastokrator Vladislava from Psača, the duchess Vladislava from
Kučevište, the noblewomen from Kalotino, and the ktetor from Staničenje are
examples of this wearing a headscarf. Still, different details can be noticed here
as well. Veils worn by young noblewomen from Karan are precious fabrics with
a decoration in the form of horizontal stripes on the textile, while the shape of
the lace is indicated on the rim.74 It is noticeable that the mother and daugh-
ters in these portraits were dedicated to every segment of the decoration on
the headboard. The wife of the ktetor Constantine was in the same spirit in the
Staničenje church. Her veil falling from the cap behind her back is given in
folds and is interspersed with horizontal stripes, performed by the embroidery
technique.75 The veils of the two noblewomen in Kalotino are more straight-
forward, without decoration on the material and folds, but only widely allowed
to fall from the cap back.
A more complex type of headdress is applying two fabrics, one of which
is intended for the head part, while the other covers the neck.76 We have such
a case on the portraits of the ktetor in Donja Kamenica, in the White Church
of Karan, and according to the fresco’s preserved fragments, with the ktetor of
Vaganeš (fig.16).77 The headdress of the ktetor from Donja Kamenica, as it has
already been pointed out, is shaped by folding the scarves in combination with
the template, that is, what we called a hat.78 The lower scarf, which rests directly
on the head, covers the neck’s hair and part, and its ends intersect at the chest.
The second, upper scarf, which could also be called a veil, is over the cap, and
its ends fall on the shoulders.79 At the ktetor Struja in White church of Karan,
the lower scarf is visible as a densely folded fabric in the neck area. From the
decorative lace on the more downside, it can be concluded that the ends of this
fabric were fastened in the area of the top. A veil falls from the crown on the
shoulders, decorated with horizontal stripes, and frames the face.80
Indeed, a form with veils was applied here, which has no close paral-
lels in medieval Balkan frescoes. A more relaxed state with two scarves, which
does not entirely cover the neck, can be found in the portraits of mother and
daughter in the Church of the Mother of God in Mali Grad on Prespa.81 The
upper scarf, attached with a wreath, covers the hair and falls on the shoulders.
The other, the lower one, broadly frames the face and neck with its middle part,
while its ends are hung somewhere under the wreath. This is the same concept
of wearing two scarves as with the ktetor Struja in White church of Karan. An
even more straightforward form was applied to the headdress of Princess Ozra
because the second, lower scarf was given in a horizontal belt over the up-
per part of the chest, and the neck was completely exposed. According to the
jewelry used, Ozra’s type of headdress is most similar to one of young lady in
Donja Kamenica.
The headdress of the noblewoman Doja remains specific in the segment
of scarf application. Her high cap is finished in a round shape with a crossed
scarf in the upper part. A cloth is hung on the back of the hat, which falls on
the end, but from there, a scarf is stretched in a wide semicircular arch over the
chest. It is difficult to determine whether this would be a single long fabric that
is skillfully crossed or a combination of several of them. A veil could indicate
these textile forms since this fabric had to be of more good artistry as it is quite
present. Besides, another material falls from the top of the hat, which is some-
what shorter but is decorated with embroidery in horizontal lines with fringes
at the end. The headdress of this noblewoman is challenging to follow through
with the details because there are no useful parallels for each of them. On the
whole, this chapter is the only one complete with all its elements. The dilemma
arises as to how much was represented. Is it a product of the local environ-
ment’s culture, and can a model be found in written sources, as has already been
suggested?82
A particular type of head covering that was on edge between the textile
form and the decoration in the form of jewelry was a net.83 It is worn by the
despotiss Ana Marija in a portrait in Lesnovo, although it is visible in a thin belt
behind the neck, and it is in the function of covering the hair. In the despotissa’s
portrait from Donja Kamenica, the hair is not shaped or collected with this net,
but is protected since it also covers part of the shoulder.84 The net is a fashion
detail that was also noticed in medieval women’s costumes in Western Europe,
first with covering the head. During the 14th and 15th centuries, they became an
independent main decoration for collecting hair. In the Dubrovnik archive writ-
ings, the net has been mentioned since the beginning of the 14th century, which
testifies to its application among women in Serbia.85 The Donja Kamenica net
form is an expensive specimen because the use of gold and silver threads on the
fabric’s red background is visible.86
From the previous examples, it can be seen that the fabric in the headdress
did not always have the function of covering the hair. In the four noblewomen
from the Karan church, it is not entirely clear whether the hair, which falls from
82 It connects the headdress of the founder Doja with records of certain types of
headreses, offering identification through this presentation, starting from the youth head to
the popular coja, which is also not known what it looked like.- Б. Радојковић, Накит код
Срба од краја XII до краја XVIII века, 217.
83 Ibidem, 37.
84 M. Emmanuel, Hairstyles and Headdresses of Empresses, Princesses and Ladies
of the Aristocracy in Byzantium, DCAE 17, Dedicated to Doula Mouriki (1994),113-120.
Стр. 115-117 фиг.13/д. - The author she insists that the shape of the headdress is elaborately
developed in the case of the despotissa in Donja Kamenica and that it was fashionable in the
west for a married lady.
85 Ђ. Петровић, Оглавља in: Лексикон српког средњег века, 462.
86 Г. Атанасов, Инсигниите на средновековните български владетели, корони,
скиптри, сфери, оръжия, костюми, накити, 238, fig. 86.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 127
the crown, covered the hair or only the given position on the portrait made it in-
visible. And in the case of the two landladies from Kalotino, we can assume that
the hair may have been tied. At Princess Ozra in Psača, although covered with
scarves, her loose hair can be seen in a thin line behind her neck and a small curl
under the head. In contrast, with her cousin, Sevastocrator Vladislava, the goal
was to emphasize the hairstyle. Her hair is in circular shapes, which we could
call curls, given in the area of the forehead and along the entire length that goes
over the back. The three noblewomen from Staničenje have a shorter, shaped
hairstyle, rich in volume, and decorated with applications in wreaths of pearls
and flowers.
That in some cases, the main decoration in the form of a crown, wreath, or
hat was a more critical part of the head than a scarf is confirmed by the examples
of noblewomen who portrayed themselves without them. The two noblewomen
from the church in Staničenje do not have the fabric next to their hats, but the
segment of processing the hairstyle next to the necklaces is prominent, and a
complete and luxurious look was obtained. Opposite them, the fourth, youngest
daughter from the Karan church and the despotiss in Pološko are shown with
a head made of wreaths and earrings, but without scarves. Simultaneously, no
attention was paid to beautifying their hair, so it was just glued to the head and
possibly tied to the back of the head. This case’s specificity is that it is about
women of different ages, positions, and titles.
The presentation of the headdresses of the 14th-century noblewomen was
made by analyzing 25 portraits from 14 churches from the central Balkans, i.e.,
the territory of the medieval Serbian and Bulgarian state. This last geographi-
cal-state determinant did not gain importance in the selection or the formation
of subgroups during analyzes. The noblewomen have different titles and an-
other financial status, but almost all of them are in the same family status. These
are married women and mothers who were shown with their families. Precisely
because of that, it was possible to see how dressing married women and their
daughters.
The Balkan noblewomen of the 14th century were ladies who laid down
their appearance and, following the wealth of their family and personal taste,
decorated their headdresses in a complex form. As the most expensive head
jewelry, the crown is present in the portraits of the despotiss Anna Maria, which
reflects the respect for official fashion in the circle of high nobles. But the ladies
from the lower authorities also supported this type of head decoration. Such
is the case with the župan Struja, who, through portraits of herself and her
daughters, presented her fashion taste, respect for official dress standards, and
her young family’s wealth. It should be noted that the crowns are mostly pres-
ent in the portraits of noblewomen in situations of depiction near the ruler’s
images of Dušan and Jelena. The lower head jewelry in the shape of a wreath
can be interpreted to be by the titles that the ladies wore, such as the wife of the
despot Jovan Dragusin in Pološko, the Kesar Kali in the Mali Grad on Prespa,
or the unknown despotiss in Donja Kamenica. In the first two cases, we know
rulers who were shown respect through wearing a woman’s headdress like this.
In the Donja Kamenica case, the despotiss depicted is the immediate master
of the church’s ktetors, and the supreme ruler, as expected, the emperor, is not
128 Dragana Frfulanović Šomođi, Milena Savić
even shown here. Nevertheless, we conclude that there was a need to respect
the symbols of power and official fashion even among the ruling founders who
were not in close contact with their rulers.
That kind of consistency is not always present when portraying noble-
women, and thus showing their headdresses. It probably depended on many
circumstances. We should not ignore that the ktetor’s composition was a solemn
act of permanent presentation of one family. It is certainly reasonable to expect
a respectable lady of that family to present herself in her best clothing combina-
tion.
Expensive jewelry is something that was used on selected occasions and
inherited through the family. Earrings are popular women’s jewelry, and lunar
earrings, round and fan-shaped, dominate these chosen examples. The latter,
more popular during the middle of the 14th century, is in many cases. Models
such as mother and daughter from Donja Kamenica and Karan, relatives from
Staničenje and Kalotino indicate that they were loved and worn by women, girls
and girls. So, obligatory in the family treasury. Besides, we see from these ex-
amples that there was a practice of decorating the headdreess’s daughter follow-
ing the mother’s example, i.e., cousin. Only in specific details, the importance
of the „main“ woman is indicated, but the difference was smaller as the daugh-
ter was older. Thus, we will not notice a big difference in the headdress between
the mother and her adult daughters in Karan, Kesar Kali, and daughter Marija
in the church of Mali Grad on Prespa, the principal ktetor, and her relatives
in Staničenje or Kalotino. The daughters of the ktetors from Donja Kamenica
and Karan are still girls and have not grown up to the headdress worn by their
mothers, but certainly, attention has been paid to their headdress because it is
meaningful. They wear decadent fan-shaped earrings combined with a veil or
wreath, again in the style of the mother’s type of headdress.
A good example of comparison in wearing the headdress is on the ktetor’s
composition in Psača. Considering that we are talking about two noblewomen
of different titles and ages, we have two types of headdresses. Princess Ozra, as
presumably older, is more modest with a scarf and a helmet and following the
title. The sevastokrator Vladislava feels a greater degree of freedom by bring-
ing out the modern spirit and stepping out of the standard forms of editing the
headboard. The crown is of a different shape, without a scarf with a decorated
hairstyle and other earrings.
Many opinions about the specificity of individual headdresses were also
presented. It is about the headdress of the ktetor in Donja Kamenenica and the
ktetor Doja in Zemen. Their headdresses are complicated, and the elements they
are made cannot be entirely analyzed. With the absence of one of them, the
meaning of wearing the other would be lost. The cap of the Donja Kamenica
ktetor is without analogies in medieval portraits, and one should probably look
for a connection with the folk tradition of that area. Her headdress and Doje’s
headdress are substantial, basically rich in elements such as earrings, head-
bands, scarves, and hats made of materials unknown to us. All of them are given
in one specific set, elegant and expensive enough. However, it seems more ac-
cessible to the lower aristocratic class, which did not wholly give up the folk
culture present.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 129
Medieval ladies wore crowns on their heads, high and curved or low,
decorated with jewels and pearls, enriched with intricate details or simple in
shape and modest in the material. They also wore wreaths, in the form of hoops
or serrated to allude to crowns, possibly made in one piece or assembled from
tiles. Počelice beginnings were less frequent, perhaps due to the general ap-
plicability in everyday occasions, so they did not correspond to the ceremonial
presentation model. In all these variants of head jewelry, the fabric was used
to cover the head, hair, neck, under the crown and wreath, with a tiara, thrown
behind the back or over the shoulders or falling from the crown. Expensive nets
were also worn, decorated with gold and silver threads on a more delicate fabric
with which the noblewomen covered or shaped their hair. The noblewomen also
wore hats, low, high, fan-wide, decorated with diadems, appliqués, gold em-
broidery, pearls, combined with scarves falling from them or surrounding them.
Earrings, again rich in material and shape, decorated with jewels, pearls, and
filigree, went with this headband as a must. And when some of these elements
were missing, the headdress’s splendour was not diminished but compensated
by emphasizing the other or opening a new segment. The absence of the scarf
allowed shaping the hair into a hairstyle, decorate it with precious details, and
the opportunity to emphasize the unique beauty of a woman.
Numerous written sources have indicated the existence of various ele-
ments of the headdress and the name, which shows the diversity of materi-
als. Some of this has been confirmed by archaeological findings. The ktetor’s
portraits in aristocratic endowments are one of the art source segments, which
demonstrates the previously known and reveals numerous details of the fashion
of arranging women and their headdresses.
Ιωάννης Σίσιου
(Εφορεία Αρχαιοτήτων Καστοριάς)
Στις έρευνες μας, που προηγήθηκαν και αφορούσαν στο δεύτερο στρώμα
ζωγραφικής του ναού, έγινε περισσότερο αντιληπτός ο ρόλος του Θεόδωρου
Λημνιώτη, τόσο στη συνολική σύλληψη του εικονογραφικού προγράμματος,
όσο και στην επιλογή των καλλιτεχνών που κλήθηκαν να φέρουν σε πέρας
την διακόσμηση1. Στις μελέτες διαπιστώθηκε ότι ο κτήτορας των Αγίων
Αναργύρων διέθετε εξαιρετική θεολογική μόρφωση, η οποία τον βοήθησε να
παρουσιάσει με τον καλύτερο δυνατό τρόπο πρώτα απ’ όλα τους δύο κύκλους
του Βίου, των αγίων Αναργύρων και του αγίου Γεωργίου στα πλευρικά κλίτη
και μετά να αποκαταστήσει την ενότητα των θεμάτων μεταξύ τους στον άξονα
2 Η Αγία Τριάδα είναι παρούσα στο νάρθηκα με τον παλαιό τύπο (Φιλοξενία του
Αβραάμ), ενώ στον ανατολικό τοίχο αφήνεται να εννοηθεί με τα τρία πρόσωπα του Χριστού
(Εμμανουήλ-Παλαιός των Ημερών –Παντοκράτωρ) και την Ετοιμασία του Θρόνου.
3 Г. Бабић, Христолошке распре у XII веку и појава нових сцена у апсидалном
декору византијских цркава, ЗЛУМС 2, Нови Сад 1966, 9-29.
4 Ц. Грозданов, Курбиново, Скопје 2006, 21-54.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 133
Κανίτζη (μέσα 12ου αι.). Ωστόσο για να πλησιάσουμε προς ένα ασφαλές συμπέ-
ρασμα πρέπει να παραδεχτούμε ότι στο πέρασμα του χρόνου κάποια μνημεία
καταστράφηκαν και διέρρηξαν κατ’ αυτό τον τρόπο την ενότητα της συνέχειας.
Στην αναζήτηση της καταγωγής των καλλιτεχνών αξίζει να σταθούμε
στις επισημάνσεις που έγιναν από παλιά για την συγγένεια των δύο μνημείων
με κάποια μνημεία στην Κύπρο. Ο A.Grabar κόντεψε να πιστέψει ότι η αναλο-
γία με την ζωγραφική της Αρακιώτισσας (1192) είναι τόσο μεγάλη που είναι πι-
θανόν στο νησί του Αιγαίου να εργάστηκαν καλλιτέχνες από την Μακεδονία5.
Δεν απέχει από την αλήθεια αυτός ο ισχυρισμός αν δεχτούμε και την κοινή
καταγωγή των ζωγράφων από την Κωνσταντινούπολη. Για τον ίδιο μελετη-
τή αυτή η ζωγραφική είναι η μπαροκική έκδοση του Nerezi που ακολούθησε
τον δρόμο της φόρμας και της γραμμικότητας, στοιχεία που συγκρότησαν τον
μανιερισμό της εποχής των Κομνηνών6. Λίγο αργότερα ο Grabar επαναφέρει
ξανά το ερώτημα για τις σχέσεις της Μακεδονίας και της Κύπρου, γράφοντας
ότι το Κουρμπίνοβο είναι η μπαροκική ερμηνεία της ώριμης τέχνης του Nerezi.
Την σχέση ανάμεσα στο Nerezi, το Kurbinovo και την Καστοριά την εξηγεί
μέσω της ύπαρξης εργαστηρίων, τα οποία θεωρεί ότι δραστηριοποιήθηκαν στη
δυτική Μακεδονία. Το πιο σημαντικό όμως το αφήνει για το τέλος λέγοντας ότι
η σωζόμενη μνημειακή παρακαταθήκη, πιστοποιεί την ύπαρξη περιφερειακής
σχολής στη Μακεδονία στο δεύτερο μισό του 12ου αιώνα και ότι η εδραίωση
της συνδέεται με την διεύρυνση του κύκλου των παραγγελιοδόχων, ανεξάρτητα
δηλαδή από τις ηγεμονικές κτητορικές δραστηριότητες. Ορθώς σημειώνει ότι
ξεκινώντας από τον 12ο αιώνα η ανάληψη χορηγίας εξαπλώθηκε και σε άλλα
στρώματα του πληθυσμού, που βοήθησαν να εμφανιστεί μια τέχνη γαλουχημέ-
νη με τοπικά γνωρίσματα. Επανειλημμένα τονίζει τις ομοιότητες με την Κύπρο
κι αυτή τη φορά γράφει ότι η συγγένεια μπορεί να εξηγηθεί μέσω της εξάρτη-
σης από την ίδια παράδοση7.
Στα πλαίσια της ανάδειξης της κλίμακας των αξιών των δύο μνημείων της
Καστοριάς και των Πρεσπών, παρουσιάζει εξαιρετικό ενδιαφέρον η σημείωση
του Μ. Χατζηδάκη στο βιβλίο που εξέδωσε μαζί με τον Grabar, και στην οποία
λέει ότι πρόκειται για έργα με ποιότητα που έχουν αντιστοιχία σε έργα των
καλλιτεχνών της Κωνσταντινούπολης, ενώ παράλληλα εκφράζει την αντίθεση
του σε ορισμένες εκτιμήσεις που τα θεωρούν επαρχιακές δημιουργίες 8. Στην
ίδια κατεύθυνση θεωρούμε ότι κινείται και η L.Handermann-Misguish ως συ-
ντάκτρια αρκετών μελετών με σημαντική συνεισφορά στην ανάλυση των δεδο-
μένων της ζωγραφικής του δεύτερου μισού του 12ου αιώνα. Στο πρώτο κείμενο
που δημοσιεύει αναλύει τους λόγους για τους οποίους θεωρεί ότι το Kurbinovo
αποτελεί μια από τις κορυφαίες στιγμές του βυζαντινού μανιερισμού9. Μετά
τον Άγιο Παντελεήμονα στο Nerezi10 (1164) που είναι το μνημείο οδηγός της
αριστοκρατικής έκφρασης και την ίδια στιγμή το κλασικό παράδειγμα, στη ζω-
γραφική του τέλους του 12ου αιώνα, διαπιστώνει ότι εκδηλώνονται δύο τάσεις:
η πρώτη εκφραστική και νευρική, και η δεύτερη γεμάτη διακοσμητικά στοιχεία
τα οποία υπερβαίνουν την εκφραστικότητα. Επικεφαλής της πρώτης εικαστι-
κής τάσης είναι το Kurbinovo και της δεύτερης η Παναγία του Άρακος (1192)
στα Λαγουδερά της Κύπρου. Επιπλέον σημειώνει ότι στο Kurbinovo η εκφρα-
στικότητα εντοπίζεται στην ίδια την γραμμή, η οποία τονίζεται με την κίνηση
των σωμάτων και των ενδυμάτων. Την τέχνη στο Monreale (1180-1190) την
θεωρεί ότι είναι μια συνέχεια του ήρεμου κλασικισμού, κοντινού στο Nerezi11.
Ακολούθως παρατηρεί αρκετά καινοφανή εικονογραφικά στοιχεία σε παραστά-
σεις όπως: η Ανάληψη, η Μεταμόρφωση, η Κάθοδος στον Άδη, η Κοίμηση της
Θεοτόκου. Μερικά από αυτά υπάρχουν και στην Καστοριά, το φώς της δόξας
στην Ανάληψη και την Μεταμόρφωση για παράδειγμα. Εν κατακλείδι οδηγείται
στο συμπέρασμα ότι ο βασικός ζωγράφος που είναι ιδιοφυής, είναι ο υπεύθυνος
για τις καινοτομίες που έρχονται στο προσκήνιο μέσω της Θεοφάνειας και της
Θείας Λειτουργίας και θα παραμείνουν για να εμπνέουν και τις επόμενες γενιές.
Για άλλη μια φορά επανέρχεται στο θέμα της Θεοφάνειας, η οποία βρίσκεται
στον δυτικό τοίχο πάνω από την Κοίμηση της Θεοτόκου. Ταυτίζει τα υπολείμ-
ματα των δύο αρχαγγέλων Γαβριήλ και Μιχαήλ στο δυτικό τμήμα στο ύψος
των προφητών. Αυτές οι δύο μορφές συνδέονται με την εμφάνιση του Χριστού
Παλαιού των Ημερών σε δόξα, που συνοδεύεται από τις ουράνιες δυνάμεις,
όταν οι αρχάγγελοι έχουν βασιλική ενδυμασία. Αυτή την σκηνή την συνδέει
με λειτουργικό χαρακτήρα και εμβαθύνει περισσότερο στην μονογραφία του
μνημείου12. Σημαντική είναι και η μορφή της αγίας Μαρίνας που σκοτώνει τον
διάβολο στη νότια είσοδο. Πρόκειται για τις παλαιότερες παραστάσεις μαζί
μ αυτή των Αγίων Αναργύρων που εικονίζεται στον δυτικό τοίχο του νάρθη-
κα13. Σήμερα είναι γνωστό ότι υπήρξε και παλαιότερη παράσταση της αγίας
10 Για τις τοιχογραφίες στο Nerezi βλ. F. Mesesnel, Најстарији слој фресака у
Нерезима, Гласник скопског научног друштва VII.VIII, (1930), 119-133; М. Рајковић,
Трагом једног византијског сликара, ЗРВИ 3 Београд (1955), 195-206; С. Радојчић,
Фреске Нереза, Београд 1962; П. Миљковић-Пепек, Нерези, Београд 1966; В.Ј. Ђурић,
Византијске фреске у Југославији, Београд 1974, 13-14; M. Chatzidakis, Μεσοβυζαντι-
νή τέχνη 1071-1204, ΙΕΕ, vol. IX, 1980, 404; D. Mouriki, Stylistic Trends in Monumen-
tal Painting of Greece During the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries, DOP 34-35 (1980/81),
106-107; Ε.Ν. Tsigaridas, Οι τοιχογραφίες της μονής Λατόμου Θεσσαλονίκης και η βυζαντινή
ζωγραφική του 12ου αιώνα, Θεσσαλονίκη 1986, 53-57; D.T. Rice, S. Radojcic, Jugoslavija-
srednjevekovne freske, UNESCO, Paris 1955; A.P. Kazhdan, H. Maguire, Hagiographical
Texts as Sources on Art, DOP 45 (1991), 3; H. Belting, Likeness and Presence. A History
of the Image before the Era of Art, Chicago and London 1994, 240-241; I. Sinkević, The
Church of St. Panteleimon at Nerezi. Architecture, Programme, Patronage, Wiesbaden 2000;
Bardžieva-Trajkovska 2004; Η ίδια, New Elements of the Painted Program in the Nathex at
Nerezi, Zograf 29 (2002-2003), 34-46.
11 Ο.π., 446-448.
12 L. Hadermann - Misguisch, La Grande Theophanie de Saint Georges de Kurbi-
novo et le décor du register des prophetes, Recueil des travaux (1967-1974), Tome VI-VII,
Musee d’archeologie de Macedoine, Melanges Dimče Koco, Skopje 1975, 285-295.
13 L. Hadermann-Misguisch, Contribution a l’etude iconographique de Marina as-
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 135
Μαρίνας που βρέθηκε στο ναό του αγίου Μερκουρίου στην Κέρκυρα (1074-
1075). Ανατρέχοντας στις μελέτες για το ίδιο θέμα της J.Lafontaine-Dosoghe
αποκαλύπτονται οι εικονογραφικές βάσεις για την παρακολούθηση της λατρεί-
ας της αγίας Μαρίνας στη δυτική Μακεδονία και την Ήπειρο14. Στη μονογρα-
φία της Handermann-Misguish γίνεται ολοκληρωμένη εικονογραφική, τεχνο-
τροπική ανάλυση και σύγκριση με την ζωγραφική των Αγίων Αναργύρων. Από
την εισαγωγή τοποθετείται η ζωγραφική σε σύνδεση με τα ιστορικά γεγονότα
και τις εξελίξεις στον 12ο αιώνα. Το μεγαλύτερο τμήμα της θεματολογίας κινεί-
ται στις εικονογραφικές καινοτομίες. Στην Κοίμηση ο Χριστός εμφανίζεται σε
δόξα περιβαλλόμενος από ουράνιες δυνάμεις15. Στην αψίδα η Παναγία κρατά
τον Χριστό που εικονίζεται σε προφίλ γεγονός που θα συνεχιστεί και στον 13ο
αιώνα. Η συγγραφέας αναγνωρίζει λύσεις που επαναλαμβάνονται την εποχή
των Παλαιολόγων. Ανάμεσα στους πατέρες που συλλειτουργούν εμφανίζεται ο
Μελιζόμενος. Στην Καστοριά υπάρχουν μόνο τα Τίμια Δώρα πάνω στην Αγία
Τράπεζα που σκεπάζεται με ένα πλούσια διακοσμημένο ύφασμα και ως πρόδρο-
μος τύπος είναι σαν να δημιουργεί θέση για να κατέβει ο Χριστός Εμμανουήλ
από την αψίδα. Στις Πρέσπες απεικονίζεται η πολύ σπάνια παράσταση του δι-
αλόγου της Μαρίας και της Ελισάβετ και στην Καστοριά ο Ευαγγελισμός παρά
τω φρέαρ. Το αποκλειστικό φαινόμενο της ουράνιας θάλασσας στην Ανάληψη
που συνδέεται με τα κείμενα των προφητών και ιδιαίτερα του Οράματος του
Ζαχαρία που διαβάζεται στην Λειτουργία της συγκεκριμένης γιορτής . Για τον
Χριστό Παλαιό των Ημερών ανάμεσα στις ουράνιες δυνάμεις η Handermann-
Misguish θεωρεί ότι εμπνέεται από την Λειτουργία και την σκηνή την ονομα-
τίζει ως Θεοφάνεια16. Η συνολική συνεισφορά του συγκεκριμένου ζωγραφικού
συνόλου στην εικονογραφία του 12ου αιώνα εκτιμάται σε ύψιστο βαθμό γιατί
αντανακλάται στις μεταγενέστερες λύσεις γνωστές στον 13ο και 14ο αιώνα17.
Δεν είναι πλεονασμός να πούμε ότι όλα αυτά ισχύουν και για το εικαστι-
κό σύνολο των Αγίων Αναργύρων, όπου το πρόγραμμα είναι πολύ πιο πλού-
σιο και φέρει την σφραγίδα του Θεόδωρου Λημνιώτη. Από την άλλη πλευρά
θα πρέπει να τονίσουμε ότι η λεγόμενη Θεοφάνεια κατά την άποψη μας είναι
η υπόμνηση της αδιαίρετης Αγίας Τριάδας, στην οποία μέσω της λειτουργίας
προσφέρεται η θυσία του σαρκωμένου Χριστού στον σταυρό. Στο ιερό βήμα
του ναού της Καστοριάς υλοποιούνται οι αποφάσεις της συνόδου του 1156,
τις οποίες φαίνεται να γνωρίζει καλά ο Λημνιώτης. Αργότερα εισάγονται ορι-
σμένες καινοτομίες στο Kurbinovo που συμπληρώνουν κατά κάποιο τρόπο με
απαντήσεις την αρχική σύλληψη.
συλλογικό αίτημα, το οποίο τροφοδοτήθηκε από τις ίδιες τις πολιτικές εξελί-
ξεις στη βυζαντινή περιφέρεια και το οποίο κλήθηκαν να υπερασπιστούν και
να υλοποιήσουν οι συγκεκριμένοι δημιουργοί. Τα ίδια τα μνημεία, μας δίνουν
πολύτιμες πληροφορίες για το κυοφορούμενο αίτημα, που δεν είναι εντελώς
καινούριο, αλλά βασίζεται στην κληρονομιά που άφησαν πνευματικοί άνθρω-
ποι, που βρέθηκαν στην κεφαλή της εκκλησίας της Αχρίδας. Τα πρώτα δείγματα
μιας αισθητής αλλαγής στη δημιουργική διαδικασία εμφανίζονται στον Άγιο
Παντελεήμονα του Nerezi και τον Άγιο Νικόλαο του Κασνίτζη, όπου η δια-
φορετικότητα εκφράζεται μέσω κάποιων θεμάτων που συγκροτούν το πλαίσιο
διαμόρφωσης της ορθόδοξης πανοπλίας. Ανεξάρτητα από το γεγονός ότι βρι-
σκόμαστε στον ίδιο βυζαντινό πολιτισμό, η αγωνία υπεράσπισης ενός συστή-
ματος αξιών, οδηγεί στην ανάγκη μεταφοράς των ιδεών γύρω από το πρόσωπο
του Χριστού, στην εικονογράφηση των διαφορετικών τύπων του. Η ζωγραφική
γίνεται το μέσο της κοινωνίας για τη μεταποίηση αυτών των ιδεών και την
πρόταση ταυτότητας.
Σε μια γενική μορφή τα στοιχεία αυτού του συστήματος αξιών, υπάρχουν
στο έργο του Θεοφύλακτου Αχρίδας. Στη δική του θεωρητική επεξεργασία προ-
βάλλεται ένα ανθρωπολογικό πρότυπο, το οποίο έρχεται να υπερασπιστεί ξανά
την τριαδικότητα και τον εσταυρωμένο Χριστό, σε μια χρονική συγκυρία κατά
την οποία εμφανίζονται τάσεις αμφισβήτησής του. Ο γραφικός χαρακτήρας
των καλλιτεχνών της Καστοριάς του δεύτερου μισού του 12ου αιώνα, αναβα-
πτίζεται και καθιερώνεται μέσω αυτού του προτύπου και κτίζει μια παράδοση
με συγκεκριμένη ταυτότητα. Το πέρασμα δηλαδή από τον «δούλο του Θεού
Κωνσταντίνο» των Αγίων Αναργύρων, στον «οικτρό ικέτη κακεργάτη» Νικηφόρο
Κασνίτζη, ένα πρόσωπο που φροντίζει στη θέση του φόβου να αντιπροτείνει
την αγαπητική σχέση και την φιλία με τον Θεό. Αυτό βέβαια δεν σημαίνει ότι
παρόμοια πρότυπα δεν τα είχαν επεξεργαστεί στο παρελθόν με διαφορετικό
τρόπο άλλες γενιές μαστόρων. Η γενιά όμως αυτή ενσωματώνει στοιχεία δικής
της επινόησης, τα οποία πηγάζουν από την αναζήτηση προσωπικής ταυτότητας
και υπ’ αυτή την έννοια πετυχαίνει να απελευθερώσει τις φυσιογνωμίες από
το σχεδιαστικό δίχτυ, που στεκόταν εμπόδιο στην απόδοση της πλαστικότη-
τας, δίνοντας συγχρόνως μια νέα πνοή και ζωντάνια στα πρόσωπα. Το τελικό
επίτευγμα λειτουργεί σ ένα θερμό περιβάλλον με χαμηλό φωτισμό, φωτεινά
χρώματα και έντονη συναισθηματική επιβάρυνση, προκειμένου να διακονήσει
το συγκεκριμένο ανθρωπολογικό πρότυπο. Αυτό σημαίνει ότι η ανθρώπινη
δημιουργία μέσα από ένα πλήθος δεξιοτήτων και διανοητικής ανάλυσης γίνεται
ο φορέας του προτύπου. Το πρότυπο είναι το κεντρικό στοιχείο σε κάθε καλ-
λιτεχνική τεχνική και εμπεριέχεται στην λέξη παράδοση, για να γίνει στοιχείο
της προσωπικής ταυτότητας και με αυτόν τον τρόπο να δεθεί με την πολιτισμι-
κή-συλλογική ταυτότητα21. Η ζωγραφική μπορεί να είναι παράδοση. Η παρά-
δοση μπορεί να είναι ζωγραφική. Έχει επικρατήσει να ονομάζουμε «παράδοση»
μόνο τα υπολείμματα μιας μαστορικής η οποία έχει χάσει τους μαστόρους της.
Αλλά αυτό είναι απλώς η νεκρή παράδοση. Εδώ μιλάμε για ζωντανή παράδοση,
δηλαδή για τον φυσικό μηχανισμό της ανθρώπινης δημιουργίας, της οποίας
21 Θ. Ζιάκκας, Προβλήματα προσωποκεντρικής παράδοσης, Περιοδικό Άρδην, τ. 9,
Αθήνα 2010; Ι. Ζηζιούλας, Ελληνισμός και χριστιανισμός, η συνάντηση των δύο κόσμων,
Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους, τ. ΣΤ, Εκδοτική Αθηνών.
138 Ιωάννης Σίσιου
τική ποιητική επιγραφή αφιερωμένη στους αγίους Κοσμά και Δαμιανό23 και
καταλήγει στο Ιερό με τα πρόσωπα του Χριστού και την υπο διαμόρφωση Αγία
Τριάδα. Στο Kurbinovo των Πρεσπών συμβαίνει το αντίστροφο, με την εμ-
φάνιση της θεοφάνειας του Παλαιού των ημερών24 που περιβάλλεται από τις
ουράνιες δυνάμεις, ν’ αποτελεί την αφετηρία της πορείας από τον δυτικό τοίχο
με ενδιάμεση στάση στον Χριστό Ειρήνη και τον άγιο Γεώργιο25, προς την
Ανάληψη του ανατολικού τοίχου με το προφητικό ζωοδόχον ύδωρ.
Σημαντικό κεφάλαιο στο κτίσιμο της παράδοσης αποτελεί η εισαγωγή
στη ζωγραφική των νωπογραφιών διακοσμητικών μοτίβων, τα οποία δεν πε-
ριορίζονται μόνο στα συνηθισμένα σημεία, αλλά καλύπτουν και άλλες επιφά-
νειες. Τα βλέπουμε να στολίζουν τα εσωράχια των τόξων ή να αντικαθιστούν
διαχωριστικές ταινίες ή να προσφέρονται για τον σχηματισμό τρίλοβων τόξων,
που ορίζουν παραστάσεις στις οποίες απεικονίζεται ο πάτρονας του ναού26. Η
εκτεταμένη και επιμελημένη χρήση τους παραπέμπει στην πολύ καλή γνώση
της χειρόγραφης παράδοσης και τη δάνεια πρόσληψη αυτών των στοιχείων από
την ζωγραφική των μικρογραφιών.
Η προέλευση των διακοσμητικών στοιχείων μπορεί να αναζητηθεί στα
χειρόγραφα που σώζονται στην Αχρίδα και ένα από αυτά είναι ασφαλώς το
Čelničko ευαγγέλιο27 (αρ. 70). Οι πρώτες σελίδες στο χειρόγραφο των κατά
Λουκάν και κατά Ιωάννην ευαγγελίων παρουσιάζουν παρόμοιο φυτικό διάκο-
σμο και συνδέονται χρονικά με την αρχιερατεία του Θεοφυλάκτου.
Σε τελική ανάλυση το σύνολο των συνθέσεων, έτσι όπως διαμορφώνονται
μετά την ευεργετική ένταξη αυτών των κοσμημάτων στο σώμα του διακόσμου,
παρ’ όλον ότι δεν κομίζουν συνταρακτικές αλλαγές, μεταφέρουν πολύτιμες αξίες
εσωτερικής συνδεσιμότητας κυρίως σε ότι αφορά στον φωτισμό, την ζωηράδα
23 Απέναντι από τους αγίους Κοσμά και Δαμιανό εικονίζεται η Παναγία Παράκληση
και στον δυτικό τοίχο του νοτίου κλίτους ο τεραστίων διαστάσεων Χριστός Παντοκράτωρ, ο
οποίος καταλαμβάνει το ύψος δύο ζωνών.
24 Για τη σύνθεση του δυτικού τοίχου στο Κουρμπίνοβο η S. Tomeković υποθέτει
ότι πρόκειται για Όραμα του αγίου Γεωργίου, βλ. Les repercussion du choux du saint patron
sur le programme iconographique des eglises du 12e siecle en Macedoine et dans le Pelo-
ponnese, Zograf 12, Beograd 1981, 34-35.
25 Ο Χριστός Ειρήνη καταλαμβάνει το ύψος δύο ζωνών, όπως και ο άγιος Γεώργιος,
που εικονίζονται στον νότιο και βόρειο τοίχο αντίστοιχα δίπλα στο εικονοστάσι. Για την
παλαιότερη βιβλιογραφία και τα αποτελέσματα των τελευταίων ερευνών μετά τη συντήρηση
των τοιχογραφιών στο Κουρμπίνοβο, βλ. Грозданов, Курбиново, 21-43.
26 Τις παρατηρήσεις αυτές κάνει για πρώτη φορά ο Г. Суботић, Костурска школа,
114-115, σχέδια 8б και 9а.
27 V. Mošin, Les manuscrits du Musee national d’ Ohrid, Recueil de Minijatura u
Jugoslaviji, Zagreb 1964, 39-40, του ιδίου, Minjature u grčkim rukopisima, Minjatura, ed.
Spektar, Begrad-Zagreb 1983, 48-51, М. Харисијадис, Грчко-словенски врски на под-
рачјето на македонската ракописна орнаментика, Словенска писменост, Охрид 1966,
112-113, της ιδίας, Раскошни византтиски стил у орнаментици јужнословенсих руко-
писа из XIV и XV века, Моравска школа и њено доба, Београд 1972, 212-213. Με τα κο-
σμήματα της Αγίας Σοφίας Αχρίδας, ασχολήθηκε ο Ц. Грозданов, ο οποίος και ανέδειξε την
σχέση τους με την ζωγραφική των μικρογραφιών αξιοποιώντας όλη την προγενέστερη βι-
βλιογραφία. Για περισσότερα στοιχεία, βλ. Ц. Грозданов, Орнаментиката на расцветани
лицја во уметноста на Охрид во XI-XII век, Живописот на охридската архиепископија,
Скопје 2007, 11-34.
140 Ιωάννης Σίσιου
των χρωμάτων, την κίνηση και την ξεχωριστή αντίληψη για τις σχέσεις στις
αναλογίες. Οι καμπύλες των μοτίβων δίνουν τη δυνατότητα στους καλλιτέχνες
να εκφραστούν πιο ελεύθερα και να εμφυσήσουν τον κατάλληλο ρυθμό. Είναι
δηλαδή μια τεχνοτροπία που περνάει μέσα από τη διηθητική διαδικασία των
αισθητικών και φιλοσοφικών αντιλήψεων των προσώπων που διαχειρίστηκαν
την πολιτισμική επιβίωση μιας σημαντικής περιοχής του Βυζαντίου.
Πάνω σε αυτά τα δεδομένα στηρίζεται η καλλιτεχνική παραγωγή της
Καστοριάς μετά την χρυσή εποχή του δεύτερου μισού του 12ου αιώνα και όπως
όλα δείχνουν συνεχίζει και στις πρώτες δεκαετίες του 13ου αιώνα να μεταφέρει
αρκετά από τα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά της προγενέστερης παράδοσης. Έχουν
εκλείψει τα μεγάλα καλλιτεχνικά κέντρα, τα οποία εξέπεμπαν φρέσκες ιδέες,
ικανές να στρέψουν το ενδιαφέρον σε διαφορετική κατεύθυνση και ως εκ
τούτου η πίστη στο εικαστικό πρότυπο που έκτισαν οι μάστορές της με κόπο
και σπουδή παραμένει και οδηγεί τις εξελίξεις. Το φαινόμενο αυτό μπορεί να
μελετηθεί σε βάθος εξετάζοντας ακόμη και τις λίγες τοιχογραφίες που σώζονται
στον Άγιο Αλύπιο (Άγιο Γεώργιο Διασωρήτη)28, στις οποίες οι συνθέσεις
διαπνέονται από παρόμοιες τάσεις πύκνωσης, ενώ στα πρόσωπα που τις
απαρτίζουν αποτυπώνεται η ίδια ανησυχία, αλλά με μαλακότερη μορφοποίηση.
Τα βήματα είναι σταθερά και όσο η πολιτική κατάσταση τείνει να λάβει
ανεξέλεγκτες διαστάσεις μετά την εμφάνιση των Λατίνων και την ανατροπή
προαιώνιων αξιών, η τέχνη βρίσκει τρόπο να διεισδύσει καταλυτικά και να
προσφέρει διέξοδο στον εφήμερο ιδεολογικό εγκλωβισμό με την αξιοποίηση
της παράδοσης. Μπροστά στο ενδεχόμενο της αναπόφευκτης αντιπαράθεσης
με έναν διαφορετικό κόσμο, αφουγκράζεται, αντλεί δύναμη και επιστρέφει
στη στοχαστική της εσωστρέφεια, προτείνοντας τον παθιασμένο αισθηματισμό
ως αντίδοτο στον βάρβαρο ορθολογισμό. Ποιο άλλο ιδανικό θα μπορούσε να
την εκφράζει καλύτερα; Εξάλλου, ήρθαν έτσι τα πράγματα με την διατήρηση
της ανεξαρτησίας κατά τη διάρκεια της λατινοκρατίας, ώστε η ζωγραφική
δημιουργία στην πόλη να μην εμποδιστεί και να συνεχίσει να στηρίζεται στην
ευγενική χορηγία γνωστών αξιωματούχων που έπαιξαν σπουδαίο ρόλο στο
παρελθόν, όπως είναι οι Λημνιώτες.
Λίγα χρόνια μετά τη χορηγία της διακόσμησης των παρακείμενων
Αγίων Αναργύρων από τον Θεόδωρο Λημνιώτη, κατά τη διάρκεια της
δεύτερης δεκαετίας του 13ου αιώνα, εμφανίζεται άλλο ένα μέλος με το ίδιο
όνομα ως δωρητής, του οποίου ο τάφος υπάρχει στο σημείο που εικονίζεται
και το πορτρέτο του, στη βορειοδυτική γωνία του ναού. Η διακόσμηση του
ορθογώνιου υπερυψωμένου φωταγωγού του Αγίου Στεφάνου, δείχνει να είναι
χορηγία του Θεόδωρου Λυμνεώτη29, ιερέα σύμφωνα με την επιγραφή, που
κρατάει το ομοίωμα της εκκλησίας και το προσφέρει στον Άγιο Στέφανο, ενώ
εκείνος με τη σειρά του τον ευλογεί. Οι παλαιότεροι μελετητές δίστασαν να
εντάξουν τις τοιχογραφίες του φωταγωγού στην κτητορική δραστηριότητα
του ιερέα Θεόδωρου, χρονολογώντας την συγκεκριμένη προσωπογραφία
στον προχωρημένο 13ο αιώνα. Τα δεδομένα όμως που προκύπτουν από την
που δούλεψαν στο μεταίχμιο από τον 12ο στον 13ο αιώνα και γαλουχήθηκαν
πάνω στις αξίες της κομνήνειας τέχνης, παρατηρούμε ότι ο ζωγράφος του
Αγίου Δημητρίου προσαρμόζεται στα νέα δεδομένα και τις νέες απαιτήσεις
της εποχής. Αναζητεί την πλαστικότητα με διαφορετικές τεχνικές. Οι μορφές
γίνονται πιο ογκώδεις, η κακοτεχνία στην περιγραφή των προσωπογραφικών
στοιχείων υποχωρεί και τα χρώματα γίνονται εντυπωσιακότερα. Προκειμένου
να πάει ένα βήμα παραπάνω προς την πλαστικότητα επιλέγει μια επεξεργασία
πλατιά και κάνει τις συνθέσεις του πιο δυναμικές. Αν και δεν υπάρχει ακόμη η
εκφραστικότητα των μορφών της Κουμπελίδικης, εντούτοις είναι το κοίταγμα
προς τα πίσω και οι ισχυροί δεσμοί με το άμεσο παρελθόν που αποτρέπουν
ακόμη την τέχνη να εκδηλωθεί πληθωρικότερα. Σε τελική ανάλυση ο
καλλιτέχνης γνωρίζει πολύ καλά την πολιτιστική κληρονομιά της Καστοριάς
και αντλεί απο αυτήν πολλά στοιχεία. Η τεχνοτροπία του Αγίου Δημητρίου
βρίσκεται στο ενδιάμεσο στάδιο μεταξύ της ζωγραφικής του Αγίου Στεφάνου
και της ζωγραφικής της νότιας πρόσοψης της Παναγίας Μαυριώτισσας, δηλαδή
στην τρίτη δεκαετία του 13ου αιώνα36.
Μετά τα μέσα του 13ου αιώνα και συγκεκριμένα στην έκτη δεκαετία
τοποθετείται η ζωγραφική στην δυτική πρόσοψη του Ταξιάρχη Μητροπόλεως,
η οποία περιλαμβάνει τις υπερφυσικές μορφές των αρχαγγέλων Μιχαήλ
και Γαβριήλ και τα πορτρέτα του βουλγαρικού βασιλικού ζεύγους Μιχαήλ
Ασάνη και της συζύγου του Άννας. Η μαλακή μορφοποίηση στο πρόσωπο
του αρχαγγέλου Μιχαήλ, του οποίου η στρατιωτική ενδυμασία παρουσιάζει
ζωντανές σχεδιαστικές λεπτομέρειες, συνδέει οργανικά αυτή την πρόταση με
τη διακόσμηση της Μαυριώτισσας37, λειτουργώντας ταυτόχρονα ως εικαστική
γέφυρα μπροστά στην προσφερόμενη δυνατότητα παρακολούθησης των
τάσεων. Αυτά συμβαίνουν λίγο πριν και λίγο μετά την μάχη της Πελαγονίας,
μια περίοδο που σημαδεύεται από τη διατύπωση κεντρικής ιδεολογικής θέσης
για την αντιμετώπιση της δύσκολης κατάστασης μετά την ανασύσταση της
βυζαντινής αυτοκρατορίας.
Οι τελευταίες έρευνες που ακολούθησαν την ολοκληρωμένη συντήρηση
του ζωγραφικού διακόσμου τριών σημαντικών μνημείων, όπως είναι ο Άγιος
Δημήτριος Ελεούσης, ο Άγιος Στέφανος και η Παναγία Κουμπελίδικη με
ζωγραφική από τον 13ο αιώνα, οδηγούν πλέον στην επανεξέταση της θέσης
παλαιότερων μελετητών για τον ορισμό του καλλιτεχνικού κέντρου της
Καστοριάς38 ως επαρχιωτικού με πρωτόγονα στοιχεία σε αντιδιαστολή με την
υπόλοιπη βυζαντινή τέχνη. Η ποιότητα των έργων που παραγγέλνονται και
η επιλογή των εικονογραφικών προγραμμάτων, είναι οι καλύτερες μαρτυρίες
για την εκτίμηση της συνέχισης της προγενέστερης ισχυρής παράδοσης. Η
ζωγραφική στο καθολικό της μονής της Παναγίας Μαυριώτισσας και ένα
μέρος της διακόσμησης του Αγίου Στεφάνου, δίνουν το στίγμα της παράλληλης
συνύπαρξης δύο διαφορετικών τάσεων στο καλλιτεχνικό περιβάλλον της πόλης.
36 Sisiou, The painting, 275.
37 Σ. Πελεκανίδης, Μ. Χατζηδάκης, Καστοριά, Αθήνα, 1984, 72-81, Т.Παπαμαστο-
ράκης, Ένα εικαστικό εγκώμιο του Μιχαήλ Η΄ Παλαιολόγου: Οι εξωτερικές τοιχογραφίες στο
καθολικό της μονής της Μαυριώτισσας στην Καστοριά, ΔΧΑΕ 15 (1989-1990) 221-240. Ει-
καστικό εγκώμιο,
38 В. Лазарев, Историја Византијског Сликарства, Београд 2004, 133.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 143
Иоаннис Сисиу
(Завод за Заштиту Споменика Касторије)
КАТАЛИТИЧКИ УТИЦАЈ СЛИКАРСКОГ АНСАМБЛА СВЕТИХ БЕСРЕБРЕНИКА
У СТВАРАЊУ КОСТУРСКЕ ШКОЛЕ
тенденцијама задебљања, док особе које их чине изражавају исту забринутост, мекши
формат. Кораци су стабилни и како политичка ситуација поприма неконтролисане
размере након појаве Латиноамериканаца и рушења вековних вредности, уметност
проналази начин да каталитички продор и нуди излаз из ефемерног идеолошког
ограничења искоришћавањем традиције. Суочена са неизбежним суочавањем
са другачијим светом, она слуша, црпи снагу и враћа се својој контемплативној
затворености, предлажући страсну сентименталност као противотров варварском
рационализму. Који би то идеал могао најбоље да изрази? На крају крајева, тако су
ствари настале одржавањем независности током латинске владавине, тако да стварање
слика у граду није ометано и наставља да се ослања на љубазно спонзорство познатих
званичника који су у прошлости имали важну улогу, попут Теодора Лимнитиса.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 145
Εικ. 3 Θρήνος
Сл. 3 Св. Бесребреници, Оплакивање
146 Ιωάννης Σίσιου
As first of the two main divisions of the Bible, the Old Testament com-
prises the law, the prophecies, the messianic announcements and the hagio-
graphic legends of the Jewish mid-land from the first millennium BC echoing
with the stark reality of the depicted stories. In that sense, the Old Testament is
not a collection of sanctified mythology that glosses over the faults of its heroes.
Instead, the personal narratives, the historic battles, the breath-taking tragedies,
the passionate poetry, the lyrical verses and the predictive prophecies combine
to weave the colossal tapestry of the Old Testament. Hence, the men and women
of the Old Testament are portrayed as they really were, as they have really
suffered, mourned, bled, cried and endured1. As Phillip Yancey says, “on the
pages of this great Saga one will find passionate stories of love and hate, blood-
chilling tales of rape and dismemberment, matter-of-fact accounts of trafficking
slaves, honest tales of high honour and treachery of war”2. On the pages of this
historically profound testimony of ancient times, one encounters a plethora of
1 L. Boadt, Reading the Old Testament: an Introduction, New York 1984, 15-25; B.
L. Bandstra, Reading the Old Testament; an introduction to the Hebrew Bible, Wandsworth
2004, 34-183; M. D. Coogan, A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible
and Its Context, Oxford 2008, 63-71.
2 Ph. Yancey, Old Testament Foundations, Grand Rapids, 2010.
154 Elizabeta Dimitrova, Orhideja Zorova
Fig. 1 Plan of the necropolis at the site “Zadna reka – Grmajte”, detail of Grave 21
Сл. 1 План гробља на локалитету “Задна река – Грмајте”, детаљ гроба бр. 21
humanity: patriarchs, kings, queens, priests, warriors, saints and sinners3. They
are all there, each playing a significant role in the centuries-long vibrant account
of victories and tragedies, of heroes and traitors, of victims and commandments.
They are larger than life and yet intensely human, belonging to the distant past
and yet portrayed with such vividness and relevance, that their stories come
alive just like the seemingly inescapable destinies of people today.
In that regard, one of the most striking characters of Old Testament histo-
ry in terms of his contribution to the expressive notion of sacrifice and devotion
is the righteous Abraham – a key figure in the Book of Genesis, an individual
ennobled with the virtues of loyalty and confidence, commitment and liability,
perseverance and resolution. In that sense, Abraham is the common patriarch of
the so called Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity and Islam4.
In Judaism, he is the founding father of the Covenant – the special relationship
between Hebrews and God; in Christianity, he is the prototype of all believers
3 On the narratives of the Old Testament see: E. Hindson, G. Yates (Ed.), The Es-
sence of the Old Testament. A Survey, Nashville 2012.
4 On the role of Abraham in the Old Testament, see: Th. L. Thompson, The Historic-
ity of the Patriarchal Narratives: the Quest for the Historical Abraham, San Antonio 2002;
On the deeds and religious function of Abraham, see: R. Hendel, Remembering Abraham:
Culture, Memory and History in the Hebrew Bible, Oxford 2005; On the religious impact of
the personality of Abraham, see: F. E. Peters, The Children of Abraham: Judaism, Christian-
ity, Islam, Princeton 2010; On the religious and cultural heritage of Abraham, see: J. D. Lev-
enson, Inheriting Abraham: the Legacy of the Patriarch in Judaism, Christianity and Islam,
Princeton 2012.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 155
Fig. 5 Judeo –
Christian pendant,
unknown origin
Сл. 5 Јудео-
хришћански
привезак, порекло
непознато
ambiguous representation of the Old Testament verse, but the schematic resem-
blance of the depicted scene is clearly visible. The second example comes from
the collection of Dumbarton Oaks, a seal (Fig. 4, a and b), dated in the 11th
– 12th centuries, the obverse of which depicts the sacrificial offer of Abraham,
supplemented with the depiction of the Manus Dei as an indication of God`s
presence and intercedence.
Next in line is a Judeo-Christian pendant depicting a menorah and the
Sacrifice of Isaac, of unknown origin, broadly determined as 8th century termi-
nus ante quem (Fig. 5). We find this pendant`s iconography impressively simi-
lar to the Grave 21`s ring, especially in the arrangement of the details important
for the scenery. The representation of the righteous Abraham`s obedience as an
iconographical inspiration is also found onto other media10, such as the 5th – 6th
centuries bronze/lead Byzantine relief (Fig. 6), as well as the 6th – 7th centuries
Byzantine terracotta tile, thus broadening the media forms of this Old Testament
episode and undoubtedly testifying to the profound symbolic that this scene had
for the common people, since these objects are more or less point-breaks be-
tween the canonical and the individual manifestations of religious belief during
the Byzantine era.
Objects of personal devotion, a plethora encompassing a wide range of
media referred to as phylacterium and used as statements of faith and protection
against the `unbearable lightness of being` is our preferred proposed typology
for this particular ring, the depiction of which echoes back to the `prehistory` of
Christianity in what we anticipate is a laconic didactic `treatise` on the subject
of faith as an ultimate apotropaic instrument. Alluding to such function, the
ultimate meaning of which remains veiled, the Grave 21 ring opens some new
scholarly meditations in the sphere of jewellery`s decorative iconography, and
hopefully some new ideas and insights inside this `fountain` of motifs. This spe-
cific “iconographic” representation could also have been invested with hierar-
10 For example the wooden relief from Bargala, see S. Filipova, The sacrifice of Abra-
ham from Bargala`s Wooden relief, Patrimonium 13, 2015, 107-120.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 159
Jarbuch der Österreischen Byzantinistik 29 (1980), 315-329; B. Schellewald B., Die Archi-
tektur de Sophienkirche in Ohrid, Bonn 1986; А. М. Лидов, Образ Христа – архиерей в
иконографической программе Софий охридской, Зограф 17 (1986), 5-21; A. Wharton Art
of Empire. Painting and Architecture of the Byzantine Periphery, University Park and London
1988, 105-106; Б. Чипан, Св. Софија: катедрален храм на Охридската архиепископија,
Скопје 1995; Ц. Грозданов, Фреските на Св. Софија Охридска, Скопје 1998, 3-16; S. Ko-
runovski, E. Dimitrova, Macedonia Lárte medievale dal IX al XV secolo, Milano 2006, 27-
34, 52-56; Е. Димитрова, С. Коруновски, С. Грандаковска, Средновековна Македонија.
Култура и уметност, Македонија. Милениумски културно-историски факти, Скопје
2013, 1565-1568, 1578-1583; E. Dimitrova E., V. I. Personalities in Medieval Macedonia.
Five Paradigms of Supreme Commissionership (11th – 14th Century), Folia Archeologica
Balkanica III, Скопје 2015, 609-613.
13 А. Wharton-Epstein, The Political Content of the Painting of Saint Sophia at Ohrid,
315-317; Е. Димитрова, С. Коруновски, С. Грандаковска, Средновековна Македонија.
Култура и уметност, 1580.
14 E. Dimitrova E., V. I. Personalities in Medieval Macedonia. Five Paradigms of
Supreme Commissionership (11th – 14th Century), 611.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 161
Fig. 8 St.
Sophia, Ohrid,
cycle of Old
Testament
Abraham,
Hospitality of
Abraham
Сл. 8 Св.
Софија у
Охриду,
циклус
Старозаветног
Аврама,
Аврамово
гостољубље
Fig. 10 St. Sophia, Ohrid, cycle of Old Testament Abraham, Abraham’s sacrifice
Сл. 10 Св. Софија у Охриду, циклус Старозаветног Аврама, Аврамова жртва
the humble pose he strikes in the previous episode; yet, the atmosphere is much
more domesticated since the spectacle is depicted in front of an urbanized set-
ting with precisely formulated architectural scenery.
Counter clockwise, north of the depiction of the Hospitality, the Biblical
tale of the Sacrifice of Abraham is illustrated in five episodes (Fig. 10): 1.
Abraham and his servants saddling the ass with the wood for the burnt offer-
ing (Genesis: 22, 3) occupies the largest portion of the entire spectacle of the
Sacrifice, showing Isaac holding the leash of the donkey, as if he is carrying the
sacrificial “lading” by himself; in the second plan of the scene, the architectural
scenery associates this composition with the previous one alluding to the home
of Abraham as a starting point of his paternal agony. 2. Abraham is leaving the
servants to wait for him (Genesis: 22, 5) in the rocky landscape of the land
of Moriah where they take their rest seating on a grassy hillside. 3. Abraham
and Isaac are heading to the designated spot for the offering (Genesis: 22, 6),
whereat Isaac is leading the way while Abraham is following his son on the
path of a steeply passage through the rocky landscape of Moriah. 4. Abraham
is stretching his hand to kill his son with a knife (Genesis: 22, 10), simultane-
ously turning his hand to the left, in direction to a segment of the sky where
the voice of God directs him otherwise. 5. Abraham sees the ram as a replace-
ment offering (Genesis: 22, 12-13) and starts to walk downhill towards the foot
of the mountainous landscape. Although according to the visual structure of
the composition, it seems that there are two main constituents of the spectacle:
the preparation of the sacrifice depicted in an architectural frame of Abraham’s
habitat (in the south part of the scene) and the process of the sacrificial offering
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 163
iconographically articulated in the natural setting of the land of Moriah (in the
north portion of the view), all five episodes of the Biblical story are elaborated
in their exact narrative succession.
Following the Biblical tale in a consistent manner and uniting the two cru-
cial chapters that refer to the designated role of Old Testament Abraham as a de-
voted follower, as well as God’s favourite, the cycle in Saint Sophia cathedral’s
altar space emanates accentuated Eucharistic significance. The astonishing ap-
pearance of the angels in Abraham’s habitat at Mamre as a symbolic hypostasis
of the Holy Trinity and the prediction of Isaac’s birth as an Old Testament pre-
figuration of Christ’s incarnation (Genesis, chapter 18) are complemented with
the elaborated depiction of Abraham taking his son to be sacrificed in the land
of Moriah (Genesis, chapter 22) as an Old Testament prototype of Christ’s sac-
rificial offering on the cross of Golgotha. Hence, if we have in mind that Moriah
in Hebrew means the mount of God, a place which in the Book of Chronicles,
as well as in Isaiah’s and Zechariah’s prophecies refers to the site of Solomon’s
temple in Jerusalem (II Chronicles: 3, 1; Isaiah: 2, 3; Zechariah: 8, 3), than Saint
Sophia’s cycle sublimes two ideological coordinates of the Biblical story: the
sophisticated notion of Incarnation as an essential prerequisite of the Messianic
role of the Saviour and the designated location of the sanctified temple where
the sacrificial offerings were placed as the Eucharistic bread was laid on the
altar table in the Ohrid cathedral. In that regard, the Old Testament evidence of
one righteous man’s destiny heralds the elaborated synoptic substance of the
predicted redemption of the entire mankind. On the account of that, the cycle
depicting the Story of Abraham was painterly executed in the second register of
164 Elizabeta Dimitrova, Orhideja Zorova
20 H. G. Lunt, Ladder of Jacob, a new translation and introduction, The Old Testa-
ment Pseudepigrapha 2, New haven 2010, 401-412.
166 Elizabeta Dimitrova, Orhideja Zorova
Δημήτριος Σίσιου
(αρχαιολόγος)
Η ιστόρηση του πορτρέτου του αγίου Γρηγορίου Παλαμά στο ναό του
Αγίου Γεωργίου του Βουνού, στη δεύτερη ζώνη των μεταλλίων και πάνω από
τη νότια είσοδο, αποτελεί από μόνη της γεγονός υψίστης σημασίας γιατί φέρνει
στο προσκήνιο νέα ζητήματα προς διερεύνηση. Κατά τη γνώμη μας δεν μπορεί
να μη σχετίζεται η τοποθέτηση της μορφής του με την επίδραση των κειμένων
του στο εικονογραφικό πρόγραμμα του ναού. Τα θεολογικά ζητήματα που ήταν
χαρακτηριστικά για την δεύτερη φάση της ησυχαστικής διαμάχης θεωρούμε
ότι είχαν και πολιτικό υπόβαθρο. Το τέλος της σύγκρουσης ανάμεσα στον
Παλαμά και τον Βαρλαάμ στη σύνοδο του 1341 είχε ευκαιριακό χαρακτήρα,
γιατί ακολούθησε ο αιφνίδιος θάνατος του Ανδρόνικου Γ΄ που οδήγησε σ’
ένα νέο γύρο αντιπαράθεσης1. Σ’ εκείνη την χρονική συγκυρία ο γιός του
Ιωάννης Ε΄ συμπλήρωνε τα εννέα χρόνια και ως εκ τούτου αδυνατούσε να
εκτελέσει τα καθήκοντα του νόμιμου διαδόχου. Δύο πρόσωπα ήταν σε θέση
ν’ αναλάβουν τον ρόλο του αντιβασιλέα, κι’ αυτά ήταν ο Μέγας Δομέστικος
και φλογερός υπερασπιστής των ησυχαστών Ιωάννης Καντακουζηνός και ο
πατριάρχης Ιωάννης Καλέκας. Στην αντιπαλότητα ενεπλάκη και ο Αλέξιος
Απόκαυκος, ο οποίος ευεργετημένος στην αρχή από τον Καντακουζηνό ως
προς την ανάληψη υψηλών αξιωμάτων, στη συνέχεια άλλαξε στρατόπεδο
1 Ioannis Cantacuzeni Historiarum Libri IV, I. 2. 9, 365-370.
170 Δημήτριος Σίσιου
πράξη αναπόφευκτη7. Στις 25 Σεπτεμβρίου του 1345 μαζί με τις Σέρρες περνά
στα χέρια του Στεφάνου Dušan όλη η νοτιανατολική Μακεδονία8. Το μοίρασμα
των νέων κτήσεων κάλυψε πρώτα απ’ όλα τις ανάγκες των ευγενών του και
μετά των Ρωμαίων-Ελλήνων που συμφώνησαν να τον βοηθήσουν και επέδει-
ξαν διάθεση να τον υπηρετήσουν9. Ο Ζουπάνος Νικόλαος Bagaš10 είναι αυτός
που σύμφωνα με τον Χαλκοκονδύλη11 κληρονομεί και διοικεί την περιοχή της
Καστοριάς. Το ίδιο διάστημα ο Καντακουζηνός κτίζει παράταιρες συμμαχίες
με Τούρκους εμίρηδες, ενώ στην κατεύθυνση αυτή τον μιμείται και η Άννα της
Σαβοϊας με τον δυτικό κόσμο, υποσχόμενη να ασπαστεί την δικαιοδοσία της
αγίας έδρας12.
7 Ферјанчић, Историја, 520-522.
8 Γρηγοράς II, 247.
9 Г. Острогорски, Душан и његова властела,83-84, του ιδίου, Серска област,
96-97, Д. Кораћ, Света Гора под српском влашћу (1345-1371), ЗРВИ 31, Београд 1992,
45-122, του ιδίου, Кир Дука Коресис-дворанин цара Стефана, ЗРВИ 29-30, Београд
1991, 213-219.
10 Ђ.Сп. Радојчић, Феудална породица Багаш из Врања, Врањски гласник I,
Врање 1965, 19-20.
11 Laonici Chalcocondylae, Historiarum Demostrationes, E.Darko (ed.), Budapest
1922-1923, Χαλκοκονδύλης, I, 26, «καὶ τὰ μὲν κατὰ τὴν Μακεδονίαν περὶ Ἀξιὸν ποταμὸν
Ζάρκῳ ἐπέτρεψεν, ἀνδρὶ ἐς τὰ πρῶτα τιμῆς ἀνήκοντι παρ’ ἑαυτῷ, τὰ δὲ ἀπὸ Φερρῶν ἔστε ἐπὶ
Ἀξιὸν ποταμὸν Μπογδάνῳ ἀνδρὶ ἀγαθῷ καὶ τὰ ἐς πόλεμον οὐκ ἀδοκίμῳ, τὰ δὲ ἀπὸ Φερρῶν
ἔστε ἐπὶ Ἴστρον Κράλῃ τε καὶ Οὐγγλέσῃ τοῖν ἀδελφοῖν, ὧν θάτερος μὲν οἰνοχόος ἦν τοῦ
βασιλέως, ὁ δὲ ἕτερος ἱπποκόμος. τὰ μέντοι περὶ τὸν Ἴστρον Βούλκῳ τῷ Ἐλεαζάρῳ τοῦ Πράγκου
ἐπέτρεψε, καὶ τὰ ἀμφὶ τὴν Τρίκκην καὶ Καστορίαν Νικολάῳ τῷ ζουπάνῳ, καὶ τὰ περὶ Αἰτωλίαν
Πρεαλούπῃ. τὰ δὲ περὶ Ὀχρίδα τε καὶ Πριλαπαίων χώραν οὕτω καλουμένην ἐπέτρεψε Μλαδένῃ
εὐθύνειν, ἀνδρὶ οὐκ ἀγεννεῖ».
12 Nicol, The Last Century, 203.
172 Δημήτριος Σίσιου
Εικ. 3 Άγιοι Τρείς. Άγιος Γρηγόριος Παλαμάς Εικ. 4 Άγιοι Τρείς. Άγιος Γρηγόριος
Παλαμάς
Сл. 3 Свети Три. Св. Григорије Палама
Сл. 4 Свети Три. Св.Григорије Палама
(цртеж)
Ενδιαφέρον έχουν και οι ειδήσεις από το Άγιον Όρος, όπου ο Dušan μετά
την στέψη του σε τσάρο των Σέρβων και των Ρωμαίων τον Απρίλιο του 134613,
παρέμεινε για οκτώ περίπου χρόνια, επισκεπτόμενος μονές, ασχολούμενος με
κτητορικές δραστηριότητες και συνδιαλεγόμενος με τον Παλαμά. Τις πληρο-
φορίες για τις συναντήσεις τους τις αντλούμε από τον πατριάρχη Φιλόθεο. Στον
εγκωμιαστικό του λόγο κάνει ευρεία αναφορά για την προσπάθεια προσέλκυ-
σης του Παλαμά με προσφορές και δώρα χωρίς όμως αποτέλεσμα. Ο Παλαμάς
παρέμεινε πιστός στον Καντακουζηνό. Όπως διαφαίνεται υπήρχε μια αμοιβαία
εκτίμηση, η οποία τον επέτρεψε να μεταβεί ως απεσταλμένος του Dušan στην
Κωνσταντινούπολη και να μεταφέρει μήνυμα στον αυτοκράτορα Ιωάννη Ε΄ και
στον Καντακουζηνό. Έχουν ιδιαίτερη αξία οι πληροφορίες για το θέμα μας,
επειδή αναδεικνύουν από την μια πλευρά την ευνοϊκή στάση της αγιορείτι-
κης κοινότητας σχετικά με τη νομιμοποίηση των κατακτήσεων του τσάρου και
13 С. Пириватрић, Улазак Стефана Душана у царство, ЗРВИ 44-2 (2007), 381-409.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 173
Εικ. 5 Εικόνα Μουσείου Πούσκιν Εικ. 6 Άγιος Ιωάννης ο Θεολόγος. Άγιος Γρηγόριος
Сл. 5 Икона Музеја Пушкин Παλαμάς
Сл. 6 Св. Јован Теолог, Св. Григорије Палама
από την άλλη οδηγούν στον συλλογισμό της μεγάλης αποδοχής του έργου του
Παλαμά, είτε του αυθεντικού στην ελληνική γλώσσα, είτε του μεταφρασμένου
στην σερβοσλαβική14.
Τα κείμενα που κρίνουμε ότι έχουν ξεχωριστή σημασία είναι κυρί-
ως οι Αποδεικτικοί Λόγοι15, όπου γίνεται λόγος περί εκπορεύσεως του αγίου
Πνεύματος και τα οποία εντοπίσθηκαν μεταφρασμένα από την πρωταρχική
τους μορφή στα ελληνικά σε δύο χειρόγραφα16, στο χειρόγραφο 88 της μο-
νής Dečani και στο χειρόγραφο της βιβλιοθήκης της Βιέννης cod.Vind. theol.
gr. 78. Το ελληνικό κείμενο, το οποίο ανασυντέθηκε από τον Κακριδή, μετα-
φράστηκε γύρω στα 1360 και αποτελεί ίσως την παλαιότερη παραλλαγή των
Αποδεικτικών Λόγων του Γρηγορίου Παλαμά. Όλα τα παραπάνω συνηγορούν
στην διαπίστωση ότι τα συγγράμματά του μέσω Αγίου Όρους κυκλοφορούσαν
και στη σερβοκρατούμενη περιφέρεια.
14 Α-Α. Ταχιάος, Η επίδραση της ησυχαστικής θεολογίας στον σλαβικό κόσμο, Ο άγιος
Γρηγόριος ο Παλαμάς στην ιστορία και το παρόν. Πρακτικά διεθνών επιστημονικών συνε-
δρίων, Επ. Γ.Ι. Μαντζαρίδη, Ιερά Μονή Βατοπαιδίου, Άγιον Όρος 2000, 491-498.
15 Γρηγορίου του Παλαμά, Συγγράμματα. Εκδίδονται επιμελεία Π.Κ.Χρήστου. Τό-
μος Α΄. Λόγοι αποδεικτικοί.Αντεπιγραφαί.Επιστολαί του Βαρλαάμ και Ακινδύνου. Υπέρ
Ησυχαζόντων. Εκδίδουν B. Bobrinsky, Π. Παπαευαγγέλου, I. Meyendorff, Π. Χρήστου.
Θεσσαλονίκη 1962.
16 Για την ανασύνθεση του πρωταρχικού ελληνικού κειμένου, βλ. Yannis Kakri-
dis, Dvoglavna reč ili dijalog Traktati Grogorija Palame o ishođenju svetoga Duha
u srpskoslovenskom prevodu 14. veka, Зборник Матице Српске за Филологију и
лингвистику LIV/2 (2011), 59-70. Για τον κώδικα της Βιέννης, βλ. Ε.Καλτσογιάννη, Δύο
άγνωστα αποσπάσματα του δεύτερου αποδεικτικού Λόγου του Γρηγορίου Παλαμά περί εκπο-
ρεύσεως του Αγίου Πνεύματος, (cod.Vind. theol.gr. 78), Ελληνικά 59 (2009), 89-100.
174 Δημήτριος Σίσιου
30 Στο μεγαλυνάριο που ψάλλεται μετά τον 50ο ψαλμό και την Θ΄ Ωδή της Ακολου-
θίας του μικρού παρακλητικού κανόνα προς τιμήν της Θεοτόκου, περιέχεται η επωνυμία της
Παναγίας, «Τὴν τιμιωτέραν τῶν Χερουβεὶμ καὶ ἐνδοξοτέραν ἀσυγκρίτως τῶν Σεραφείμ, τὴν
ἀδιαφθόρως Θεὸν Λόγον τεκουσαν, τὴν ὄντως Θεοτόκον, σὲ μεγαλύνομεν». Για την «σχολή
του Αγίου Σάββα», από την οποία προέρχονται οι τρείς μεγαλύτεροι υμνογράφοι (Ιωάννης
Δαμασκηνός-Ανδρέας Κρήτης-Κοσμάς ο Μελωδός), βλ. Β.Κατσαρός, Υμνογραφία, Γράμ-
ματα I, Αρχαία Ελληνική και Βυζαντινή Φιλολογία, τ. Γ΄, ΕΑΠ, Πάτρα 2001, 157-169. Στο
φόντο της εικόνας της Παναγίας ανάμεσα στο ακτινωτό φώς, ξεπροβάλουν τα Χερουβίμ.
31 Ι. Σίσιου, Μια άγνωστη σύνθεση, 528-534.
32 Χρ. Μαυροπούλου-Τσιούμη, Παρέστη η βασίλισσα εκ δεξιών σου, Τόμος στη μνή-
μη Μ. Σιγανίδου, Θεσσαλονίκη 1998, 141-147.
33 Στο ίδιο, 142-144.
34 Στο ίδιο, 143, όπου ο διάχρυσος ιματισμός της Παναγίας παραλληλίζεται με την
αφθονία των αρετών της.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 177
critique, traduction et notes, XXXV, SChr. 128, Paris 1967, 158-187, Gr. Dobrov, A dialogue
with Death, Ritual Lament and the θρήνος Θεοτόκου of Romanos Melodos, Greek, Roman
and Byzantine Studies 35, 1994, 385-405.
38 Τσιγαρίδας, Καστοριά, 121-122.
39 Τα περισσότερα παραδείγματα βρίσκονται στην Σερβία. Για όλη την παλαιότερη
και νεότερη βιβλιογραφία βλ. С. Кешић-Ристић, Циклус Христовог страдања, Зидно
сликарство Дечана, Грађа и студије, Београд 1995, σελ. 127-128, εικ. 2, Б. Тодић, М. Ча-
нак-Медић, Манастир Дечани, Београд 2005, 387, Е. Димитрова, Манастир Матејче,,
Скопје 2002, 147, Б. Тодић, Старо Нагоричино, Београд 1995, 102, 130, φωτ. 69, τοι
ιδίου, Српско сликарство у доба краља Милутина, Београд 1998, 322, 332, του ιδίου,
Грачаница, Београд 1998, 121-122, С. Габелић, Лесново, Београд 1998, 80, φωτ. 30.
180 Δημήτριος Σίσιου
και την τελική μετάνοια του ενός εξ αυτών (Κατά Λουκάν, 23, 33 και 39 – 43),
ενώ το επεισόδιο με τα συντριπτικά κτυπήματα των ποδιών τους περιγράφε-
ται στο Κατά Ιωάννη (19, 32-33). Ωστόσο μόνο στο απόκρυφο ευαγγέλιο του
Νικόδημου πληροφορούμαστε τα ονόματα των δύο ληστών. Όλες οι αναφορές
που γίνονται στα συγκεκριμένα κείμενα της Αγίας Γραφής είναι περιληπτικές
και χρήζουν ερμηνείας, σαν αυτή του Θεοφύλακτου Βουλγαρίας εις το Κατά
Λουκάν, όπου προσπάθησε να εξηγήσει ποιος είναι ο λόγος που δεν υπάρχει
πρόβλημα στην ταύτιση του παράδεισου με την ουράνια βασιλεία (P.G 123,
1106) Ὁ γάρ ληστής ἔστι μεν ἐν παραδείσῳ, ἢτοι τῇ βασιλείᾳ, και οὐ μόνον αὐτός,
ἀλλά και πάντες οὕς ἀριθμείται ὁ Παῦλος.
Στην κατεύθυνση της αναζήτησης του ιδεολογικού υπόβαθρου, πάνω
στο οποίο στηρίχθηκε η επιλογή του συγκεκριμένου εικονογραφικού τύπου της
Σταύρωσης έχει ιδιαίτερη σημασία η εξέταση ορισμένων κειμένων που αφιε-
ρώθηκαν στον σταυρό και τον ληστή. Σε τέσσερις τουλάχιστον ομιλίες του ο
Ιωάννης ο Χρυσόστομος ασχολείται με το θέμα. Στην ομιλία του (P.G. 62, 749),
εἰς τὸν σταυρὸν καὶ εἰς τὴν ἐξομολόγησιν τοῦ λῃστοῦ, την οποία έκανε Μεγάλη
Παρασκευή μιλάει για τον δίκαιο ληστή και τα μηνύματα που εκπέμπει η με-
τάνοια του. Με την μορφή των ερωταπαντήσεων και το γνωστό γλαφυρό ύφος
απευθύνεται στο ακροατήριο του, το οποίο είχε ήδη καθιερώσει την συνή-
θεια συγκέντρωσης μπροστά στον κοιμητηριακό ναό την συγκεκριμένη μέρα.
Δογματικά τεκμηριωμένη η θέση του και με λογοτεχνική ζωντάνια προσφέρει
το ερμηνευτικό εργαλείο στον ζωγράφο του Αγίου Γεωργίου του Βουνού, σε
σημείο που να μπορεί να κάνει την σύνδεση με το βαθύτερο νόημα της χωρο-
θέτησης της παράστασης. Στη συγκεκριμένη ομιλία ο Χρυσόστομος προτείνει
να μην ντραπούμε ακόμη και να θεωρήσουμε δάσκαλο μας τον ληστή, επειδή
είναι ο πρώτος άνθρωπος που φάνηκε άξιος να μπει στη βασιλεία των ουρανών.
Την σύνδεση όμως με την πτώση και την ανύψωση του ανθρώπου, τον Αδάμ
και τον ληστή την κάνει στην επόμενη ομιλία, εἰς τὸν τίμιον σταυρὸν καὶ εἰς
τὴν λῃστήν, στην οποία λέγει: σήμερον ἀδελφοὶ Ἀδὰμ ἐξεβλήθη τοῦ παραδείσου
διὰ τὴν παρακοήν, σήμερον πάλιν εἰσάγεται εἰς τὸν παράδεισον. Καὶ μαρτὺς ὁ
λῃστής. Ἐξῆλθεν κλέπτης καὶ εἰσῆλθεν κλέπτης, ἐξῆλθεν ὁ κλέψας παρὰ τὸ βούλη-
μα τῆς ἐντολῆς καὶ εἰσῆλθεν ὁ κλέψας ἀπὸ τοῦ σταυροῦ τὴν σωτηρίαν. Οἶδα καὶ
πρώην εἰρηκὼς περὶ τοῦ λῃστοῦ, ἀλλ’ ἔχει διαφόρους ἱστορίας ὁ τοῦ σταυροῦ
λόγος. Ἐκεῖνος ὁ λῃστὴς διὰ ξύλου θανατοῦται, οὗτος ὁ λῃστὴς ἀπὸ ξύλου τρυγᾷ
τὴν σωτηρίαν. Ωστόσο αποκαλυπτικά στοιχεία εντοπίζονται και σ άλλες ομιλίες
του. Για παράδειγμα στην ομιλία εἰς τὴν προσκύνησιν τοῦ τιμίου ξύλου, (P.G. 62,
747), νομίζουμε ότι υπάρχει το υπόβαθρο για τονσχηματισμό της Σταύρωσης
στον Άγιο Νικόλαο του Κυρίτση, όπου εγκωμιάζεται με ξεχωριστό τρόπο ο
σταυρός: χαίροις, σταυρὲ, ἔνδυμα τῶν νεοφωτίστων, καὶ φύλαξ νηπίων· χαίροις,
σταυρὲ, δούλων ἐλευθερία, καὶ ἀποθνησκόντων ἐντάφιον, επιτρέποντας και στον
κτήτορα να ελπίζει για την σωτηρία του, ενώ εἰς το όνομα τοῦ κοιμητηρίου (P.G.
49, 470), ονομάζει τον θάνατο ύπνο.
Όπως αντιλαμβανόμαστε τα κείμενα των ομότροπων αγίων αποτελούν
σταθερή βάση έμπνευσης για την εξέλιξη της εικονογραφίας ορισμένων σκη-
νών. Στη Θεσσαλονίκη και στο παρεκκλήσι της μονής Βλατάδων40 αναπτύχθη-
Εικ. 11 Παρεκκλήσιο
Αγίων Αναργύρων
Βατοπαιδίου. Άγιος
Γρηγόριος Παλαμάς
Сл. 11 Пареклис
Св.Бесребреника
Ватопеда
ανάμεσα στα 1361 και 136445. Για την περαιτέρω διαλεύκανση της ταύτισης
Παλαμά-Χρυσοστόμου είναι διαφωτιστικές και οι δύο χρυσοστομικές παρα-
στάσεις στο πρόγραμμα του παρεκκλησίου που ενισχύουν την τυπολογική τους
σχέση.
Με την επωνυμία Νέος Χρυσόστομος συνδέθηκαν οι πρωϊμότερες απει-
κονίσεις από την Καστοριά και το Άγιον Όρος46, δηλαδή τα πορτρέτα του στον
Άγιο Γεώργιο του Βουνού και στο παρεκκλήσι των Αγίων Αναργύρων της μο-
νής Βατοπαιδίου47. Το πορτρέτο στους Αγίους Τρείς είναι του 1401 και επα-
ναλαμβάνει απλά τον γνωστό τύπο του Αγίου Γεωργίου του Βουνού. Υπάρχει
κάτι κοινό σ’ αυτές οι παραστάσεις; Πρώτα απ’ όλα η επωνυμία και μετά οι
κτήτορες που είναι Σέρβοι. Την σύνδεση Καστοριάς-Αγίου Όρους την θεωρού-
με δεδομένη γιατί προϋποθέτει τον σχηματισμό ομάδας μαθητών και οπαδών
του Παλαμά, η οποία διέκρινε όπως τονίζει και ο Φουστέρης τα κοινά ιδιώ-
ματα με τον Χρυσόστομο. Πως όμως συνδέθηκε η Καστοριά με την τιμή του
αγίου; Από τις αναφορές του Φιλοθέου στη συλλογή θαυμάτων που συγκέ-
ντρωσε από μαρτυρίες αρχιερέων της περιφέρειας του Βυζαντίου συνάγεται
το συμπέρασμα ότι ένα τέτοιο θαύμα έγινε και στην Καστοριά. Οι μαρτυρίες
περί θαύματος θα πρέπει να είχαν προηγηθεί της κοίμησης και να είχαν κατα-
γραφεί ίσως μετά από επίσκεψη του στην πόλη; Η απάντηση βρίσκεται στα
αποσταλέντα τεκμήρια προς το οικουμενικό πατριαρχείο για την διακήρυξη της
αγιότητας. Η κοίμηση του έγινε μια μέρα μετά την εορτή του Χρυσοστόμου,
δηλαδή στις 14 Νοεμβρίου, όπως την είχε προαναγγείλει ο ίδιος. Κλειδί για
την διαλεύκανση των γεγονότων θεωρούμε ότι είναι ο συνεορτασμός Παλαμά-
Χρυσοστόμου48, ο οποίος θα πρέπει να συνδυαστεί και με την αποδοχή στη
συνείδηση του πληρώματος της εκκλησίας της αγιότητας ενός κεκοιμημένου
μέλους, μια διαδικασία συνηθισμένη στην ορθοδοξία. Προκειμένου να γίνει
πράξη ο συνεορτασμός η ανέγερση και αφιέρωση ναού στην πόλη προς τι-
μήν του49 ήταν λογικό να συμπεριλάβει και τον Χρυσόστομο, όπως το είδαμε
να γίνεται και στη Μονή Βλατάδων. Από την έρευνα σε όλες τις διαθέσιμες
πηγές, ναός αφιερωμένος στον Παλαμά δεν βρέθηκε. Μια προσεκτική ματιά
όμως στα οθωμανικά κατάστιχα του 1445 μας φέρνει μπροστά σ’ ένα σημαντι-
κό εύρημα. Στον κατάλογο των 18 μοναστηριών που καταγράφηκαν ξεχωριστά
από τις υπόλοιπες εκκλησίες της πόλης υπάρχει μονή αφιερωμένη στον άγιο
45 Γ. Φουστέρης, 452.
46 Ε. Τσιγαρίδας, Εικονιστικές μαρτυρίες του αγίου Γρηγορίου του Παλαμά σε ναούς
της Καστοριάς και της Βέροιας. Συμβολή στην εικονογραφία του αγίου, Πρακτικά θεολογικού
συνεδρίου εις μνήμην του εν αγίοις πατρός ημών Γρηγορίου Αρχιεπισκόπου Θεσσαλονίκης
του Παλαμά, Θεσσαλονίκη 1986, 264-268, 275-276.
47 V.J. Đurić, Les fresques de la chapelle du despote Jovan Ugleša a Vatopedi et leur
valeur pour l’ etude de l’ origine thessalonicienne de la peinture de Resava, ZRVI 17, 131-132.
48 Θ. Γιάγκου, Η εορτή του αγίου Γρηγορίου Παλαμά και η τιμή του αγίου στην Ιερά
Μονή Βλατάδων, Χριστιανική Θεσσαλονίκη: Η Ιερά Πατριαρχική και Σταυροπηγιακή Μονή
Βλατάδων, Πρακτικά Θ΄Διεθνούς Επιστημονικού Συμποσίου, Θεσσαλονίκη 2005, 73-89,
του ιδίου, Μαρτυρίες περί της μνήμης του Αγίου Γρηγορίου του Παλαμά στο Άγιον Όρος, Κλη-
ρονομία 28 (1996) 9-30.
49 J. Meyendorf, Introduction, 168-170, Δ. Τσάμης, Φιλοθέου Κωνσταντινουπόλεως
λόγος εις Άγ. Γρηγόριον Παλαμάν αρχιεπίσκοπον Θεσσαλονίκης, Θεσσαλονίκη 1984, 22, 79.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 183
50 Την μελέτη των κατάστιχων από το πρωτότυπο που σώζεται στο Οθωμανικό Αρ-
χείο Πρωθυπουργίας της Κωνσταντινούπολης υπό τα στοιχεία MAD 237 έκανε τελευταία ο
Φ. Κοτζαγεώργης, ο οποίος όμως στο πόνημα του Πρώϊμη Οθωμανική Πόλη δεν παραθέτει
τον κατάλογο των μοναστηριών. Γι’ αυτό τον λόγο ανατρέξαμε στην παλαιότερη μελέτη του
М. Соколиски, Турски документи за историјата на македонскиот народ. Опширни
пописни дефтери од XV век, том 2, Скопје 1973, 76, όπου ανάμεσα στις 18 μονές, όγδοη
κατά σειρά, εντοπίσαμε την μονή του Αγίου Ιωάννου του Χρυσοστόμου. Τον ίδιο κατάλογο
δημοσίευσε και ο Κ. Μουστάκας, Πρώϊμες ιστορικές μαρτυρίεςγια τη μονή Μαυριώτισσας
Καστοριάς (1530), Επιμ. Γ.Σαλακίδης. Τουρκολογικά. Τιμητικός τόμος για τον Α. Ιορδάνο-
γλου, Θεσσαλονίκη 2011, 261.
51 Ε. Τσιγαρίδας, Βυζαντινό Μουσείο Καστοριάς. Βυζαντινές και μεταβυζαντινές εικό-
νες, Κατάλογος (2002).
52 A.Grabar, The portrait, Christian Iconography, A study of the Origins, London
1969, 63.
184 Δημήτριος Σίσιου
Димитрије Сисиу
(Археолог)
ПОРТРЕТ СВЕТОГ ГРИГОРИЈА ПАЛАМА У КАСТОРИЈИ
У ОДНОСУ НА РАЗДОБЉЕ СРПСКЕ ВЛАСТИ
Konstantinos M. Vapheiades
(Ecclesiastical Academy of Athens)
βυζαντινά έγγραφα (των ετών 1163, 1336 και 1393). Συμβολή στην ιστορία της επισκοπής,
Τρικαλινά 13 (1993), 7-66.
3 For more detailed information about the Great Meteoron see the bibliography in
K. Μ. Βαφειάδης, Η μονή του Αγίου και Μεγάλου Μετεώρου (Μεταμορφώσεως). Ιστορία -
Προσωπογραφία - Βίος πνευματικός επί τη βάσει των γραπτών και αρχαιολογικών μαρτυριών
(12ος – 20ος αι.), Άγια Μετέορα 2019.
4 St. Athanasios himself testifies to this while addressing his disciples and fellow
ascetics before being taken up into heaven: ‘Καί πρῶτον μέν παρατίθημι ὑμᾶς ἐν τῇ σκέπῃ τῆς
ὑπερευλογημένης Θεοτόκου καί ἀειπαρθένου Μαρίας, καθά καί ἡ μονή κεκλήρωται, εἰς ἥν
κἀγὼ πεποιθὼς ἕως τοῦ νῦν τῆς ἀναγκαίας χρείας οὐκ ἐστερήθην’ (Δ. Z. Σοφιανός, Ο όσιος
Αθανάσιος ο Μετεωρίτης. Βίος, Ακολουθία, Συναξάρια, Μετέορα 1990, 148-149).
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 187
of the race of the Triballi (Serbs)’5, most likely during the reign of the ruler of
Thessaly, Symeon Uroš Palaiologos (Nemanja), half-brother of Stefan Dušan
(1359 - †circa 1370) (fig. 1).
Fragments of the painted decoration of St. Athanasios’s katholikon still
survive at the Great Meteoron Monastery. These depict figures of saints in roun-
dels with a diameter of approx. 45 cm. (height of heads = 18 cm.) (fig. 2)6. The
style of these fragments is closely connected with the artistic idiom of the paint-
er who decorated the Meteoran Hypapante Monastery (1366/7). Consequently,
it may be reasonably assumed that the painter of the Hypapante also worked at
the Great Meteoron, most likely shortly before 1366. It should be noted that the
Hypapante Monastery was built at the initiative and expense of the hieromonk
Neilos, protos of the Skete of Stagoi. However, the church’s painted decoration,
or part of it, was funded by the ‘most illustrious’ Constantine, who was probably
of Serbian origin and later became a monk under the name Kyprianos7.
The fact that the abovementioned fragments belong to the first construc-
tion phase of the old katholikon of the Great Meteoron Monastery is confirmed
by two more facts. First, the decoration of the Hypapante Monastery is intact
and so the fragments cannot come from it. Second, St. Athanasios’s katholikon
was completely rebuilt by his disciple, King Symeon’s son Joasaph Palaiologos,
in 1387/8 and decorated in 1483. No layer dating from before this phase exists.
5 Σοφιανός, O όσιος Αθανάσιος, 144.
6 See Γέρων Συμεών Διονυσιάτης, K. M. Βαφειάδης, Σέρβοι χορηγοί και καλλιτέ-
χνες στην ιερά μονή Χιλανδαρίου και στην μονή του Αγίου και Μεγάλου Μετεώρου κατά το β΄
μισό του 14ου αιώνα, Chilandarski Zbornik 15 (forthcoming).
7 For the Monastery of Hypapante and its wall-paintings see Α. Ξυγκόποθλοσ,
Σχεδίασμα Ιστορίας της θρησκευτικής ζωγραφικής μετά την Άλωσιν, Αθήνα 1957, 48-49;
Г. Суботић, Почеци монашког живота и црква манастира Сретења у Метеорима,
Зборник Матице српске за ликовне уметности 2 (Нови Сад 1966), 143-176; Idem, Η τέ-
χνη των βυζαντινοσέρβων ευγενών στην Ελλάδα κατά τις τελευταίες δεκαετίες του ΙΔ΄ αιώνα,
Βυζάντιο και Σερβία κατά τον ΙΔ΄ αιώνα, Διεθνές Συμπόσιο 3, Ε.Ι.Ε, 12-14 Νοεμβρίου 1993,
edd. N. Οικονομίδης et al., Αθήνα 1996, 173-174; Δ. Z. Σοφιανός, Λ. Δεριζιώτης, Η ιερά
μονή της Υπαπαντής Μετεώρων, Δεύτερο μισό 14ου αιώνα, Αθήνα 2011; Κ. Μ. Βαφειάδης,
Ύστερη βυζαντινή ζωγραφική. Χώρος και μορφή στην τέχνη της Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, 1150-
1450, Αθήνα 2015 [= repr. 2021], 268-269.
188 Konstantinos M. Vapheiades
8 In fact, the same stylistic idiom can also be seen in three despotic icons: see G.
Subotić, Simonopetrites Justinos, L’icononostase et les fresques de la fin du XIVe siècle
dans la monastère de la Transfiguration aux Météores, Actes du XVe Congrès International
d’Études byzantines, Athènes 1976, II, Art et Archéologique, Athens 1981, 751-758.
9 Σοφιανός, O όσιος Αθανάσιος, 144-145.
10 Ν. Α. Βέης, Σύνταγμα επιγραφικών μνημείων Μετεώρων και της πέριξ χώρας, μετά
σχετικών αρχαιολογημάτων, Βυζαντίς 1 (Αθήνα 1909), 584-585.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 189
the east wall of the new katholikon, while flat sloping roofs covered the north
and south cross arms of the old katholikon and the corresponding corner bays.
Finally, the north entrance of the old katholikon was bricked up.
Fig. 7. Prophet Joel, detail (shortly before Fig. 8. Prophet Jonah, detail (shortly before
1483) 1483)
Сл. 7. Пророк Јоил, детаљ (непосредно Сл. 8. Пророк Јона, детаљ (непосредно
пре 1483) пре 1483)
was an active patron between 1387 and 1422? Is this due to the Ottoman con-
quest of the area, which began in 1395/6 and was completed between 1423 and
1470? This is very likely as the church was finally decorated with wall paint-
ings in 1483. The founder’s inscription attests to the traditional account of the
church’s construction history: † ΑΝΗΓΕΡΘΗ ΕΚ ΒαΘΡΩΝ ΘΕΜΕΛΙΟΝ Κ(ΑΙ)
ΑΝΙΚΟΔΟΜΗΘ(Η) / Ο ΘΕΙΟΣ Κ(ΑΙ) Π(ΑΝ)ΣΕΠΤΟΣ ΝΑΟΣ ΟΥΤΟ[Σ] ΤΟΥ
Κ(ΥΡΙΟ)Υ Κ(ΑΙ) Θ(ΕΟ)Υ Κ(ΑΙ) Σ(ΩΤΗ)/Ρ(Ο)Σ ΗΜ(ΩΝ) / Ι(ΗΣΟ)Υ Χ(ΡΙΣΤΟ)
Υ ΔΙΑ ΚΟΠ(ΟΥ) Κ(ΑΙ) ΕΞΟΔ[ΟΥ] ΤΩΝ ΟΣΙ(ΩΝ) Π(ΑΤΕ)ΡΩΝ ΗΜΩΝ
ΑΘΑΝαΣΙΟΥ Κ(ΑΙ) ΙΩΑΣαφ / ΕΝ ΕΤ(ΕΙ) ϛωϟϛ΄ [6896 = 1387/8] Ο Κ(ΑΙ)
ΚΤΙΤΩΡ(ΕΣ)· ΑΝΙΣΤΟΡΙΘ(Η) ΔΙα Σ(ΥΝ)ΔΡΟΜ(ΗΣ) Κ(ΑΙ) / ΚΟΠ(ΟΥ) Τ(ΩΝ)
ΕΛΑΧΙΣΤ(ΩΝ) ΑΔΕΛΦ(ΩΝ) ΕΤ(ΟΥΣ) ϛϡϟβ’ [6992 = 1483] ΙΝ(ΔΙΚΤΙΩΝΟΣ)
Β΄ ΜΗΝΗ ΝΟΕμβρ(ί)ω ΚΑ΄15.
The church’s iconographic programme contains a complete hagiographi-
cal, doctrinal and Gospel cycle. In the dome there is a depiction of Christ
Pantokrator, accompanied by full-length figures of angels and prophets. Gospel
scenes extend over the vaults and the upper surfaces of the side walls. The
apex of the sanctuary apse is adorned with a depiction of the Virgin Enthroned.
Beneath this are depictions of the Communion of Apostles and full-length fig-
ures of the Concelebrating Hierarchs. In the lowest zone of the walls are depic-
tions of military saints, such as the Saints Theodore, St. George the Cappadocian
15 Βέης, Σύνταγμα, 585-586. Beneath the inscription survives part of another inscrip-
tion which unfortunately has not yet proved possible to read.
192 Konstantinos M. Vapheiades
Fig. 9. Mural fragment with the head of St. Fig. 10. St. Theodosios the Cenobiarch
Zosimas Сл. 10. Свети Теодосије Велики
Сл. 9. Фрагмент фреске, део главе Светог
Зосиме
and St. Demetrios ‘the great duke’, as well as local saints, such as St. Achilles of
Larissa and St. Nicholas the Younger, and also St. Clement of Ohrid. Naturally,
there are also depictions of the founders of the Great Meteoron: St. Athanasios,
holding a scroll displaying a concise version of the monastery’s typikon and ac-
companied by the inscription Ο ΟΣΙΟΣ Π(ΑΤ)ΗΡ ΗΜΩΝ ΑΘΑΝΑΣΙΟΣ Κ(ΑΙ)
ΚΑΘΗΓΗΤΗΣ ΤΟΥ ΑΓΙΟΥ ΜΕΤΕΩΡΟΥ, and, on the north-west pier, the mon-
astery’s second founder Ο ΟΣΙΟΣ Π(ΑΤΗΡ) ΗΜ(ΩΝ) ΙΩΑΣΑΦ16. On the west
face of the north-east pier is a depiction of St. Nicholas ‘the Fervent Protector’.
A portrayal of the Archangel Michael, with his sword raised, has been placed
to the left of the old (north) entrance (fig. 5). Finally, a depiction of the Royal
Deesis adorns the south and south-west sections of the katholikon17.
In our opinion, the wall-paintings constitute the first and most important
work of the so-called ‘Kastoria Workshop’. A dominant element in this art is
the pursuit of verisimilitude and an experiential approach to Biblical and other
themes, either through the naturalistic treatment of forms or the introduction of
elements from contemporary reality.
The wall paintings in the dome and on the lost or overpainted sections of the
old katholikon of the Great Meteoron
During the alterations that were carried out in the 16th century, in which
the earlier church was converted into a sanctuary of the new katholikon, some
24 In the figure of the prophet Daniel, painted in the 16th century, it is possible to
discern the hand of the earlier figure.
25 P. A. Underwood, The Kariye Djami, [Bollingen Series LXX, Pantheon Books],
New York, 1966, vol. III, pls. 548-549.
26 The World of the Byzantine Museum, Byzantine and Christian Museum, Athens
2004, figs. on pp. 19-121. Cf. ‘Λευκάδα. Απόλπαινα, Μονή Παναγίας Οδηγήτριας’, in Π. Βο-
κοτόπουλος (ed.), Ευρετήριο βυζαντινών τοιχογραφιών της Ελλάδος. Ιόνια νησιά [Ακαδημία
Αθηνών, Κέντρο Έρευνας της Βυζαντινής και Μεταβυζαντινής τέχνης], Αθήνα 2018, 142-151.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 195
who was familiar with Western culture, a fact that is evident in the existence of
a series of Western and Western-style works from the 14th and 15th centuries in
the Great Meteoron’s sacristy27.
Although we are not aware of any other monumental ensemble that dis-
plays such characteristics, the art of the painter of the prophets should be con-
nected with Westernizing works in Kastoria28, with which it shares many simi-
larities. In any event, the artist who painted the dome of the old katholikon of
the Great Meteoron represents a unicum in the monumental painting of main-
land Greece of the second half of the 15th century.
Like the dome, the sanctuary apse is also almost completely overpainted.
In the half-dome only the faces of the Virgin Mary, Christ and the angels have
been overpainted. The others belong to the earlier phase. The figures of two hi-
erarchs – St. Achilles and St. Gregory of Nyssa – also belong to the 1483 phase.
The scenes in the Christological cycle do not present any problems, ex-
cept for those in the west sections of the superstructure. Here, the surviving
sections of the Christological cycle are to be found in the soffits of the west
arches. In the soffit of the west arch, then, survives part of the scene of the
Transfiguration of the Saviour. This extended over the entire surface of the west
vault29. The whole section depicting the Apostles under the painting of Christ
in glory has been lost.
As has already been mentioned, the (west) narthex and part of the west
section of the church (west wall, western bays, west vault) were demolished
during the alterations carried out in the 16th century. No wall-paintings at all
survive from the narthex – if, that is, the narthex was decorated in the first place.
However, from the no longer extant west wall of the naos survives a fragment
depicting the head of St. Zosimas (fig. 9.), which attests to the existence in this
part of the church of a depiction of St. Zosimas and St. Mary of Egypt.
On the faces of the west piers of the katholikon survive figures of saints
from the 1483 phase, such as St. David of Thessaloniki, of which only the upper
section (head, shoulders and inscription) is preserved. Opposite St. David is a
depiction of Constantine the Great and St. Helen. Although most of the figure
of St. Constantine was painted in the 16th century, his left hand and a part of his
garments belong to the earlier phase30. In addition, part of an unidentified figure
survives next to the depiction of St. Theodosios the Cenobiarch (fig. 10.).
Of the west bays of the old katholikon, only sections of the south and
north walls survive. Consequently, here the original arrangement of the figures
and scenes has been disturbed. For example, on the north wall, to the left of the
old closed-up entrance, the 16th-century painter covered a scene from the 1483
phase with the figures of a hierarch and a deacon. To the left of the Archangel
Michael part of a throne is visible, along with part of the knee of the figure
seated on it and part of a hexapterygon (fig. 5). On the basis of these remaining
fragments, we may assume there was a depiction of Christ in glory at this point.
To the right of the old entrance there are now depictions of Saints Anthony and
Euthymios (fig. 11.). However, it appears that there was once a third saint or
hierarch here too that was covered over by the 16th-century decoration and then
later in the 18th century.
Apart from the alterations mentioned above, the prothesis was also reno-
vated at the beginning of the abbacy of Parthenios the Melodist (1784) (fig. 12.).
We do not know exactly which depictions from the 1483 phase were covered
over. It appears, however, that the existing ones are copies of the originals be-
neath them. The painter who executed the existing depictions also painted the
figure of the prophet Sophonias (Zephaniah) in the dome over that of the proph-
et Solomon, whose inscription survives next to that of Sophonias. The same
artist is also responsible for a number of repairs and retouches. For example, he
retouched the tunics of St. George and St. John the Baptist31 on the south wall,
which were severely damaged when the monks opened up a new entrance to St.
John the Baptist’s Chapel32.
Conclusions
Byzantine art was kept alive, even long after the Fall of Constantinople,
through a variety of artistic currents that sprang from none other than Palaiologan
art and the art of the great Serbian kings. One of the most notable of these cur-
rents is that represented by a team of painters from Kastoria of the second half
of the 15th century, which was mainly active in the Meteora and Kastoria areas
and the broader Ohrid region. As is generally accepted, the first dated work by
this team is the mural decoration of the old katholikon of the Great Meteoron
(1483). However, given the ‘maturity’ of the work carried out by these painters
at the Great Meteoron, it is certain that other, earlier ensembles by this work-
shop must exist elsewhere.
On the basis of the foregoing analysis, we may conclude that the original
phase of the katholikon – that of St. Athanasios (pre-1366) – possessed wall-
paintings, which were destroyed when the church was completely rebuilt by
St. Joasaph Palaiologos in 1387. However, St. Joasaph’s katholikon was not
decorated with wall-paintings until sixty years after his death. Only one paint-
ing – that of the Second Coming – belongs to the 1387 phase, and this adorned
the north narthex of the church.
The katholikon was finally decorated in 1483. It is clear, however, that
the decoration in the dome most probably belongs to a phase slightly earlier
than that of 1483, and that the painter who executed it is not connected with the
painters who decorated the rest of the church. Many parts of the church, particu-
larly in its east section, were overpainted in the 16th century, perhaps as a result
of damage. The diakonikon was never decorated with wall-paintings, while the
decoration in the prothesis belongs to the 18th century, as do certain sections
of figures painted in the 15th and 16th centuries. In the lower zone and western
sections of the church some of the depictions and many of the holy figures have
also been overpainted or renovated. The wall-paintings in the groin vaults of
the west bays and on the west wall of the katholikon have been completely lost,
except for a fragment of the head of St. Zosimas from the alterations carried out
in the 16th century.
Thanks to the abovementioned facts, we have some idea of the icono-
graphic programme of the old katholikon of the Great Meteoron Monastery.
However, once the conservation, photographic documentation and study of the
katholikon is resumed after the end of the coronavirus pandemic, it is certain
that these endeavours will bring to light new information about the activity and
composition of the ‘Kastoria Workshop’ and its connections with the monaster-
ies of Thessaly.
198 Konstantinos M. Vapheiades
Константинос М. Вафиадес
(Црквена Академија Атине)
ЗАПАЖАЊА О ЗИДНОМ СЛИКАРСТВУ И ИКОНОГРАФИЈИ СТАРОГ
КАТОЛИКОНА ВЕЛИКИХ МЕТЕОРА (1483)
Andrijana Golac
(independent researcher)
Abstract: The subject of the paper is the image of Righteous Job depicted
in a medallion on the north wall of the nave in Monastery Zrze. Firstly, we have
divided the saint’s images in Eastern Christian art into groups which we have
then briefly compared to those in Western Christian art, stressing the similarities
and differences between them. The aim of the paper is to show and explain the
connection of Job’s image in Zrze with that of saints and scenes surrounding
and opposing him.
Key words: Righteous Job, Monastery Zrze, painter Onouphrios
1 Apart from depicting the frescoes in the nave, Greek painter Onоuphrios of Argos
also renewed the ones on the vault and in the altar of the church, cf. Б. Бабић, Фреско-живопис
сликара Онуфрија на зидовима цркава прилепског краја, ЗЛУМС 16 (1980) 271-280.
2 З. Расолкоска-Николовска, Историјатот на манастирот Зрзе низ натпи-
сите и записите од XIV до XIX век, Средновековната уметност во Македонија, Скопје
2004, 335; eadem, Манастирот Зрзе со црквите Преображение и Свети Никола, 367.
200 Andrijana Golac
Fig. 1 Righteous
Job, north wall
of the nave,
Monastery Zrze
(16th century)
Сл. 1 Праведни
Јов, северни зид
наоса, Манастир
Зрзе (XVI век)
worms. Examples from the narthex of the Chora Church, Staro Nagoričino,
Gračanica, and Lesnovo,3 belong to the first type in which Job is shown with a
wreath-like crown on his head, similar to that of a martyr, with a folded scroll
in the left hand, while blessing with the right one. Images from the churches of
Saint Niketas near Skopje, Saint Elijah in Dolgaec and the monastery of Zrze,4
belong to the second type, in which Job is usually shown in a medallion located
near the Passion Cycle or the Harrowing of Hell, in which case his image should
be interpreted as an allusion to the suffering of Christ, i.e., the Resurrection.
Examples from the third group, in which the holy man is depicted while sitting
on a pile of dung fully covered with sores, occur abundantly in medieval illu-
minated manuscripts, while their number in fresco ensembles is proportionally
small.
In the nave of Zrze, the bust of Righteous Job Ο δικαιος Ιωβ is represent-
ed in a medallion in the second zone. He is turned towards the imago clipeata
with St. Alexios the Man of God, next to him, and Christ-Emperor on the throne
in the scene of the Imperial Deesis, in the zone below him. Job is wearing luxu-
rious garments and has a richly decorated vaulted crown on his head. A massive
red cloak rimed with pearls hangs from his right shoulder. The saint is shown
3 For the example in the Chora church, cf. С. Габелић, Манастир Лесново, Београд
1998, 65; Staro Nagoričino, cf. Б. Тодић, Старо Нагоричино, Београд 1993, 75, 98, сл. 38;
for Gračanica, cf. Б. Тодић, Грачаница. Сликарство, Београд‒Приштина 1988, 95, 99, 127,
148; Lesnovo, cf. Габелић, Лесново, 63, 65, сл. 48. Job is also depicted among Old Testament
figures in the Ascension church in Leskoec and that of Saint Demetrios in Boboševo, сf. Г.
Суботиќ, Охридската сликарска школа од XV век, Охрид 1980, 97 and 135.
4 For Saint Niketas, cf. М. Марковић, Свети Никита код Скопља, Београд 2015,
105, 164, 165, 187; Saint Elijah in Dolgaec, cf. Суботиќ, Охридската сликарска школa,
53; for Zrze, cf. A. I. Golac, The representation of Saint Nicholas the monk and former sol-
dier in the Monastery of Zrze, Зборник Матице српске за ликовне уметности 45 (Нови
Сад 2017) 137-138.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 201
Fig. 2 The Threnos and Harrowing of Hell; Saints Fig. 3 The Baptism of Christ; Saints John
Athanasius, Alexius and Job; Imperial Deesis, Kalyvitis and Nicholas the monk, south wall of
north wall of the nave in Monastery Zrze (16th the nave in Monastery Zrze (16th century)
century) Сл. 3 Крштење Христово, Свети Јован
Сл. 2 Оплакивање Христа и Силазак у ад; Свети Каливитис и Никола монах, јужни зид наоса,
Атанасије, Алексије и Јов, Царски Деизис, Манастир Зрзе (XVI век)
северни зид наоса, Манастир Зрзе (XVI век)
in familiar iconography, as an old man with a round white beard and tidy curly
hair of the same colour.5 He is holding a cross in his right hand, while the palm
of his raised left hand is turned towards the onlooker (fig. 1).
If we are to understand why Onоuphrios depicted him in this particular
place and in such a way, it is important to mention the frescoes surrounding the
saint, as well as the ones opposing him. We have already said that the scenes of
the Threnos and Harrowing of Hell are depicted in the third zone, above Job’s
medallion and that the Imperial Deesis with Christ as Emperor is below him in
the first zone (fig. 2). Medallions with busts of saints Alexius and Athanasius
the Persian are next to him, and that of John Kalyvitis and Nicholas the monk
occupy the first two medallions on the parallel, south wall. The scene of the
Baptism of Christ is depicted above the last two mentioned saints (fig. 3), which
5 For the iconography of Job, cf. LCI II, 407-414; S. Terrien, The iconography of
Job through the centuries: artists as Biblical interpreters, Pennsylvania 1996; Walter, The
Iconography of Job, ΔΕΛΤΙΟΝ (2008) 69-72; Православная Энциклопедия, Т. 25, 253.
202 Andrijana Golac
10 J. Lowden, Early Christian and Byzantine Art, Phaidon Press Ltd, London 1997,
50-51, fig. 27; L. Sapikowski, The iconography of the sarcophagus of Junius Bassus, Journal
for Undergraduate Research Opportunities (2007) 1-14, especially 8-9.
11 The author thoroughly explains the conceptual connection between the scenes. Cf.
Sapikowski, The iconography, 12, figs 1, 2.
12 The aim of the artist to underline the relation between Job and Christ’s suffering
is clear if we look at some of the scenes depicting the saint in Western Christian art. The first
thing that catches ones attention is the remarkable resemblance between the righteous man
and Christ. In some examples, which include musicians, the analogy with the scene ”Mock-
ing of Christ” cannot be overlooked. This is especially noticeable in scenes in which the
trumpets of the musicians are positioned above Job’s head. Сf. Terrien, The iconography,
figs. 49, 63 и 64. A brilliant example is the scene in which Job is kneeling on the ground and
interceding for his friends, because it unmistakably resembles the Prayer in Gethsemane.
Another interesting example shows Job with a crown similar to the crown of thorns worn by
Christ. Idem, figs. 48 and 51.
13 These miniatures are described in detail, cf. М. Evangelatou, From word into Im-
age: The Visualization of Ulcer in Byzantine Illustrated Manuscripts of the Book of Job, Ges-
ta, Vol. 48/1 (2009) 19-36. For the Vatican manuscript, cf. I. Oretskaia, A stylistic Tendency
in Ninth-Century Art of the Byzantine World, Зограф 29 (2002-2003) 14-17. For additional
examples of Job in illuminated manuscripts, shown with pestering monsters, or Job as king
or martyr, cf. Terrien, The iconography, 44-61.
204 Andrijana Golac
Fig. 7 Job on the dunghill, east wall of the narthex in Gračanica (14th century)
Сл. 7 Јов на буњишту, источни зид припрате, Грачаница (XIV век)
with a text from the Gospel of John (John 18:36), in the left. The text indicates
that Christ’s kingdom is not of this world and announces his Second Coming
and final triumph. The connection between Job and Christ in this scene will be
clearer if we keep in mind the praxis of certain medieval painters to depict the
saint with regal attributes,27 as he was sometimes recognized as Jobab, member
of the Edomit monarchy.28 Also, Job was sometimes represented as a priest,
which must have been known to painter Onouphrios.29 Apart from his connec-
tion with Christ, a parallel between Job and St. John the Baptist, above whom he
is depicted in Zrze, can also be drawn. Already in the sixth century Job had been
considered a prophet of new life,30 and it is well known that baptism symbol-
izes rebirth, which is what brings the two together. This idea is best recognized
in the example from the Baptistery in the Basilica of San Marco in Venice (c.
1350) where St. John the Baptist, who is receiving a vestment from an angel,
is named Job in the inscription above the scene.31 Zographos Onouphrios must
have been familiar with the solution of the mosaic scene from San Marco and
was so impressed by it that he placed the image of Righteous Job above that of
St. John the Baptist in the Monastery of Zrze.
As a learned archpriest from Elbasan, who had spent time and
worked in Venice on a few occasions, the zographos Onouphrios was surely
aware of the complex and layered symbolism of the image of Job. Keeping that
in mind, we can notice his aspiration towards pointing out each and every one
of them to the viewer. This is why he had depicted the saint near the cycle of
Christ’s Passion, as they are linked by the idea of suffering and endurance. By
positioning him below the scene of the Harrowing of Hell, he has underlined
Job’s role as a forerunner of the Resurrection, and the Baptism of Christ op-
posite from him, to show us that Job is also a “prophet of Christian baptism”.
For the same reason, he depicted the prophet of new life above the figure of
St. John the Baptist. And finally, by choosing to represent the busts of saints
Alexius and John Kalyvitis in medallions next to and opposite him, Onоuphrios
has accentuated the righteous man’s willingness to accept, without question, the
idem, Една варијанта на представата на Христос цар над царевите и голем архијереј во
поствизантиската уметност, Живописот на охридската архиепископија. Студии, Скопје
2007, 357-376; М. Томић Ђурић, Идејне основе тематског програма живописа цркве
Светог Димитрија у Марковом манастиру, Београд 2017 (непубликована докторска ди-
сертација), 592-604; C. Vapheiades, Sacerdotium and Regnum in Late Byzantium: Some
Notes on the ”Imperial Deesis”, American Journal of Art and Design, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2017,
81-83.
27 Terrien, The Iconography, 45-50; figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16.
28 Also, Job has been known to be ascribed with regal characteristics in some Hebrew
poems. Terrien, The Iconography, 45.
29 In Jerome’s ”Preface to the Book of Job” the just man is depicted as a king with a
bowl in his left hand, in which he seems to carry holy bread and a cruciform Host. Cf. Terrien,
The Iconography, 45, fig. 12. During the sixteenth century, a great number of sculptures of
Job as a priest have been created in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, idem, 149.
30 Idem, 90.
31 Idem, 90-92, fig. 44.
208 Andrijana Golac
fate which had befallen him, while saint Nicholas the monk and former soldier
has been positioned diagonally from Job to remind us of his confrontation with
temptation.
Андријана Голац
(самостални истраживач)
ПРЕДСТАВА ПРАВЕДНОГ ЈОВА У МАНСТИРУ ЗРЗЕ
Miguel Gallés
(Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona,
Departament d’Art i Musicologia)
Abstract: This paper deals with an important and unpublished 16th / 17th-
century Balkan icon whose topic is that of the Lord’s Presentation to the Temple.
That historical moment in which Simeon cries out his “Nunc dimittis”. We are
going to try to answer two questions: Why “Nunc dimittis” can be related to
the resurrection of Byzantium? And, why “Nunc dimittis” can be related to the
praise of truth? We are going to describe it and compare it with similar produc-
tions. Ending with a surprising interpretation of the buildings at the background
of the scene, identifying them as Hagia Sophia and the Galata Tower in Istanbul.
We have also shown that the transit of the Child from Mary to Simeon and back
is differently indicated in the iconography and have essayed appropriate read-
ings. And we have targeted the issue of symmetrical images for this topic.
Keywords: Byzantine, Icon, Presentation, Hagia Sophia, Galata Tower.
1 To approach this discussion we have considered two papers. The first one issues
clarifying formulations based on relevant monographs on this matter: E. L. Spratt, Toward
a Definition of “Post-Byzantine” Art: The Angleton Collection at the Princeton University
Art Museum, Volume 71-72, Princeton University Art Museum, 2012, 3, 15, 16. The second
takes advantage of a specific case to address the problem: E. S. Moutafov, Where is Byzan-
tium in the end of the eighteenth century? Puzzle for art historians, Problems of Art 4/2015,
Institute of Art Studies, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria, 63, 64.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 211
Fig. 2. Detail.
The Child in
the hands of
Simeon.
Сл. 2. Детаљ,
дете у
Симеоновим
рукама
These differences are not easy to be read. However, the key may lie in
the transition between Old Testament and New Testament that was mentioned
earlier. In this sense, the position of the Child would be equally transitory.
Recapping. The motto „In Praise of the Truth“ leads us to pay attention
at Simeon’s „Nunc dimittis“. Simeon’s categorical affirmation is made through
the recognition-contemplation-reception-acceptance of the Child. It is precisely
this sequence that leads us to recognize the various iconographic types with re-
gard to the position of the Child. But it is not the only relevant/evident variant in
the execution of this iconographic type. For this reason, we would like to men-
tion two others: Anna’s specific position on both sides of the image7 (Simeon’s
side or Mary/Joseph’s side) and the possibility of dealing with iconographical
proposals with an inverse arrangement8 (symmetrical image9).
greater. Some examples, related to their corresponding sources, underlining who is the main
character, and pointing out iconographical details related with our icon, are:
G. Vigo, I Tesori Di San Lazzaro Degli Armeni, Cinisello Balsamo 2011
- Bibbia di Naghash (1418-1422). Simeon. Very similar to our icon.
- Vangelo di Khizan, 1499. Mary. Symmetrical image.
- Bibbia di Abro Bagratuni, 1647. Five field illumination. Mary, transit to Simeon.
J. Oughourlian, Matenadaran the hidden gem, Amber Capital, 2017
- Lectionary of Hethum, 1286. Simeon. Jesus grabbing Mary with his hand.
- Gospel, 1287, Akner, Scribe Archbishop Hovhannes. Simeon holds, Mary embraces,
centrality in composition.
- Gospel, 13th century, Cilicia, Scribe Sukias. Simeon. Similar to our icon.
S.M. Pelekanidis et al., The treasures of Mount Athos, illuminated manuscripts, vol
I, Athens, 1974
- Codex 587, Gospel Lectionary, 1059, in the Monastery of Dionysiou. Mary.
S.M. Pelekanidis et al., The treasures of Mount Athos, illuminated manuscripts, vol
II, Athens, 1974
- Codex 1, Gospel Lectionary, 11th century, in the Monastery of Iveron. Mary.
- Codex 5, Gospel book, 13th century, in the Monastery of Iveron. Mary.
- Codex 2, Gospel Lectionary, 12th century, in the Monastery of Saint Panteleimon.
Mary. Simeon in reception position.
- Diptych with miniatures, 13th century, in the Monastery of Chilandari. Mary. Simeon
has a man behind him, not Anna!
7 The usual arrangement is that Anna is behind Simeon, in the Temple. But with
some frequency we find her with Mary and Joseph, as is the case of the illumination in the
aforementioned Bibbia di Abro Bagratuni, in the corresponding fresco of the Monastery of
Dionysiou, or even in that of the Niğde Gümüşler Monastery, in Turkey.
8 In this way we want to signify those iconographic proposals in which Simeon and
Anna appear on the left of the image while Mary and Joseph appear on the right. Such is the
case of the miniature in the aforementioned Vangelo di Khizan, the small icon in the Benaki
Museum (in which, in addition, Anna is with Mary and Joseph), and the Armenian miniature
of T’oros Roslin (1262) in The Walters Art Museum.
9 This brings us to a very suggestive point: the use of sketches to paint icons as
well as frescoes. It is easy to understand that the widespread use of those devices, more or
less transparent, in which after intensive use it was not obvious to recognize the faces of the
paper, could lead to the frequent phenomenon of symmetry in certain iconographic types.
In this sense, the paper of M. Castiñeiras (Oxford, Magdalen College, MS. Gr. 3: Artistic
Practice, Byzantine Drawings and Mobility in Mediterranean Painting around 1200, Arte
Medievale, Roma 2015, 87,93) is especially relevant. The one of E. N. Tsigaridas (Theopha-
nes the Cretan, Thessaloniki 2016, 60) points out the sequence Angelos-Ritzos-Theophanes.
214 Miguel Gallés
L. Ouspensky (La théologie de l’icône, Paris 2003, 271-272) develops the Russian context.
And M. Didron (Manuel d’iconographie chrétienne grecque et latine, 1845) is the famous
Hermeneia - painter’s manual - of Dionysius of Fourna that was the reference book when we
added a Prophet Elijah icon to the catalogue of Dionysius workshop (M. Gallés, Some addi-
tions to the catalogue of the workshop of Dionysius of Fourna. An icon of the Prophet Elijah
opens fire, Thessaloniki 2019. https://vimeo.com/381309100 ).
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 215
excellence, becomes Hagia Sophia. Thus, we move from the general idea of a
Temple to the idea of a specific temple which is that of Solomon, and from this,
to Hagia Sophia. The link could well be Justinian’s assertion: have defeated
you, wise Solomon with all your glory!12 It is implicit in it that Hagia Sophia
is the new Temple of Solomon. Therefore, it should not surprise us that, despite
the more canonical assumptions of orthodox iconography, what should be a ge-
neric representation of a Temple or, in the best of cases, a representation of the
Temple of Solomon, turns out to be that of the new Temple of Solomon: Hagia
Sophia.
But, the more striking issue in the upper part of this icon is that in the
opposite background there is a very interesting group of buildings in which,
first of all, a tower stands out. By now, and by belonging to the scene, it is more
than evident that it is the Galata Tower (fig. 6). Of course, in the context of
the homonymous neighborhood. Hence the rest of the accompanying buildings.
Without a doubt, the intention is to ensure that the background landscape of
Hagia Sophia, on the other side of the Golden Horn, is perfectly recognized as
such and therefore certifies the identity of the Temple. The huge opening with
bars in the high wall of the tower is striking. We think that the clear purpose is to
show that the “Tower of Christ”13 became a prison that housed Christian prison-
ers who were put to work as slaves in the Kasımpaşa shipyards at the Golden
Horn14, during the reign of Sultan Murat III (1546-1595). So, an evidence of
the Ottoman oppression.
The question arises. Why in the vast world of Orthodox iconography, in
which the claim is not to reflect in the icon anything that could not have to do
with its function of raising the believer to the highest level of connection with
the Divine, can we find such a particular reference?
12 See J.M. Egea, Relato de cómo se construyó Santa Sofía, Granada 2003, 205.
13 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galata_Tower (30/10/2020).
14 https://www.castles.nl/galata-tower (30/10/2020).
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 217
Мигел Галес
(Независни Универзитет у Барселони, Одељење уметности и музикологије)
„СВЕТЛОСТ, ДА ПРОСВЕЋУЈЕ НЕЗНАБОШЦЕ И СЛАВУ НАРОДА ТВОГА
ИЗРАИЉА”: КАДА ЈЕ НОВО ПОСТАЛО СТАРО
Rozmeri Bašić
(University of Oklahoma)
Abstract: After the first fall of Constantinople in 1204, the city remained
under the Crusader occupation until 1261. During that time, the artistic produc-
tion has not sized but continues to flourish outside the city in its remaining ter-
ritories of the Empire. In the present-day city of Zadar in Croatia, the Collection
of Religious Art in the Church of St. Mary includes several large 13th centuries
carved marble icons that only can be recognized as a synthesis of two styles:
Italian Romanesque and Byzantine. It is my goal in this paper to discuss these
works to expand understanding of the nuances of the Italo-Byzantine style in
general.
Keywords: Zadar, Venice, Italo-Byzantine, Iconography, Stone Icons,
Ivory Panels
This paper is very much a work in progress, and therefore at the very in-
fancy of reaching definitive conclusions based on presented research. Last year,
while in Zadar, I visited the Museum of Religious Art located next to the Church
of St. Mary (fig. 1) and was surprised to see in the very basement of the building
rather modestly displayed stone icon that is the topic of this paper (I used „mod-
estly“ expression in comparison with the rest of the artifacts displayed on the
upper floors). The caption was also rather limited, with no dimensions, medium,
or provenance of the work included (fig. 2).
During my inquiry, I came across information that the Nativity Stone Icon
originally was found inside the 17th century Baroque Church of St. Simeon in
Zadar, according to Ivo Petricioli and his publication from 1976.1 The author
also included dimensions for width and height, and later, I was able to get in-
formation about the thickness of the relief (85cm x 145 cm x 15 cm). The exact
type of stone is still in the confirmation process, but most likely is a gray marble
(fig. 3).
The city of Zadar has a unique, complex, and dynamic history reflected
in its artistic production during the 12th and 13th centuries. When the Fourth
Crusade arrived in Venice in 1202, they could not raise the 85,000 silver marks
1 N. Klaić and I. Petricioli, Zadar u srednjem vijeku do 1409, Zadar 1976, 263.
220 Rozmeri Bašić
Fig. 1 Church of St. Mary with the Museum of Religious Art, Zadar, Croatia, Photo: Author
Сл. 1. Црква Свете Марије, Музеј црквене уметности, Задар, Хрватска, фото: аутор
they initially agreed to pay Venice for provisions and the hire of ships.2 The
Republic interned them until they discharged debt by conquering Zadar for the
Italians. During the next centuries, Zadar functioned as a well-fortified strong-
hold to secure Venetian trade routes on the Adriatic Sea. Yet, under such trying
circumstances, the city became one of the most prominent artistic centers in
Dalmatia. It is commonly known as a small Rome, where every simple step
takes one on to a diverse chronological and stylistic voyage.
There are three basic elements at work in the cultural consciousness in
this part of the world: Franco-Carolingian influences from the northwest, Latin-
Benedictine elements from the across the Adriatic, and Byzantine culture from
the East.3 All are clearly illustrated in Zadar’s artistic production, with a special
emphasis on derivative works, commonly labeled as Italo-Byzantine style based
on Byzantine models, yet are not purely Byzantine and not purely Western in
character. Venice represented geographically and culturally closest source for
influences where Byzantine tradition “adopted” other styles of the period. A
blend of Byzantine form and Romanesque robustness became the trademark of
three - dimensional works, including the so-called stone icons and ivory reliefs.
Dalmatian cities, including Zadar, have partially preserved archival records of
well- developed workshops and ateliers led by local and Italian masters.4
2 Ibid., 175-79.
3 Ibid.
4 I. Supičić, Ed. Croatia in the Earl Middle Ages, A Cultural Survey, London 1999,
415-513.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 221
Fig. 11 Lost Baptistery, Cathedral of St. Anastasia, Zadar, Photo: After I. Petricioli (Peristil,
8); Possible Reconstruction, Photo: Author
Сл. 11. Уништена крстионица, Катедрала Св. Анастазије, Задар, према И.
Петрициолију (Перистил 8); могућа реконструкција, фото: аутор
226 Rozmeri Bašić
Fig. 12 Romanesque Madonna and Child, Detail, Gilded Wood, 13th Century, Italy and the
Marble Panels, Photo: Author
Сл. 12. Романичка Богородица са Христом, детаљ, дрво са позлатом, 13. век, Италија;
мермерни панели, фото: аутор
Fig. 13 Nicola Pisano, Detail from the Pulpit for the Pisa Baptistery, Marble, 1259-1261,
Pisa, Panel with the Nativity Scene, Photo: http://www.italianrenaissance.org/nicola-pisa-
nos-baptistery-pulpit-pisa/
Сл.13. Никола Пизано, детаљ приповедаонице крстионице, мермер 1259-1261., Пиза,
Панел са сценом Христовог рођења
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 227
Розмари Башић
(Универзитет у Оклахоми)
ВАСКРСЕЊЕ ВИЗАНТИЈСКОГ СТИЛА У 13. ВЕКУ У ГРАДУ ЗАДРУ (ХРВАТСКА)
После првог пада Константинопоља 1204. године, град је био под контролом
крсташа до 1261. године. Током тог времена, уметничко стваралаштво није прекинуто,
већ је настављено у територијама византијског царства. У неким географским областима
које нису типичне за византијско стваралаштво и које су привремено и недобровољно
припадале Византији, постоје дела која су произведена у хибридном стилском маниру и
која је веома тешко класификовати по стандардно утврђеним категоријама. На пример,
град Задар (Хрватска) у својој колекцији религиозне уметности, у цркви Свете Марије,
има неколико великих мраморних икона из 13. века које изгледају као да су израђене у
синтези два стила: романичко-италијански и византијски. Важно је напоменути да је
Задар био почетна станица четвртог крсташког похода на путу до Свете земље, преко
Константинопоља. Моје мишљење је да је „васкрсење“ или обнова византијског стила
у овој провинцији потекло из неке локалне радионице, са мајстором или мајсторима
који су живели у Задру и који су дошли у додир са дериватима венецијанске културне
баштине, у време када је република пљачкала град да би наплатила трошкове бродова
које је изнајмила крсташима, а који их нису платили, већ су понудили град Задар
уместо новца. Мој циљ је да анализирам поменуте примере из Задра који су резултат
јединствене израде и који, истовремено, поседују и западњачке романичке елементе и
византијску иконографију. Надам се да ћу у блиској будућности, моћи да откријем ко су
били ктитори, као и могуће тржиште за ове радове, у време вишедеценијске окупације
византијске престонице од стране Латина.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 229
Владимир Божиновић
(Докторанд Филолошког факултета Универзитета у Истанбулу)
Сл. 1 Остаци
цркве из 19.
века на локацији
Београдског села,
фото: аутор
Fig. 1 The remains
of the church from
the 19th century
on the site of the
Belgrade village,
photo: author
Сл. 4 Београдска
капија након рекон-
струкције, фото: аутор
Fig. 4 The Belgrade
Gate after the reconstru-
ction, photo: author
На том месту данас још увек стоје остаци сеоске цркве која је, по све-
му судећи, саграђена тек почетком 19. века (сл.1). Имала је форму омање
тробродне базилике и највероватније није имала бочне галерије ни купо-
лу.8 Око 1887. године село је посетио Стојан Новаковић који је констато-
вао да тамо није затекао никакве трагове од некадашњег српског станов-
Сл. 6 Црква
Богородице
Белградкапи,
поглед са улице,
фото: аутор
Fig. 6 The church
of the Panagia
Belgradkapı, view
from the street,
photo: author
15 Ibidem.
16 P. A. Dethier, Le Bosphore et Constantinople: Description topographique et histo-
rique. Vienne 1873, 48.
17 Plan de la ville de Constantinople et des ses faubourgs tant en Europe qu’en Asie
levé géométriquement en 1776 par Fr. Kauffer verifié et augmenté en 1786 https://archives.
saltresearch.org/handle/123456789/116051 (приступљено фебруара 2021)
18 Tunay, Istanbul sur kapıları, 66.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 235
Сл. 10 Ћирилични натпис на јужној фасади цркве, Сл. 11 Ћирилични натпис на јужној фасади
фото: аутор цркве, цртеж: аутор
Fig. 10 The Cyrillic inscription on the south façade of Fig. 11 The Cyrillic inscription on the south
the church, photo: author façade of the church, drawing: author
била ранија Новаковићева студија на основу које је Дероко претпоставио
да би Богородичина икона са иконостаса цариградске цркве могла да
представља чувену средњовековну икону из Београдске митрополије.25
Штавише, Новаковић је приметио и делимично сачуван ћирилични натпис
на икони Св. Николе.26 На њој је била сигнирана 7047. година од стварања
света, односно 1539. година по нашем календару, због чега је помислио да
је натпис додат накнадно и да су иконе старије.27 Запис ове године потврдио
је пола века касније и Александар Дероко.28 Ипак, Дероко је убедљиво
тврдио да иконе са ликовима Богородице, Христа и Св. Николе по стилу
и формату представљају засебну групу и највероватније датирају из истог
периода, односно из 1539. године.29 Стога је постало јасно да ове иконе
нису донете из Београда након османског освајања, већ да су настале нешто
касније у самом Цариграду или негде другде. У том смислу, посебно је
значајан податак који износи Керамеус да је исте 1539. године цариградски
патријарх Јеремија I од српских досељеника откупио реликвије и пренео
их у манастир Богородице Памакаристос у којем се у то време налазила
Патријаршија.30 Мошти Св. Петке су се ту чувале све до 1641. године када
III – IV, (Београд 1955), 217-221. Дероко је посетио цркву и након пожара и тај извеш-
тај одмах објавио у наредном броју Старинара. исти, Београдска икона Богородице у
Цариграду, Старинар нова серија V – VI, (Београд 1956), 363-364.
25 Приликом посете Београду 1315. године пред овом иконом поклонила се
краљица Симонида жена краља Милутина. Сматра се да се та иста икона чувала у
митрополијској цркви Успења Богородице коју је почетком 15. века обновио деспот
Стефан Лазаревић. Поповић, Бикић, Комплекс средњовековне митрополије, 214, 216.
26 Новаковић, Балканска питања, 254-255.
27 Ibidem.
28 Дероко је копирао и објавио натпис са иконе Св. Николе, али према мом
сазнању натпис није никада протумачен. Дероко, Београдска икона, 220.
29 Икону са ликом Св. Јована није детаљније анализирао јер је закључио да „не
припада ни по формату ни по стилу предњој групи“. Ibidem, 219-221.
30 A. Papadopoulos-Kerameus, Ναοὶ τῆ ς Κωνσταντινουπόλεως κατὰ τὸ 1583 καὶ
1604, ΚΕΦΣ 28, (1904), 131. Овде се поставља питање о каквом се „откупу“ тачно
радило, ако су реликвије биле пренете у Цариград као део султановог ратног плена.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 237
односно: „† sis kamenx pisalx usta silAnx ot selo vrbenxs · s fibrgiA 1837“
или у слободнијем преводу на савремен језик: „ † из камена писао је уста
(мајстор) Силјан од села Врбен · фебруара 1837. године“ (сл. 11).42 Дакле,
изгледа да су приказ крста и натпис испод њега дело клесара Силјана из
села Врбен у близини Мавровског језера у Северној Македонији. Читав
овај регион североисточно од града Дебра био је у 19. веку познат по
врсним мијачким градитељима и уметницима.43 Они су у потрази за
von Misn (M.I.S. Nomidis) 1938 https://archives.saltresearch.org/handle/123456789/98312
(приступљено фебруара 2021)
39 Karaca, İstanbul’da Tanzimat Öncesi, 210.
40 Новаковић, Балканска питања, 254.
41 Karaca, İstanbul’da Tanzimat Öncesi, 210.
42 На крају помена „села Врбен“ исклесано је сувишно слово „с“ ( ot selo vrbenxs)
које вероватно представља грешку јер се не уклапа у предложено тумачење натписа.
Такође, слово „с“ понавља се и у наставку текста приликом навода месеца и године (s
fibrgiA 1837) што указује да је доиста могло да буде грешком исписано два пута.
43 О мијачким градитељима, зографима и дуборесцима видети И. Женарју, Цркве-
на уметност XIX века у Рашко-Призренској епархији (1839-1912), Београд 2016, 71-102.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 239
стоје испред јужног улаза) (сл. 12). По упадљивој дубини израде реље-
фа на капителу који је снимио Дероко може се закључити да је овај еле-
мент највероватније потицао из прве половине 6. века.49 Обрађен је у тзв.
ajouré стилу који је карактеристичан за капителе јустинијанове епохе.50
Деликатно изведени рељефи попут ових били су лако подложни физич-
ким оштећењима. То се може видети и на примеру капитела са локалитета
цркве Богородице Белградкапи. На њему је већина декорације отпала, а ве-
роватно је био украшен мотивима стилизованог акантусовог лишћа попут
капитела у Светој Софији и цркви Св. Серђа и Ваха. Наведено датовање
капитела би указивало да се на овом месту још од давнина налазила знат-
но старија структура која је сасвим срушена тек почетком 19. века. Иако
Караџа сматра да су Београђани 1523. године саградили потпуно нову
цркву, судећи по остацима пластике из рановизантијског периода делује
вероватније да су они том приликом обновили неку старију грађевину.51
Тај објекат је могао да се налази и у склопу запустелог манастирског ком-
плекса, ако се узме у обзир чињеница да се у овом делу града налазило
неколико ромејских манастира. Неки од њих су након османског освајања
преобраћени у муслиманска светилишта и дати на коришћење дервишким
редовима. Добар пример је оближња Коџа Мустафа-пашина џамија (не-
кадашња црква манастира Св. Андреје) која је припала утицајном реду
халветија познатих као Зумбулије.52 Стога не чуди што се и данас код поје-
диних градских капија могу видети гробнице дервишких светаца, а једна
од капија зидина (Mevlanakapı) добила је назив по оближњој мевлевијској
текији.53 Штавише, код Београдске капије (у византијско време познатом
као Порта Ксилокеркос) се некада доиста налазио један од значајнијих
манастира од којег до данашњих дана није преостало никаквог трага.
У питању је манастир Св. Маманта за који се сматра да је основан у 6.
веку од стране Јустинијановог коморника Фарасманеса и да га је затим
додатно проширила и украсила Гордија сестра цара Маврикија.54 Познато
је да су након трагичне судбине цара Маврикија у манастирској цркви
била похрањена тела овог владара и његове породице.55 Комплекс је током
векова у два наврата драстичније обнављан. Први пут у позном 10. веку
иницијативом Симеона Новог Богослова, који је био игуман манастира
49 Ibidem.
50 Овом приликом се захваљујем мојој менторки и професорки Филолошког
факултета Универзитета у Истанбулу Асну Билбан Јалчин на консултацијама у вези са
датовањем овог капитела.
51 Karaca, İstanbul’da Tanzimat Öncesi, 209.
52 Због тога је ова џамија позната и као Sümbül Efendi camii.
53 M. B. Tanman, Yenikapı Mevlevihanesi, İstanbul’da Mevlanakapı dışında XVI.
yüzyılın sonunda kurulan ve Mevlevi kültürünün gelişiminde önemli yeri olan mevlevihane,
TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi cilt 43, (İstanbul 2013), 463.
54 A. M. Talbot, Mamas, Monastery of Saint, The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium
vol. 2, (New York, Oxford 1991), 1278; P. Grierson, C. Mango, I. Ševčenko, The Tombs and
Obits of the Byzantine Emperors (337-1042); With an Additional Note, Dumbarton Oaks
Papers vol. 16, (1962), 47.
55 Grierson, Mango, Ševčenko, The Tombs and Obits, 47, са нап. 87-89.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 241
Сл. 13 Остаци
агиазме у јужном
делу дворишта
цркве, фото:
аутор
Figures:
Fig. 13 The re-
mains of aghiasma
in the south sec-
tion of the church
courtyard, photo:
author
61 Ibidem, 254.
62 İstanbul, Samatya, Dünden bugüne İstanbul ansiklopedisi cilt 6, (İstanbul 1994),
431. (аутор текста потписао се псеудонимом Истанбул)
63 Ibidem.
64 H. Yelmen, Debbağlık, Dünden bugüne İstanbul ansiklopedisi cilt 3, (İstanbul
1994), 13-14.
65 Ibidem, 13.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 243
овај натпис. Што се тиче старије цркве код Београдске капије, која ја сасвим
порушена почетком 19. века, о њеном историјату се сада могу изнети неке
нове претпоставке. На основу архитектонске пластике коју је фотографисао
Дероко, изгледа да је још у 6. веку на овом месту постојала некаква
црква. Будући да се такав податак поклапа са потенцијалном локацијом
манастира Св. Маманта код Порте Ксилокеркос (Београдске капије) који је
основан у 6. веку, делује могуће да је данашња црква подигнута на месту
рушевина овог византијског манастира. На такву претпоставку указују и
остаци агиазме која се некада налазила уз сам објекат и која би могла бити
знатно старија. Уколико се прихвати теза да се црква Панагије Београдске,
односно црква Св. Петке у Београдској махали, налазила управо на овом
месту, онда се долази до закључка да је то доиста могла да буде некадашња
црква Св. Маманта. Могуће је да су Београђани који су након 1521. године
насељени у ову градску четврт обновили запуштену манастирску цркву да
би у њој привремено чували светиње које су донели из Београда. Међутим,
оне су се ту налазиле само до 1539. године када су откупљене и пребачене у
цариградску патријаршију, односно манастир Богородице Памакаристос.66
Можда је из тог разлога црква првобитно била посвећена Св. Петки да би
у 17. веку променила посвету и постала позната као Панагија Београдска.
Три престоне иконе из 1539. године, које су пре пожара у 20. веку стаја-
ле на иконостасу данашње цркве, представљале су главни материјал-
ни доказ ка могућем поистовећивању овог локалитета са некадашњом
„Београдском црквом“. По свему судећи, оне су настале исте године када
су цариградском патријарху Јеремији I продате реликвије из Београда.
Стога, делује могуће да је израда ових икона финансирана приходом од
продаје реликвија и да су се оне првобитно налазиле на иконостасу старије
цркве на овом локалитету. Будући да су и те иконе уништене, поједине тезе
и даље остају у домену претпоставки. Међутим, поред усмене традиције,
која није сасвим поуздана, неколицина података ипак указује на могућност
да се хришћанска махала са тзв. Београдском црквом налазила у овом делу
Истанбула. Можда је значајно и то што се оближња капија цариградских
зидина данас назива Београдском, а њен назив током протеклих векова
није био јасно дефинисан. Што се тиче будућих истраживања о насељима
Београђана у Истанбулу, пажњу би свакако ваљало посветити рушевинама
цркве у некадашњем Београдском селу. Иако је и овај објекат подигнут
у новије доба, није искључено да почива на месту неке знатно старије
грађевина. До данас на том локалитету нису предузета никаква археолошка
истраживања.
Vladimir Božinović
(Ph.D. Candidate Faculty of Letters, University of Istanbul)
THE CHURCH OF PANAGIA BELGRADKAPI IN ISTANBUL
IN THE LIGHT OF MORE RECENT RESEARCH
The paper focuses on the analysis of the church of Panagia Belgradkapı in Istanbul
which was erected in the 19th century near the Belgrade gate of the Constantinopolitan walls.
The present structure was most likely constructed on the site of an older church built
or restored by the imprisoned Serbs who were settled in Istanbul after the Ottoman conquest
of Belgrade in 1521. The citizens of Belgrade were settled on two locations – outside the city
in the nowadays Belgrade forest and in the quarter of Belgradkapı next to the Belgrade gate
of the city walls. According to the written testimonies, they brought to Constantinople relics
of prominent saints (St Paraskeve and Empress Tephano) and the miraculous icon of the Holy
Virgin – the palladium of Belgrade. The relics were kept in the church in the neighborhood of
Belgradkapı presumably until 1539 when they were sold to the Patriarch of Constantinople.
The old church was completely demolished in the first decades of the 19th century and even
after the construction of the new temple on this site, the oral tradition still claimed that some
of the icons from its iconostasis originated from Belgrade.
Unfortunately, the present-day church was heavily damaged in the fire in 1955. In this
tragic event, the entire interior of the structure was turned into ash. Before the icons from
iconostasis were lost in the fire, Serbian scholars Stojan Novaković and Aleksandar Deroko
had the opportunity to study them more closely. Deroko established that icons were most
likely executed in 1539 for the templon of the previous church on this site. This was attested
by the partially preserved Cyrillic inscription on one of the icons. It is interesting that in 1539
Patriarch of Constantinople Jeremiah I purchased the relics of St Paraskeve (St Petka) and
transferred them to the monastery of Pammakaristos which at the time functioned as the seat
of the Patriarchate. It appears that the execution of these icons is somehow related to this
event.
The history of the previous church near the Belgrade gate is unclear. The decoration
of one column capital (destroyed in the fire in 1955) which existed in the courtyard of the
present church indicates that the history of the site goes back to the 6th century and the time
of Emperor Justinian. Furthermore, this column capital perhaps belongs to the monastery of
St Mamas at the Xylokerkos which once stood in the vicinity of the Belgrade gate, previ-
ously known as the Porta Xylokerkos. The monastery was founded in the 6th century by
Justinian’s Chamberlain Pharasmanes and was enlarged and further endowed by Gordia, a
sister of Emperor Maurice. The monastery was last attested in 1399 and it is possible that it
still stood on this site at the beginning of the 16th century. Therefore, it seems probable that
the present church of Panagia Belgradkapı was erected on the site of the monastery of St
Mamas and that citizens of Belgrade who were settled in this part of the city have restored the
previous monastic church. This structure presumably still existed in the modified form until
the beginning of the 19th century when it was completely demolished and the new church
was erected on its site.
The new foundation in the form of a three-aisled basilica was built in 1837. Some of
the employed builders and artisans such as Nicholas Mirasan (presumably master-builder),
Kostas, Kiaz, and Dimitri engraved their signatures on stone slabs with depictions of crosses
that are built into facades of the church. Particularly interesting is one slab with the Cyrillic
inscription located on the south church façade. This inscription was previously analyzed by
Turkish scholar Zafer Karaca who posed that it mentions the name of a certain orthodox saint
and the city of Belgrade. However, a more detailed analysis of the inscription shows that it
contains the signature of the artisan called Siljan from the village of Vrben in Macedonia who
was also employed on the construction of the new church in 1837.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 245
Дејан С. Радисављевић
(Докторанд, Одељење за историју, Универзитет у Београду)
Сл. 1. Надгробник
Марије Богославе из
1292. године, село
Здравиње (фото Дејан
С. Радисављевић).
Fig. 1. The tombstone
of Marija Bogoslava
from 1292., Zdravinje
village (photo : Dejan
Radisavljević).
име месеца, био оштећен, или да је аутор неправилно ишчитао назив ме-
сеца јуна или јула. Не би требало превидети ни чињеницу да се у неким
словенским језицима имена месеца септембра (рус. рюень, хрв. rujan) и
октобра (чеш. řijen, буг. руен, руй) изводе од корена руј-,16 па у складу с
тим постоји извесна могућност да је назив месеца, забележен у надгроб-
ном натпису из Јаковља, преузет из народног говора.
Приближно време смрти Георгија Косте, односно датум клесања
његовог надгробног натписа, може се на основу помена цара Стефана
Уроша (vý dni cara úro{a) оквирно определити у раздобље између 1355.
и 1371. године.
На другој страни, спомињање Срацимира и његове државе до сада је
уносило својеврсну забуну у целовитом тумачењу натписа. Српски исто-
ричари и истраживачи, са изузетком М. Ст. Ризнића,17 нису посветили до-
вољну пажњу овом значајном податку. Насупрот томе, у бугарској и руској
(совјетској) историјографији претпоставке о идентитету Срацимира биле
су повод за различите и често супротстављене интерпретације, на основу
којих су изношене и разнолике идеје о географском положају његове др-
жаве.
Поморавља, 118.
33 По мишљењу Е. П. Наумова највероватни је реч о сроднику царице Јелене,
супруге цара Душана или Ане (Анке) Басараб, ћерке влашког војводе Николе Алек-
сандра Басараба (1352-1364) и жене цара Уроша, што је мање вероватно. Е. П. Нау-
мов, Господствующий класс и государственная власть в Сербии XIII-XV вв., Динамика
социальной и политической системы сербского феодализма, Москва : Академия наук
СССР, Институт славяноведения и балканистики 1975, 145. Призренски поменик је
рукопис писан на пергаменту, на листовима димензије 20.50 х 13 цм. Чувао се у збирци
рукописа Народне библиотеке под броје 227. Састојао се од 80 листова. Првобитно је
припадао цркви Богородице Призренске, односно Богородице Љевишке, и по претпо-
ставци С. Новаковића је настао крајем XIV или на самом почетку XV века. На листу
бр. 44 а стоји записано : Помени, господи, раба своего Страцимира (Stracimirý),
сестричикà царичина. С. Новаковић, Српски поменици XV-XVIII века, Гласник Српског
ученог друштва, Књига XLII, Београд 1875, 9-10, 21, 105.
34 Е. П. Наумов, Господствующий класс, 145.
35 Срацимир није у то време био једини бугарски властелин близак српском
двору. Деспот Јован Асен Комнин, рођени брат Јелене и тадашњег бугарског цара Ива-
на Александра, је око 1346. године добио од Стефана Душана на управу посебну об-
ласт која је обухватала јужни део данашње Албаније, са градовима Валоном, Канином
256 Дејан С. Радисављевић
Јевдокија, супруга деспота Дејана. затим царица (василиса) Марија Ангелина Палеолог,
жена деспота Томе Прељубовића, царица Марија, супруга деспота Јована Оливера и
др. Б. Ферјанчић, Деспоти у Византији, 25, 162-163, 170; М. Благојевић, Закон госпо-
дина Константина и царице Јевдокије, Зборник радова Византолошког института 44,
(Београд 2007), 447, 450-453; А. Младеновић, Повеље кнеза Лазара, 181.
42 Нпр. „држава земље кичевске“. М. Благојевић, Српско краљевство и
„државе“ у делу Данила II, у Архиепископ Данило II и његово доба, ур. В. Ђурић,
Београд 1991, 148.
43 Браћа и краљеви Драгутин и Милутин су се 1291/1292. године састали у селу
Мачковци (данас Мачковац западно од Крушевца), у држави жупе расинске, како би
договорили заједнички напад на области под влашћу Дрмана и Куделина. (Vý dr`avä
`oupÿ rasinýskÿè na räcä glagolèmäi Moravä, vý mästä `é rékomämý Maïýkový-
ci.). Архиепископ Данило и други, Живот краљева и архиепископа српских, приредио
Ђ. Даничић, Загреб 1866, 115-116; М. Благојевић, Српско краљевство и „државе“, 150.
44 Држава је била одузимана властелину у случају злоупотребе стеченог поло-
жаја господара државе према потчињеном становништву (себрима), због кривичних
дела против мира и поретка, и злоупотребе приселице, како се изричито наводи у Ду-
шановом законику. М. Благојевић, Српско краљевство и „државе“, 151; Т. Тарановски,
Историја српског права у Немањићкој држави, Београд 2002, 210.
45 Требало би напоменути да се и за крајишта често употребљава израз држава,
односно држава крајишника, с обзиром да је владар давао у државу одређеном власте-
лину. М. Благојевић, Српско краљевство и „државе“, 150.
258 Дејан С. Радисављевић
i Sina i SývetagŠo¹ Dúha prästavi sé raŠbý¹ b(o)`i Vrýtolo<…> vý dni Stépana cara i
Tomä Drago<i>la voä vý drý`avi Hrébélanovika Dragan. A postavi ga siný mú Doiïýný. A
pisa popý Púräta v<ý…>. Д. Радисављевић, Средњовековни надгробни натписи у сливу
Рибарске реке код Крушевца, Натписи и записи 5, (Београд/Пожаревац 2019), 16-18.
51 Име Драгана су носиле сестра и једна кћер кнеза Лазара, што можда по-
средно указује на чешћу употребу личних имена изведених од корена драг у кнежевој
породици. С. Мишић, Од земаљског кнеза до кнеза Срба – уздизање до владарске моћи,
у Власт и моћ, ур. С. Мишић, Крушевац 2014, 8; М. Пурковић, Кћери кнеза лазара –
историјска студија, Београд 1996, 67-69.
52 А. Младеновић, Повеље кнеза Лазара, 177-190; М. Благојевић, Манастирски
поседи, 37-40; А. Крстић, Поседи манастира Дренче и Ждрела у Браничеву из времена
кнеза Лазара, Историјски часопис LIII, (Београд 2006), 124-131.
260 Дејан С. Радисављевић
Dejan S. Radisavljević
(Doctoral student, Department of History, University of Belgrade)
ON THE TRACE OF A MEDIEVAL TOMBSTONE INSCRIPTION IN JAKOVLJE
(ALEKSINAC)
The medieval tombstonе with the inscription was discovered at the end of the 19th
century in the village of Jakovlje, in modern Aleksinac municipality. The text of the inscrip-
tion narrated about the Georgije Kosta, who died in the state of Sracimir, and during the rule
of the Serbian tsar Stephan Uroš (1355-1371). The identity of Sracimir has been the subject
of controversy among the Bulgarian and the Russian historians. V. Gjuzelev, P. Koledarov
and J. Trifonov thought that Sracimir was the last Bulgarian and Vidin tsar Ivan Sracimir
(1356-1396), and that the territory around Jakovlje and Gredetin, on the west side of the
South Morava river, belonged to the Bulgarian tsardom during his reign. On the other side,
the Russian historian E. P. Naumov had the opinion that Sracimir, probably the nephew of
the empress Jelena, the wife of the tsar Dušan, was the nobelman close to the Serbian court,
and that he recived his landholding (država), near Kruševac, from the tsar Dušan or his son,
Uroš. Our research support the thinking of E. P. Naumov that Sracimir, mentioned in the
inscription from Jakovlje, was the nobleman directly subordinated to the Serbian emperor.
His landholding (država) was the special administrative and territorial unit, like many oth-
ers in the Serbian empire at that time. The nobles recived the states from the ruler because
of their faithful service and close kinship. The Sracimir’s state encompassed the territory
of the medieval župa Zagrlata, i.e. the drainage basins of Ribarska and Peščanička rivers,
or only some part of it. The recently discovered tombstone inscription from Kaonik, 13 km
NW of Jakovlje, tells us that in the župa Zagrlata, most likely after Sracimir, there was the
state of Dragan Hrebeljanović. It is indisputable that most of the territory of Zagrlata before
AD 1382 belonged to the former great despot of unknown name, who, as the monk Dorotej,
endowed his monastery of Drenča near Aleksandrovac with large landholding on the territory
of mentioned župa.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 261
The 1997 archaeological survey in the Lužnica valley, Serbia, was con-
ducted by the archaeologists Miloje and Liljana Mandić of the Užice National
Museum. This research engaged full-scale archaeological excavations that were
commenced in the churchyard of the Holy Annunciation of the Virgin Mary
within the village of Karan, locally known as the “White church” of Karan.1
(Fig.,1) The village of Karan retained a medieval place of Christian tradition
with a preserved church complex and a medieval graveyard. The church build-
ing has been built in the Raška architectural style on the location of the older
Roman sanctuary. According to the prior archaeological research by Mr Mandić
in this place already an older stratum of medieval necropolis had existed, that
can be dated between the 12th and 13th century. During the archaeological exca-
vations which were conducted between 1997 and 1998 some fifty-two medieval
graves were uncovered, the majority in chaotic condition due to the medieval
reconstitution of the aforementioned Roman cemetery site. The location where
the church was erected has a tradition of ‘Sacer loci’, a poorly preserved an-
1 This article is dedicated to the memory of Miloje Mandić (1953-2014). A poster
was presented on the 23 Byzantine conference in Belgrade in 2016 and a short presentation
at the 20th Australasian association for Byzantine studies conference in Sydney, 2019.
262 Robert Mihajlovski, Liljana Mandić, Miloje Mandić
They marched under the guidance of the Grand Constable Michael Glabas to
the Byzantine -Serbian frontier near Liplyan and Prizren. The Tatar’s cavalry,
led by their commander Qara Baš ‘Crna glava’ tried to cross the river Drim on
their horses, but, most of them were drowned. 13
Turkic speaking Cuman and Tatar auxiliaries were fighting for the vari-
ous ruling groups in Serbia, sometimes looting and marauding. In 1292 the
Bulgarian Tsar Šišman as vassal of Prince Nogay invaded Serbian lands with
Tatar troops. According to the Archbishop Danilo the monastery of St Saviour
in Žiča was burnt with fire by the nomadic warriors speaking ‘Ezyka kuman-
ska’. It took a long period of time to rebuild the monastery of Žiča, but it was
not monumental as it was before.14 It may be that the ‘White church’ in Karan
was devastated in a similar manner, because around 1342 it was completely
renovated by Peter Brayan, the nobleman from the court of Tsar Dušan.15 After
Nogay’s death in 1299, the heavy pressure on the territory was relieved. 16 In
1311, the short-lived king Dragutin launched a battle against his brother king
Stefan II Uroš Milutin, fighting for the Serbian throne. King Milutin’s state trea-
sury was housed in the monastery of St Stefan in Banjska and he hired Tatars,
Yas (Alans) and Turkish mercenaries to win over the king Dragutin, (mnogiye
voisky ezyka tatar’ska i turs’ka i yashs’ka)17 In the Bulgarian army the Tartars
were known as ‘Black Tartars’ (Černyih Tartar’), because the term Qara ’Black’
was used in the Turco-Mongolian ethno-structures, as a term for Tatars. Even in
one of the manuscripts of the ’Zakonik’ of Tsar Dušan there is a similar explana-
tion for the Tatars. In the Chinese written documents the Black Tatars (Hei T’a-
t’a) were mentioned as the genuine nomadic Tatar people, fearsome horse wari-
ors.18 In 1341 during the Hesychast movement crisis in Byzantium, the great
Özbek Khan passed away and the ’Golden horde’ lost its interest in the Balkans.
He settled Tatars of Dobrudja and Bucak in Romania became separated from
the central horde that then moved to the East. Later, in the Ottoman armies there
were military units mainly from the Crimean Tatars, but the military power of
the Tatars had faded away.19
In the Ottoman armies some nomadic auxiliaries and regular troops of
Turkish speaking Yörüks but also nomadic groups called Tatar were engaged.
They served as auxiliary units in the Balkan Peninsula, like the Yörüks in
Rumelia in the 15th–16th centuries. The Tatars were similarly subdivided into
‘Ocaks’ consisting of five eşkincis and 20–25 yamaks. Although all groups of
Tatars in Rumelia were exempted from some taxes in exchange for military
services or labour, they contained various groups who were treated differently
from others. 20
The nomadic Crimean Tatars, who had crossed into the Balkans and
Anatolia, were deported by Sultan Bayezid I and settled to the area of Filibe
(to-day Plovdiv) to prevent political instability in Anatolia. The deportation of
Tatars in the Balkans preceded to foundation of the town of Tatar Pazarcik, to-
day Pazardžik in Bulgaria. For the same reason Tatars from İskilip in Anatolia
were moved to the same region by Sultan Mehmet I in 1418. 21 It seems that
during the Ottoman invasion on Đurađ Branković’ Serbia (1377 – 1456), some
auxiliary units of Tatars were used for the take-over of region of Lužnitsa val-
ley. During the so called ‘Long war’ from 1594 to 1606, between the Ottoman
armed invaders over the territory of Serbia and the Hungarian kingdom, a large
company of Crimean Tatars led by Khan Giray had a destructive impact over
the local population and their property. 22
This rare stone monument epitaph is an epigraphic primary evidence of
the disruptive military incursions of the Tatars in Serbian territory during the
early Ottoman period.
Последње слово на епитафу, које је инверзно слово ‘S’ ( Sяло) је веће него остала
слова и има нумеричку вредност као прво слово од године од постанка света , 6 (000).
Нажалост, каменоклесач није уклесао пуну годину, тако да немамо тачну представу на
коју години се односи. Уопште врло мало знамо о личности погинулог човека по имену
Браишна, вероватно је био члан племства или члан црквене хиерархије.
Присуство Татара и других степских турских народа на Балкану је наглашено
у периоду иѕмеђу 13. и 15. века. Татари су познати ратници и често су били у служби
византијских, српских, бугарских и османских армија. У османској армији они су слу-
жили као акинџије и коњаници, и били су присутни у освајању средновековне српске
територије.
Ово је редак епиграфски докуменат у коме се спомињу Татари на Балкану у 14.
веку.
Овај рад је посвећен спомену драгом Милоју Мандићу (1953-2014).
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 269
Душан С. Рашковић
(Независни истраживач)
За нашу тему тражења трасе Прискова пута, пут преко Бовна био је
само кратко скретање са моравске комуникације, док је Присков пут мно-
го дужа траса путовања, брдским комуникацијама које досежу до Дунава.
Познато нам је да путеви у више праваца преко Озрена повезују Ниш са
северним деловима провинције Прве Мезије, повезујући уједно и рано-
византијска утврђена насеља, данас топониме у побрђу Озрена, као што
су Градиште, Градац или Кулина. Без обзира којом трасом Приск прелази
Озрен он пролази поред неког од тих рановизантијских насеља.12 Питање
је да ли су тада 448. године, та насеља већ била подигнута или су егзисти-
рала бар као рефугији. Насеља на утврђеним висовима настају на самом
почетку рановизантијског периода. На основу примера оставе новца про-
нађене на локалитету Укоса у Сталаћкој клисури, која је датована у време
хунске провале, показује да су та насеља дочекала Хунску најезду 441/442.
године.13
Сматрамо да најпогоднија варијанта, ако се путује од Ниша преко
Озрена према Сокобањској долини и долини Црног Тимока и даље на се-
вер, ступајући у зону планине Озрен, има две варијанте. Једном варијан-
том пролази поред локалитета утврђеног насеља Градиште, смештеног
надомак села Црна Бара и Пруговац, а другом варијантом поред утврђења
у Липовцу. Брдску зону падина Озрена прелази се правцем према селу
Ресник, до долине Моравице и локалитета Требич. На Требичу постоје
остаци већег вишеслојног археолошког налазишта, најзначајнијег у доли-
ни Моравице код Соко Бање. Од Требича пут иде преко Моравице равно за
Врмџу, тачније речено стену рановизантијског локалитета Латин града у
Врмџи, па и до Јошанице, односно топлог извора Јошаничке Бање.
Од Врмџе је лако доћи до Лукова и долине Црног Тимока, а Јошаница,
село које је на 2 км источно од Врмџе, у турско време имало је статус дер-
бенда. што јасно упућује на прометну важност неког места у турско-ос-
манлијско време.14 Остатке утврђења на Латин граду у Врмџи помињу
још Ф. Каниц и Ј. Мишковић, а генерал Мишковић за утврђење у Врмџи
каже: “Овај је градић је бранио пролаз из долине Кривовирског Тимока у
Моравицу и до данас се добро очувао”.15 Један од важних аргумената за
пут од Врмџе према долини Тимока је налаз оставе металних предмета
из каснолатенског периода.16 Наиме остава је пронађена управо у атару
Табла 2: 1) Тремисис Теодорика II. Место налаза Градиште у селу Дубци, 2) Солидус
цара Зенона. Место налаза Градиште у селу Дубци. 3) Полуфолис цара Фоке.
Непознато налазиште у околини Петровца на Млави.
Panel 3: 1) Tremissis of Theodosius II. Site of Gradište in the village of Dubci 2) Solidus of
Zeno, Site of Gradište in the village of Dubci, 3) Half Follis of Phokas, Unknown site in the
vicinity of Petrovac na Mlavi.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 277
села Врмџа на правцу пута према долини Црног Тимока, што је путоказ
о миленијумској важности ове комуникације, која се није променила ни у
рановизантијско време.
Када помињемо дербенд у Јошаници мислимо на то да су начин и
услови путовања у време Османлија и касноантичко време приближно
исти. Од Јошанице пут се могао, падинама Рожња, преко “Витошевачке
стране”, спустити до Пресидијум Дасминија, данас Нови Брачин на
моравском друму. Нови Брачин некадашњи Шупељак забележен је такође
као дербендско село.17 То што се у турским изворима Јошаница помиње
као дербенд, управо доказује важност ове брдске комуникације. Скупни
налаз новца од 14 примерака византијског новца, од тога пет електрона
Нићифора III и девет милиаренсеса Константина IX, из околине Јошанице
иде у прилог претпоставци о постојању овог античког пута ка Источној
србији.
Из атара Јошанице потиче случајни налаз гарнитуре poјасних
украса и привесака датованих у време аварске доминације, у 8. век.
Налаз сачињавају бронзани сегменти украса једног појас, четири
штитаста привеска и четири појасна окова, а пронађени су и мања, готово
минијатурна појасна копча, мањи украс у облику кључа и мања гвoзденa
алка. Штитасти привесци/језичци су димензија 2,9 цм x 2,2 цм и на каишеве
су се качили увлачењем краја ремена у отвор с горње стране привеска и
са једном заковицом. (Т.1:3,4,5 и 6) Појасни окови су сличног штитастог
облика, са по три ушице за качење на појас; димензија, 2,9 цм x 2,9 цм.
(Т.1:8 и 9) Две бронзане појасне апликације су са по две ушице за качење.
Једна је Т апликација димензија 3,1 x 1,8 цм, (Т.1:7) а друга елипсоидног
облика, украшена паралелним флоралним мотивима, димензија 3,9 x 2,0
цм. (Т.1:10) Бронзана пређица је са трном који прелази и обухвата алку,
димензија 2,1 цм x 1,9 цм. (Т.1:2) За мањи украс у облику кључа, античког
облика, дужине 5,0 цм аналогије налазимо међу гробним налазима из
периода Сеобе народа, на локалитету некрополе Гребље на брду св. Спас у
Книну, где су пронађена 4 таква кључа. (Т.1:1)18 Готово сви сегменти појаса
или неког другог дела опреме, дакле и привесци и окови носе исти мотив
украса, гроздолику и полумесечасту имитацију филиганских зрнаца, и то
у таквом распореду, као да је реч о наговештају антропоморфног облика.
Пошто је реч о налазу сродних предмета који као да су део целине, могло
би бити реч о гробном налазу. Имитација филигранских зрнаца у облику
троугла упућује нас на време Другог аварског каганата, односно на 8. век,
као време настанка ових појасних језичака. Аналогије проналазимо на
украсима имитације филигранских зрнаца на наушницама раног средњег
века.19
чамце није видео јер му није било дозвољено прићи реци. Дакле сасвим
је јасно да Брокијер пролази недалеко од Бедема, јер Сталаћ другачије не
би могао видети, а његов помен о турској речној флоти, наводи нас на
речно проширење баш код Бедема. Не заборавимо да Брокијер користи ову
варијанту путовања да би од Ниша, преко Крушевца, и Некудима, стигао
у Београд. Нема разлога да тај пут не буде актуалан и 505. године када се
ромејска војска припремала за офензиву против Источнх Гота и битку код
Хореум Маргија.
Кастел Бедем је тврђава средње величине, димензија 130 x 130 м. О
значају тог кастела говоре и остаци цркве из рановизантијског периода,
монументалних димензија 23 X 23 m.29 Црква такве величине сигурно
је уживала велики углед у Поморављу, а кастел са таквом црквом био
је достојан за боравак и заштиту конзула Сабинијана и његове пратње.
Питамо се каквих је димензија била епископска црква у Хореум Маргију,
ако је ових димензија била црква једног кастела.
Током средњег века, код Куле Тодора од Сталаћа, дакле преко пута
Бедема, на тек 1200 м удаљености, на дан св. Петра одржавао се у средњем
веку панађур кога помиње даровница кнеза Лазара манастиру Раваница.30
Можемо ли помислити да корене Петровдана у Сталаћу треба тражити у
цркви на Бедему, цркви која је посвећена св. Петру. Штавише панађури,
односно сточни сајмови су у време Велике сеобе народа, према традицији
народа из европских и азијских степа, били основни начин трговине, тако
да корене панађура у Сталаћу можда треба тражити код цркви на Бедему.
Dušan S. Rašković
(Independent researcher)
ARCHAEOLOGICAL TOPOGRAPHY AND HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF
CENTRAL POMORAVLJE IN THE EARLY BYZANTINE PERIOD
Early Byzantine period, is the historical epoch that is formed under pressure of Great
migration of peoples, in the 4. and 5. century. It is a time limited by war catastrophes, the Hun
campaign, which took place in 440-41. AD, and the Avar invasion, during the first decades
of the 7-th century. During that period, people live in highland settlements, which are distrib-
uted according to natural conditions, and the configuration of the hilly landscapes of Central
Serbia. Byzantine diplomat Prisk 448. AD, travels from Nis to the Danube on mountain trails.
Near that road in the village of Jošanica, bronze segments of ornaments of one belt, four
shield pendants and four belt fittings, a smaller, almost miniature belt buckle, a smaller key
and a smaller iron ring were found, dating to the 8th century. Interesting are the findings of
bronze objects, with the depiction of a warrior from Prevešte and with the depiction of two
horse heads in a human bearded face, found in Županjavаc in the area of Levač.
The battle between the Goths, led by Mund, and the Romans, led by the consul
Sabinian, took place in 505. AD at Horreum Margi. After the defeat, Sabinian fled to a castle
called Nato, which we assume was located at the site of Bedem, in the village of Maskare.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 287
10 I. Mikulčić, o.c., поставља овај кастел у атару суседног села Винце, бр. 14,
Винце Градиште, 143.
11 V. Lillčić Adams, o.c., 271 и 272 (фотографије два бронзана крака
ранохришћанског полијелеја.
294 Виктор Личић Адамс
Сл. 8
Скачинско
Кале,
Скачинци
Fig. 8
Skachinsko
Kale,
Skachinci
Сл. 9
Маркова
Кула –
Јуручки
Камен,
Корешница
Fig. 9
Markova
Kula -
Yuruchki
Kamen,
Koreshnica
Исар-Жапката, Валандово
Сигнали са кастела Маркова Кула, Корешница посматрани су са
кастела Исар-Жапката, Валандово (кота 632 м), на удаљености од 25,5 км.
Остаци античког и средњовековног града Исар / Извор Св. Петар (извор
св. Петар), налазе се на северозападном ободу Валандова. 17 То су били
највероватније остаци античког град Добера.
Међутим, високо изнад града на стеновитом брду Исар-Жапката
открили смо, истраживали и документовали, током 2012/13, једно снажно
рановизантијско утврђење са изванредном визуелном комуникацијом
према Марковој Кули, Корешница. Чврсти рановизантијски малтерни
зид, опус емплектон, покрива површину од 250х80 метара / 1 ха (Сл.
10). Открили смо искључиво новце из шестога века: апоена од 10 нумија
Јустинијана I (Константинопољ) и апоена од 20 нумија Јустина II 569.
године (ковница Тесалоника).18
During the many years of research on the early Byzantine fortifications in the val-
ley of the river Vardar and its tributaries, I discovered that there was visual communication
between some of them. The example of the identified optical telegraph in Asia Minor, inter-
preted by academician Johannes Coder,19 allowed me to think about the existence of an early
Byzantine optical telegraph in the Vardar River valley, with the task of sending reporting
signals from the Danube Limes to Thessaloniki, possibly further to Constantinople.
On this occasion, I propose eight points (early Byzantine castles) for the reconstruc-
tion of the early Byzantine optical telegraph on the territory of the Republic of Macedonia.
Castles were built on three of them to house the soldiers. While the other five examples are
a combination of two separate fortifications but close to each other. Usually at the top of the
hill in a dominant position was a castula - specula. Thereby, usually in a lower position below
this castle, a special fortification was erected to accommodate the soldiers who were in shifts
ascending to the higher castle on duty.
The distance from the first point Davina Kula, village Cucer to Kale Dub Karabali,
Bogdanci is 175.59 km, including the following points and distances:
1. Davina, Čučer - 14.3 km; 2. Markovi Kuli, Kisela Voda, Skopje - 29.5 km; 3.
Gradište, Sushica Konjarovska - 9.69 km; 4. Gorno Gradishte, Krušica (specula) + Dolno
Gradishte, Trstenik (base) - 36.8 km; 5. Klepa, Dvorishte (specula) + Skachinsko Kale,
Skachinci (base) - 41 km; 6. Markova Kula, Koreshnica (specula) + Kale Koreshnica (base)
- 25.5 km; 7. Isar-Zapkata, Valandovo - 18.8 km; 8. Kale Dub Karabali, Bogdanci. (Total
175.59 km) - 28.4 km - Paleokastro Ginekokastro, Greece - 20.6 km - Paleokastro (?) - 12
km – Thessalonica.
Vania Popova
(independent researcher)
Abstract: The mosaic with the personification of Eirene is part of the pave-
ment mosaics of the episcopal residence in Philippopolis/Plovdiv in Bulgaria.
Revealing its meaning is the aim of the article. Historical arguments and the
recent excavations of the Episcopal basilica in Plovdiv show that it has been
built in the 30s of 4th century. At that time it was connected by a new cardo
with the Episcopal residence not far from the basilica and dwelt by the Arianic
bishops of the city, dominant in that part of Thracia during the Constantinian
period and till Theodosius I. In 381 he held the Church Council in St. Irene of
Constantinople and restored back the Orthodoxy in the East empire and sent
new Orthodox bishops to Philippopolis. The Episcopal residence has been cov-
ered with mosaics in the period after 381 and the beginning of 4th century. The
pearl pendulia of Eirene show almost the same date. Eirene belongs to the sec-
ond type of personifications as bejeweled woman but is strongly classicizing
and with more balanced and moderate appearance compared to the lavish and
fashionable personifications. This is the influence of the third type of personi-
fications as older, modest and ascetic women, personifications of the Church
and the synagogue. At the end, a possible route for the stational processions
of Philippopolis has been offered based on our knowledge today of the Early
Christian Monuments in the city.
Key words: Philippopolis, Late Antique, Early Christian, mosaics
-Philippopolis, Late Antique, Early Christian, mosaics,personification
1 M. Bospachieva, The Late Antique Building EIRENE with Mosaics from Philip-
popolis (Plovdiv, Southern Bulgaria), Archaeologia Bulgarica 7/2, (2003), 83-105; V. Popo-
va, Bodenmosaiken aus dem sog. Haus der Eirene, in Renate Pillinger, A. Lirsch, V. Popova.
Corpus der Spätantiken und Frühchristlicnen Mosaiken Bulgariens (Wien, 2016), No 40,
174-198, with references.
300 Vania Popova
century, was a private domus, situated very near to the agora of Philippopolis2.
Meanwhile, many changes happened in 4th century in the previous Roman city
planning, except the building of the Episcopal basilica, the transformation of
the private domus into episcopal residence, and the erecting of the new Eastern
thermae (Pl. I, No 2). All they together have taken part in the transformation of
the city orthogonal grid. The thermae in the eastern part of the city have been
built over a cardo, by that blocking its functioning entirely. This supposes that a
new street has been created instead. The basilica has occupied partly the south
end of the insulae next to it from the north, and here a portico with entrance
leading to the inner court of the basilica has been erected. It is very likely that
a new city piazza has been formed namely in front of the portico. Since the old
agora stopped to be the centre of the city life, now it was concentrated around
the Episcopal basilica with its piazza. And the third change was that the episco-
pal residence was connected with the basilica directly by a new cardo, by that
changing the length of several insulae between the residence and the basilica.
Usually in Late Antiquity the episcopal basilica is situated next to the cathe-
dral of the city, but since in Philippopolis the basilica was occupying too large
space, surrounded by other older buildings, there was no possibility to include
the residence too in the new planning. The solution was to accommodate some
of the representative domus situated not far to the northwest from the basilica.
As a result, several previous normal insulae have been diminished, the earlier
buildings on the way of the new cardo dismantled, the cardo passing immedi-
ately west of the basilica and connecting the residence and the basilica with the
other buildings in the area.
The episcopal residence was also involved in the new Christian rhythm
and life of the city and gradually embellished by its mosaic decoration. Now
we can only guess which were the concrete circumstances and the way the do-
mus has been transformed into Episcopal residence: either as donation, or sold
to the Church and the bishop, or in any other way. The plan of the residence
(Pl. II, 1 and 2), excavated only partly, reveals a long domus alongside one of
2 In the middle of 4th century it maybe was already belonging to the Arianic bishop
of Philippopols. Important details for the situation then can be extracted from the reports on
the Church Council of 343, 344 and 347, held in Serdica.(On the Council see M. DelCogliano,
‘The Date of the Council of Serdica: A Reassessment of the Case for 343’, Studies in Late
Antiquity: A Journal 1.3 (2017), pp. 282-310; J. Ulrich, Nicea and the West, Vigiliae Chris-
tianae, Vol. 51, No. 1 (Mar., 1997), 10-24; L. Barnard, The Council of Serdica in 343 A. D,
(Sofia, 1983). At the Council the Orthodox and the Arianic bishops did not come to an agree-
ment on the most important doctrines of Christianity. As a result, the Arianic bishops left
Serdica and went to Philippopolis to have their own Council. Of course, they should have at
disposal places to gather and discuss, as well as to dwell, and most probably these were the
erected not long before the Council the Episcopal basilica and the Episcopal residence (Pl. I,
NoNo 10 and 11). The recent excavations of the huge Episcopal basilica of Philippopolis of
the Roman type, the biggest one found in Bulgaria (long 86. 33 m and wide 38. 50 m), revealed
that it belonged to the Constantinian period, and that its first building period finished around
the end of the 30s. It seems that in 343 namely this basilica housed the Arianic bishops, and the
bishop of the city has probably invited them in his residence, at that time still not covered with
mosaics. See E. Kantareva-Decheva, St. Stanev, (in print), New mosaic floors in the Episcopal
basilica of Philippopolis, Proceedings of XIV Conference of Association Internationale pour
l‘Étude de la Mosaïque Antique (AIEMA), (Nicosia, Cyprus, 15-19 October, 2018).
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 301
the decumani, and with a inner peristyle court. In the second period from the
second half of 4th - beginning of 5th century it has been additionally enlarged
with a new apse (probably with stibadium), serving as the new aula. Anyway,
the change of the ownership from a domus of a distinguished citizen to the
episcopal residence has happened enough early in 4th century, so that the first
bishop of Philippopolis, dwelling the residence, was Arianic. The dominance
of the Arians in the city continued till the reign of Theodosius I, when the em-
peror restored the Orthodoxy in the East Empire and Philippopolis. The name
Disiderius appears on the Greek mosaic inscription in the vestibule of the resi-
dence3, saying: ‘Disiderius…. covered with mosaics’. The Greek verb denoting
‘to cover with mosaic’ is met for the first time, and was unknown in scientific
literature up to that moment4. It is not sure to whom it refers (to the previous
civil owner, the mosaicist or to a concrete Orthodox bishop).
The floors of the episcopal residence have been laid with mosaics in two
phases of the second building period. In the first phase the main reception hall
has been covered with mosaics consisting of three panels with figural motifs
(Pl. II, 2): the first one with the representation of Eirene (Pl. III, 1 and 2), placed
in the centre of a complex geometric-ornamental scheme; the second one with
а cantharos with wine; only half survived from the third one5. A new mosaic
inscription greeting the visitors has been added in front of the fountain,6 saying:
‘Welcome! Happiness!’. It can be supposed that initially there has been laid a
third figural image or entirely non-figural composition, placed in a circle or oc-
tagon frame, later replaced by the fountain. But if all three representations were
initially figural, they should form a special program of Early Christian symbols.
Two of them survived: the cantharos with wine, the symbol of the Euharist, and
the personification of Peace.
Eirene is represented as a haloed dignified middle-aged woman, in a
white veil falling to the shoulders, and jewellery on the head and around the
neck. The inscription ‘Eirini’, divided in two parts, is placed from both sides
of the head on the ground of the blue nimbus. The main problem with this rare
and quite unusual monument is the identification with a certain meaning of this
personification: was Eirene a usual personification of Peace in a private domus
of Philippopolis during the Late Antiquity, embodying Peace with pacifistic ac-
cent, or did she embody another and special Early Christian doctrinal notion?
Seeking for the answer, it is necessary to analyze the types of representations of
women as different personifications and allegories in Late Antiquity, including
Pl. I. The Episcopal basilica No 10; the Episcopal residence No 11; the Eastern thermae No
2; the synagogue turned to basilica No 5; the Small basilica No 12; The martyrium extra
muros No 13; the basilica on Djambaztepe No 14; the monastery extra muros No 17.
the ones with the name of Eirene, to date the personification from Plovdiv, and
to find out the relationship between our Eirene and the other personifications
and its meanings.
In Late Antiquity there appeared in literature and visual arts many new
representations of women as personifications (Pl. IV, 1-2; Pl. V, 1-3 and 5),
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 303
Pl. II. 1. The episcopal residence in Philippopolis. Drawing of all pavement mosaics (after
M. Bospachieva); 2. The earlier reception room of the episcopal residence in Philippopolis.
Colour drawing of the mosaic schemes (after M. Bospachieva).
together with the old ones of seasons, months, winds, the god of time Aion,
rivers, countries, provinces, cities and the Muses. Particularly more than 33
abstract notions have been used on the Roman coins, in literature and in every-
day life, such as Homonoia, Virtue, Spes etc., and the interesting for our topic
304 Vania Popova
Pl. IV. 1. Personification of Eirene as spring. Mosaic from the Petra church; 2.
Personification of Eirene as spring. Mosaic from the synagogue in Zippori; 3. Muse from
the mosaic with 9 Muses from Cos. Rhodos, The Palace of Grand Master; 4. Mosaic
portrait of Simplicia. Vatican museum; 5. Coptic tapestry with orant; 6. Mosaic with the
Epiphany from the basilica in Teano in Italy. Around 370.
306 Vania Popova
Pl. V. 1. Mosaic from Sinope with the personification of Tryphe; 2. Mosaic from Antioch
with the personification of Epikosmesis; 3. Mosaic from Syria with the personification of
Tryphe and Bios; 4. Mosaic with the donators from the peristyle of the episcopal residence
in Olympos, Turkey; 5. Mosaic with the personification of Tyche and three written
personifications in the episcopal residence in Olympos, Turkey.
notion of Peace - Pax. Now to them have been added the personifications of
Life (Bios or Charis), Beauty, Pleasure (Tryphe), Wealth (Ploutos), Prosperity,
Fecundity (Fecunditas), Enriching (Chresis), Building and Foundation as do-
nation (Ktisis), Agora, Good Weather (Kalokeria = Kalokairia), Adornment
(Kosmesis), Strength and Power (Dynamis), Education (Paideia), Philosophia,
Greatness of Soul and Largeness (Megalopsychia), Wisdom, Prudence and
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 307
Pl. VI.1. Steelyard weight of empress portrait from the Theodosian period; 2. Detail from
the mosaic of Noheda, Spain; 3. The mosaic portrait of Justinian from San Apollinaire
Nuovo in Ravenna; 4. The bronze coloss of Bartletta; 5. The mosaic with the personification
of Kosmecic; 6. The mosaic with the personification of Ananeosis from Theodorias.
308 Vania Popova
Pl. VII. 1. Personification from the ceiling in Trier. Wall painting; 2. Mosaic from Antioch
with the personification of Ge; 3. Personification of Ge. Coptic tapestry, Pushkin Museum
Moscow; 4. Mosaic with the personification of Kalokairia from Palestine; 5. Personification
of Autumn. Coptic tapestry; 6. Mosaic with the personification of Apolaysis; 7. Mosaic with
the personification of Megalopsyche. Antiochia.
Knowledge (Sophia and Phronesis) etc7. Often we can observe in the hands
7 My gratitude to Prof. M. Slavova for the translations from Greek and Latin and
the consultations. For the personifications I shall list only the works important for my study,
because the literature is growing every day. See G. Downey, ‘Personifications of Abstract
Ideas in the Antioch Mosaics’, Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological
Association 69 (1938), pp. 349- 363; H. Maguire, The Mantle of Earth, Illinois Classical
Studies 12.2 (1987), 221-28; H. Maguire,.Rhetoric, Nature and Magic in Byzantine Art,
(Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 1998); R. Shorrock, The Myth of Paganism: Nonnus,
Dionysus and the World of Late Antiquity (London: Bristol Classical Press, 2011); J. D.
Sieger, Visual Metaphor as Theology: Leo the Great’s Sermons on the Incarnation and the
Arch Mosaics at S. Maria Maggiore, Gesta 26.2 (1987), 83-91; E. Stafford, J. Herrin (eds.),
Personification in the Greek World: From Antiquity to Byzantium, (Aldershot: Ashgate
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 309
Pl. VIII. I. 1. Mosaic with Venus from the villa in Bignor, Great Britain; 2. Portrait of the
queen Zenobia. Hermitage. Marble; 3. Coptic tapestry with Dionysos.
310 Vania Popova
Many of the old and the new personifications are haloed being compared
by that to deities because of its supernatural power, strength and high virtues,
and hence its appreciation in the Late Antique culture10. They were neither
deities, not magical representations, but on the blade between them; they had
quasi-religious status, closer to secondary gods and spirits. They stood instead
of the holy Early Christian depictions, which could not be placed on the floors
and to be stepped over, while this was possible to do upon the personifica-
tions. On the other hand, they have been deemed as very helpful in ‘bring-
ing’ to the community and the individual the qualities and events necessary
for good life, well-being, health and protection against the malevolent forces.
As in the period of 4th-beginning of 7th century these beliefs have been still in
regulations, although some theologians and thinkers were against them, they
were generally accepted in the Late Antique culture. The shift happened only
when, for instance, instead of Tyche as protector of the city, Theotokos took
her place11. This replacement concerns also the saints and martyrs, the Cross
and all the Christian figures in the Byzantine culture, but it was a long process
of three centuries, with slow transformation and replacement. The number of
such personifications has significantly increased in the period 4th-6th century in
Asia Minor, the Aegean islands, Greece, North Africa and Italy, but afterwards
the personifications disappeared and remained mainly in the book illuminations
and its mediaeval copies as paideia of the virtues and allegories. It is important
that these images have been exploited both in pagan and Early Christian build-
ings12. The nimbus is another element of the transformation of the Roman and
Late antique iconographic elements and its semantics into the Early Christian/
Early Byzantine one. Since the Greek and Roman times, the colour of the halo13
relates the representation to a definite sphere of the pagan or Early Christian
universe: for instance the blue nimbus is preserved for the supreme gods or the
heavenly ones, pagan or Christian. It seems that such is namely the case with
the personification of Eirene from Plovdiv.
Most often the personification of Eirene in Late Antiquity is depicted as
the season of spring on mosaics, wall paintings, Coptic and other textile and
minor arts in official pagan monuments, Early Christian basilicas, Jewish syna-
image on a mosaic pavement, it was hoped that the public or religious building, the private
residence or the house will be under its protection and against the bad spirits.
10 G. Osbourne, Mosaics of Power: Superstition, Magic and Christian Power in
Early Byzantine Floor Mosaics, PH disseration, (Sussex, 2014), v. I, pp. 113-145.
11 Op. cit., 120-135.
12 They were more neutral compared to the nude representations of the pagan deities,
heroes and heroines, and near to Christian notions, therefore suitable for the Early Christian
decoration. On the other hand, they didn’t break with and developed further the ancient tradi-
tions of abstract notions. And third, they played a magic-apotropaic role, preventing the build-
ings, its owners and the visitors from the Evil (now personified by the devil), and assuring the
well-being and stability of the Late Antique people and the religious and secular institutions.
13 G. B. Ladner, Images and Ideas in the Middle Ages: Selected Studies in History
and Art, Vol. I. (Roma: Edizioni di storia e letteratura, 1983), 147-148; K. McGinty, Circles of
Framing and Light: Analyzing the Nimbus in the Mediterranean, Honors thesis (Department
of Classics Dartmouth College, 2013); R. Тодорова-Енчева, Символ и значение: Концеп-
тът за Божията слава в късновизантийската иконография, (Шумен, 2020), 20-49.
312 Vania Popova
gogues and private houses (Pl. IV, 1-2). This first type of Eirene as spring, as
well as her other two types, is known in several iconographies, but we shall
concentrate only on Eirene represented as a bust. As a spring, she may be ac-
companied or not by her name, usually without a halo, but always having either
flowers or green branches in her hands, or a wreath with flowers and leaves on
the head, or a basket with them next to her, and farm tool used in the season.
However, in Plovdiv Eirene is not the personification of spring, because not a
single attribute of the season is depicted.
The second type is represented to that moment by the only mosaic from
Plovdiv. Eirene is a bejewelled woman, haloed, with attributes taken from dif-
ficult iconographic sources. The veil in the Greek, Roman and Late Antique
culture is a sign of a supreme goddess or of a matron, married woman. New
element is the veil bordered with pearls to be met in numerous depictions of
real and mythological personalities from the middle of 4th till the middle of 5th
century in mosaics, wall paintings and tapestry (Pl. IV, 4-6; Pl. VI,2)14. Eirene
from Philippopolis is bejewelled mainly by pearls not only in the veil, but also
in the diadem, the earrings and the necklace: i. e. she is all in pearls, which
should denote her brilliancy and radiance. The diadem is a low flat one, deco-
rated with one row of pearls. It seems that four other pearls are forming a four-
petal flower high on the headdress on her left side, supposedly also on the other
side, but the posture of the head is hiding the second pearl-flower. The motif of
two symmetrical flowers in the headdress is taken from the official and private
portraits in sculpture, from some cultic images and female personifications on
mosaics and in the textile (Pl. V,1; Pl. VII 3, 6 and 7)15. An attribute is placed
atop the middle of the diadem of Eirene reminding a small cross. In reality it is
not a cross, but an element of the crowns in Roman and Late Antiquity of god-
desses and personifications, descending from the ornamental three-parted ends
of the earlier crowns of the Greek and Early imperial times (Pl. VIII, 1-3)16.
However, for the first time in the representation of Eirene (Pl. III, 1-2) can be
14 Also new is its iconography in the way the veil is falling to the shoulders (Pl. IV,5
and VI,2): here it is repeating its oblique lines, forming a closed silhouette which unites in
one whole the head, the veil and the shoulders. This feature is different from the female
veiled images earlier than the second half-end of 4th - first half of 5th century, when the ends
of the veil are shown either in straight line, or separated from the shoulders, as if ‘flying’ in
the air (Pl. IV, 4 and 6).
15 B. Kiilerich,Private Portraits in Late Antiquity: Observing the Subject., Roman
Sculpture in Asia Minor, Journal of Roman Archaeology (2011, S80), 359-370, fig. 24,12; F.
Tülek, The Bejewelled Lady of Sinope, in M. Sahin (ed.).11th International Colloquium on
Ancient Mosaics in 2009 in Bursa, Turkey, (Istanbul, 2011), fig.2.
16 The central element on the head may be also depicted either as a feather of a Muse,
or a rose bud or another flower-bud, or as a high central element made of precious stones. The
cross itself as attribute on the head and the diadem is used rarely in the coins and medallions,
for instance on those with the portrait of the empress Licinia Eudoxia, wife of Valentinian III
from the second quarter of 5th century (Pl. IX, 2-3), and this cross has a specific form and arms.
It should be underlined that the diadem and the necklace of Eirene are relatively modest and
monochrome, compared to the other more lavishly bejewelled female personifications with
precious stones in different colours (Pl. V, 2; Pl. 2 and 5). But at the same time, the radiance
of the pearls probably was associated with her completeness and a definite supreme meaning.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 313
observed the pearl pendulia/prependulia hung from the diadem (on the level of
the pearl-flowers), and falling down to the shoulders (at each side at least in two
vertical rows?). This jewel is considered to appear in 5th century, has a peak in
the same period and the next 6th century both in the official imperial male and
female images, and its usage continues in the iconography of the medieval rul-
ers. Still it is not clear when namely the pendulium has appeared for the first
time17. More plausible seems that it happened at the end of 4th – beginning of
5th century, from Arcadius to Theodosius II and Pulcheria, first in the female
representations, having in mind the steelyards weights in the form of the em-
press Ancia Eudocia, Pulcheria and Licinia Eudoxia (Pl. X, 1-6); also some
other representations in mosaics and round sculpture (Pl. IX1-3). But judging
on the base of the monuments, the fashion in the length of the pendulia has been
changed several times during 5th and 6th century18.
From the second quarter of 4th century and especially during 5th-6th cen-
tury can be traced the phenomenon of mixing the iconographic attributes bor-
rowed from different personifications. For instance, for a long period the rep-
resentations in the wall paintings in the basilica of Trier have been related to
the imperial portraits of Helena and Fausta, or the identification with certain
personifications was not firm (Pl. VII, 1). Only later it has been proved that the
attributes are originating from different personifications and mixed in a new
one19. That’s why in some of them the posture and the attributes are identical,
but the names different. If not the mosaic inscription with the name of personi-
fications, the identification can be easily confused. This is a sign that the pick of
the spread of the ‘pure’ and concrete iconographies has passed; now has begun
a new process of already ‘mixed’ iconography and very mobile attributes not
17 Since it is dangling from diadems and crowns, theoretically it cannot be earlier
than the period of Constantine. He was the first to reintroduce the Hellenistic diadem on his
coin portraits following the example of Alexander the Great (see L. Ramskold, N. Lenski,
Numismatische Zeitschrift, Vol. 119, (2012), pp. 31-58), but it could not occur so early in the
first half – third quarter of 4th century, because in this period no coin portrait of emperor and
empress has been represented with pendulia. Among the predecessors of the pendulia can be
pointed some pendants decorating the forehead and the back sides of the complex crown-like
turbans on the female heads in Palmyra in 2nd – 3rd century; also the cross-like or diagonal
chains (from top of headdress to the ears) of pearls during the classicism in the second half
of 4th century, see B. Kiilerich, The Mosaic of the Female Musicians from Mariamin, Acta ad
archaeologiam et artium historiam pertinentia, n.s., XXII, (2010), 87-107, fig. 6.
18 Except the long to the shoulders and breasts pendulia in the famous ivory portrait
of empress Ariadna and in the mosaic portrait of empress Theodora in San Vitale in Ravenna,
there appeared another female type: with the shorter hangings, not reaching to the ears and
not hung from the diadem/crown, but attached aside to the headdress itself (Pl. VI, 5-6).
19 M. Rose, The Trier Ceiling: Power and Status on Display in Late Antiquity, Greece
and Rome 53 (2006), 92-109. The same combination of attributes has happened in the repre-
sentations of Earth (Ge, or Gaia), Tyche, the seasons, Isis and her attributes as the headdress,
the knot and the diadem (Pl. VII, 2-7). At the beginning of 3rd – 4th century only Ge is holding
in front of her a cloth/mantle with the fruits and vegetables, but later in the 5th – 6th century the
autumn and the personification of the Good Weather, Kalokairia (Pl. VII,4) also hold the same
cloth with the attributes of fecundity, instead of demonstrating them in a basket or on her head
or in her hands (Pl. VII, 2-5). A mixture of the attributes between Tyche and Ge can be observed
also very often, particularly in the presence of the cornucopia in both cases (Pl.VII,2).
314 Vania Popova
fixed only to one only abstract notion, which point to its less significance and
disappearing. The latest example from the episcopal residence in Olympos in
Turkey, relating the last building period with pavement mosaics to 6th century,
shows a mosaic personification with such mixed iconography (Pl. V, 4-5)20. The
inscriptions attest even three personifications combined in one and the same vi-
sion of Tyche with the horn of abundance: the donations of the local Christians
for erecting (Ktisis) of the porticoes and the fountains with the healing sourc-
es in the peristyle of the episcopal residence, giving health and therefore life
(Charis) and renewal (Ananeosis) to the visitors. Generally, the process of mix-
ing and new combinations of iconographies borrowed from different sources, is
a typical phenomenon for the Roman and Late Antique period21.
The first two analyzed types of personifications have been developed
and exploited since the Greek and Hellenistic periods up to the end of Late
Antiquity, while the third type has appeared in culture and art only from the last
quarter of 4th century - beginning of 5th century onwards in the wall paintings
and wall mosaics in churches, basilicas and monasteries, although some hints
of its future development may be found first in the catacomb paintings in the
portraits of bishops and ordained women. The process of strengthening further
the spiritual essence can be followed mainly in the third type of personifica-
tions and allegories in the graffitti and the wall paintings of the Early Christian
Catacombs and on the pavement and wall mosaics of the Early Christian ba-
silicas revealing the new Christian notions. The iconography of the catacomb
wall paintings with the name of Eirene is revealing its connection with death,
paradise and Christian immortality (Pl. X, 1). The portrait of the deceased is ac-
companied by the name of Eirene, the formula ‘in pace’ (resting in peace), and
by the pigeon, carrying the olive branch, one of the attributes of Eirene from the
pagan times onwards. The special choice of these elements reflects the percep-
tion by the Early Christians of death as real peace, as resting in the gardens of
the Paradise and receiving there the new everlasting life22. The shift from the
bejeweled matrons to the modest ordained women and the new Christian alle-
gories goes further in the first ever appeared images of the Christian Church and
the Virgin as Church. Already at the end of 4th century there has been created
the allegory of the Church/Ecclesia in Santa Sabina in Rome, shown in pairs
together with the Synagogue, as two old women dressed in simple monochrome
garments, holding respectively the New and the Old Testament (Pl. X, 6)23.
Similar image of Theotokos as allegory of the same two institutions is supposed
also in the two differently dressed women from both sides of the young Christ
on the triumphal arc of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome (Pl. X,3)24. In the same
way, by opposing pairs are shown young and old, richly and modestly dressed
saints and martyrs, for instance St. Perpetua and St. Felicitas on the wall mosa-
ics from the Archbishop Chapel in Ravenna (Pl. X, 4). Again the Synagogue
and the Early Christian Church are represented as two middle-aged women,
without any jewelles, but dressed in rich and bright garments in the apse mosaic
of Santa Pudentiana in Rome (Pl. X, 3a and 3b)25.
Under the influence of such church allegories and other liturgical rep-
resentations, sometimes the personifications of the first and second type may
acquire too interpretatio cristiana, demonstrated, for instance, by the maniple in
the hands of Ktisis (Pl. X, 5). But here the foundation or building does not mean
a private building, but the donation of lavish furniture and precious liturgical
items, and the decoration with floor mosaics of the basilicas of Theodorias in
Cyrenaika, named in honour of Theodora, the wife of Justinian I. The trend to
the modest and ascetic Church, liturgical and sepulchral Christian representa-
tions, and to deeper spirituality is the main one in the third type of personifica-
tions and allegories, influencing the other personifications too, in one or an-
other degree. Such is the case with Eirene from Plovdiv, with her classic tunica
Early Christian Women. The Hidden Leadership, London, (2019). The garb becomes much
simpler, modest and ascetic, of monastic type, around the women is shown the Scripture, and
they are holding in their hands the liturgical cloth, known as maniple (Op. cit., 89-93).
23 F. Bisconti, M. Braconi, Il mosaico parietale nella Roma paleocristiana: dalla
committenza imperiale ai programmi pontifici, Il mosaico parietale nella Roma paleocristiana:
dalla committenza imperiale ai programmi pontifici,.(Verona, 2015), 47-56, fig. 6-7. The
long inscription between both women is concerning the basilica, the pope and the presby-
ter—donator of the wall mosaic. The women have no decorations and their headdress is hid-
den under the veil and the bonnet. Such modest portraits can be met also among the catacomb
wall paintings of Rome, even of younger women, not haloed, because only Christ, the Virgin
Maria, the apostles, the saints and martyrs should be shown with round nimbus, while the
eminent donator may appear with a square one.
24 M. Lidova, Empress, Virgin, Ecclesia, Icon. The Icon of Santa Maria in Trastevere
in the Early Byzantine Context, Ikon 9, (2016), 17-22. Maria on his left side is younger, be-
jewelled, with the representative Late Antique headdress, and lavish garbs. Maria on the right
side is elder, in a modest black attire and the maniple in her hand, symbol of her ordained
status. The difference between both representations should symbolize the glorious mother as
empress, who will give birth to Christ, the ruler of all the Universe; but at the same time her
deep sorrow and pietas for his already predicted passions, death and sacrifice on the Cross on
behalf of the manhood. Generally, it is the first appearance of the new for Rome cult of Maria
Regina, following the cult of Theotokos in Constantinople, spread immediately everywhere
in the Early Byzantine Empire.
25 Bisconti and Braconi, Op.cit., fig. 5.
316 Vania Popova
and features of the face, dignified posture, moderate and white decorations and
heavenly radiance demonstrates such influence, compared to many other too
richly bejewelled and dressed women in the fashionable for the period garbs
and headdresses (compare it to Pl. VI, 5). She is nearer to the female allegories
of both Churches in St. Pudentiana than to the secular personifications with
fashionable attributes in the Eastern Mediterranean.
By comparing the figural program of the Late Roman villa at Carranque
in Spain, some mosaic greetings, the figural program of the earliest mosaics of
the Eirene residence and the mosaics of the porticoes of the episcopal residence
in Olympos in Turkey, we can try to distinguish the pagan or the secular paideia
from the Christian meaning of the personifications, if such difference exists, and
to reveal what namely semantics has been put in Eirene. In Carranque26 the im-
ages represent .a clear example of pagan repertory and knowledge of the ancient
mythology as paideia in 4th century, without any sign of Christianity, so it is a
private house of an educated dignitary; the data on the first ever appearing of the
pendulium does not allow Eirene from Plovdiv, who also is embellished with
pendulia, and laid on the order of the Orthodox bishop, to be related to such
pagan personifications, because the empresses in court of Arcadius, Theodosius
II and Valentinian III (395 – the middle of 5th century) are the first depicted with
pendulia. This data coincides with the shift from Arianism back to Orthodoxy
occurring immediately after the Council of Constantinople in 381. Such dif-
ference between the pagan mythological, the secular and the Christian context
can be discovered in the Late Antique mosaic greetings, being often wishes
for health, good life, pleasure, peace, well-being, etc., by that containing much
of the essence of the personifications. In the first inscription (Pl. XII,1) saying
‘Health, Life, Joy, Peace, Serenity, Hope’ we can observe rather a neutral do-
mestic usage. But in the second inscription (Pl. XII, 2), also private domestic,
saying ‘In the name of God let it be Consent for our feast’, the wish is sancti-
fied by the Christian God. The answer to the question with what was suitable to
decorate an episcopal residence, we can observe in Philippopolis in Thracia and
Olympos in Turkey: each personification is evaluated through the confirmation
of the Christian doctrine and in help of it. Everywhere in the Holy Scripture can
be found the virtues bestowed by the Holy Spirit upon the Christians, and most
often are described Peace, Goodness, Mercy, Charity, Fidelity etc. Thus, any
deed, any act of donating the church, building and decorating it and its area, as
is the case with the newly built porticoes and fountains with healing water in
Olympos, is conformed with the virtues of a true Christian. The mosaic decora-
tion in the episcopal residences can use personifications, however, under the
condition that they can affirm definite Christian virtues, destined to our fellow
man, and most of all to the Lord and the Ecclesia, the latter referred to both as
religious institution and cult building. In the case of Eirene from Plovdiv we
see the same situation, supported by the mosaic inscriptions telling who has
either laid the mosaics (the mosaicist) or commissioned this act (the bishop),
and greeting the Christian visitors. In spite of the seemingly standard formulas,
they are addressed namely to the Christian visitors (bishops, deacons, ordinary
citizen and farmers), and therefore they should be understood as done for God,
the Ecclesia, the bishop, and the Christian population of Philippopolis.
It is a fact that Eirene at the moment is the only mosaic personification
of the kind in episcopal residence and this is not only because of the lack of
another good chance of finding. The notion of Christian God is one of the most
complex since the first years of Christianity, known mainly in written form,
and especially difficult to be shown as a vision at that period. Supposedly, sev-
eral more monuments can be added to our Eirene: the mosaic with the head
of Eirene, accompanied by the inscription ‘Eirene’, in a basilica in the west-
ern area of Xanthos27; the personification from Carthage (Pl,)28; also the later
personifications of the Church from 6th-8th century in Bawit and a book illu-
mination from Paris29. However, the artistic value of the Xanthos monument
is quite low and non-expressive30. The identification of the so-called Lady of
Carthage is quite uncertain: empress, archangel, personification of Carthage, of
the Church of Carthage?31. It can be supposed that theologians have put the task
of representing such complex abstract notions to the artists and we see their first
creations in the case of Eirene and the Lady of Carthage. No doubt, that in its
first depiction the inspiration for Eirene has come from Constantinople and the
circle of theologians around the patriarch and the court. These are not the fash-
ionable ladies-personifications with secular meaning, but dignified monumental
27 A –M. Manère Lévêque, Corpus of the Mosaics of Turkey, Vol. I, Part 2, The West
Area, (Istanbul, 2012), No. 39-4, 73-75, figs. 82-83 (lower left corner), 97.
28 B. Poulsen, City Personifications in Late Antiquity, in B. Stine, T.M. Kristensen,
B. Poulsen (eds.), Using Images in Late Antiquity. (Oxbow Books, 2014), 209 - 226.
29 Lidova, Empress, fig. 16-19.
30 The iconography can hardly be identified, but she is neither haloed, nor a season
because of the lack of such attributes, nor an allegory of the Church because it is a bust, not a
figure in full length. In these circumstances, its importance can be looked for in the fact that it is
laid in an Early Christian basilica and may be with the same meaning as the mosaic in Plovdiv.
31 The scepter and her young age and beauty, very different from the image of the
modest and spiritual allegories of the Church and the Synagogue, point rather to a city allegory
(although the crown with the city walls is absent), or to some mythological ruler, for instance
the founder of the city Dodo(ne). The Lady is also bejewelled and very fine, and the lack of
firm iconographic attributes probably hint that in this case the mosaicist also has tried to find the
adequate vision of a complex Christian notion in the classical tradition. That this is the Chris-
tian benediction (Pl. XI, 3 and 4) can confirm the parallel for her gesture with that of bishop
Optimus, her nimbus and her date. Although this mosaic is usually related to 6th century, it is a
typical example of the subtle style of the Theodosius I, expressed predominantly in the official
imperial portraits in the round and on the reliefs in Constantinople with the representations of
the emperor, his wife Aelia Flacilla, his two sons Arcadius and Honorius, also co-emperors or
future emperors, the elite and the Goths serving in the court and the Roman army.
318 Vania Popova
ited to the end of 4th – beginning of 5th century, long before the end of the so-
called ‘Theodosian Renaissance’, when the style is changing significantly. The
example of Eirene reveals that not everywhere the new subtle style has become
dominant, and that some workshops, in spite of some ‘fashionable’ attributes as
pendulia, were still working in the previous style, preserving the traditions of
the classicism. Another argument for the same date is the relatively small pres-
ence of the rainbow style in Eirene’s earliest non-figural compositions (Pl. III,
3), which are otherwise widely spread in the period between 70s and the first
half of 5th century35.
Therefore, not an Arianic bishop has ordered the mosaic with Eirene, but
the first Orthodox bishop in the new situation, which occurred as sequence of
the decisions of the Church Council of 381, held by Theodosius I in St. Irene in
Constantinople. Of course, on the first place during the Council was the revival
of the Orthodox Christianity, of coming back to the unity of all Christians in
one only Ecclesia, not torn by heresies, and restoring the Peace in it. Returning
to the episcopal residence in Plovdiv, the personification of Eirene had most
probably the same main meanings, inspired by the decisions of the Council and
the politics and acts of Theodosius I towards the Church36. That is the reason to
suppose that the program of the figural images of the mosaics in the initial/ear-
lier reception hall with Eirene of the episcopal residence of Philippopolis was
tightly connected with and reflected on the first place namely the Orthodox doc-
trine and the new Peace of Church. The other meaning of the desire of peaceful
days after the Goths’ wars37 could be meant too, but on the secondary plan,
because the Orthodox Church needed sharply a new peaceful period, after the
first Peace of Church, assured at the beginning of 4th century. During all its
legal period of existence, the Church, its theologians, clergy and philosophers
put on the first place the official religious politics: everything, beginning with
the liturgical acts and up to the choice of the decoration and images was passing
through the evaluation of the Christian doctrine and the concrete situation in
the Church. This fact is witnessed, for instance by some Early Byzantine coins
with crosses and the inscription ‘pax’, written completely or only with ‘p’38.
The pax on these already Christian coins is also interpreted in the Christian, and
not in the secular pacifistic aspect, different from the notion of the Roman pax
in pagan times39. The Christian notion of Peace contains first of all God as the
Only One to give real peace, thought to exist only on Heavens in the Paradise.
That’s why the first churches and basilicas built in the first half and the middle
of 4th century in Constantinople, Rome and Jerusalem were devoted to Christ
and His Sofia, His Peace40, His Birth, His Cross and His Anastasis. That’s why
it is also quite possible that the huge basilica in Philippopolis, copying the plan
and liturgical setting of the enormous earliest basilicas of Rome during the
Constantinian period, was also named Eirene. In its name the builder of the
basilica of Philippopolis followed the example of Constantine, who named the
first or the rebuilt by him small churches existing in Byzantium before it be-
came Constantinople, either St. Eirene or St. Sophia. That’s why the bishop of
Philippopolis wanted the vision of the Christian Eirene to be depicted in front
of his eyes and of his visitors, but not in the previous secular Roman personifi-
cation of Pax. The name of Eirene connected in this way both the basilica and
the residence literally, while the new cardo did the same in reality. This new
for the art Early Christian doctrinal notion was embodied in the earliest known
depiction of God as Peace in the form of a traditional and strongly classicizing
spiritual personification.
Each bishop should commission images connected with Christianity and
the Christian virtues, so a special Christian doctrinal meaning has been laid in
Eirene’s representation, maybe even poly-semantic, as a long chain of meanings
in the spirit of the Early Christian symbols: God as Peace, Peace on the Heaven,
the Everlasting life there as Peace, Peace in the Church, Peace in the East
Empire, etc.41. The known mosaic decoration from the Eastern Mediterranean
39 T. Philip, Pax, Peace and the New Testament, Religiologiques, 11, (Spring 1995),
301-324; Y. Wilfand, How Great Is Peace: Tannaitic Thinking on Shalom and the Pax
Romana, Journal for the Study of Judaism, v. 50, (2019), 223-251. The notion of Peace has
faced different conceptions of in the Late Antique culture, in which the imperium and the
empress embody the state, the victory over the other countries and the peaceful and prolific
development of the state and the well-being of all its subjects and their families; gener-
ally, the strong Greek and Hellenistic anthropomorphic tradition of personification of natural
powers and abstract notions as women. The most important notion in its development was
the Jewish and the Early Christian one of the essence of God as Wisdom and Peace, the latter
coming from the adequate Jewish ‘shalom’. In the Eastern Greek Mediterranean and the big-
gest artistic centres like Antioch, Apameia, Alexandria, on the islands like Cos and in Athens,
in Constantinople itself as the new capital and the second Rome was realized the fusion of the
classicizing visual tradition with the theologian Jewish and Early Christian ones, with long
prevailing namely of the ancient female personification of many supernatural powers, and
virtues, including peace.
40 The Council of 381 has been held namely in the first St. Eirene, which was the
main church at that time, as well as several more times, when St. Sophia was burnt and the
process of its new building was going on. Eirene and Sophia were considered among the
most important features of Christ and churches with these names appeared in many Balkan,
Asia Minor and island cities, copying by that the capital.
41 A bishop will not boast with his own wealth and well-being, but with the Peace in
Church, with erecting of new church buildings and its lavish decoration, for which he or the
donator may be compared to Solomon’s building of the Temple. The bishop would like to
have in front of him and his visitors the symbols of Christ, of the Euharist, of the Paradise,
quotations from the texts in the Holy Scripture, etc.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 321
reveals namely such repertory in the episcopeions, similar to that in the basili-
cas, and often combined with personifications and pure ornamental-geometric
compositions, however interpreted in the Christian spirit. This fact leads to
the supposition that Eirene from Plovdiv, although made in the same way as
many other personifications, is a newly created visional iconography for the
supreme Christian notion of God, and maybe among its first iconographies in
Late Antique art.
Although another personification may be discovered during the next ex-
cavation in the city, it surely will not be Eirene, because of many reasons. Eirene
was not a single representation, but a part of the considered program of Early
Christian symbols in the initial reception hall of the bishop42. The most impor-
tant circumstance was that such attempts to find a visual form of God as Peace
in the traditional form of a female personification and her attributes had no per-
spective, on the opposite. These were dying images replaced after the end of 6th
century by more abstract representations, symbols and signs by the third type
of personifications, like the allegory of the Church. The example from Naxos
and the book illumination demonstrates that the female busts of the Church are
replaced by female figure in full length, carrying a big cross, by the figure of
Solomon etc., also very flat, modest and ascetic, more suitable for such abstract
notions. That’s the main reason not to see more monuments with Eirene as al-
legory and personification of God. This was just episode in the development of
Late Antique personifications and the Early Christian iconography, after which
have been found more adequate ones on the eve of the Mediaeval period of
development. It can be suspected some gender considerations too under the
influence of some leading theologians, in order not to show God anymore in the
attire of a bejewelled woman.
The separate excavated monuments of the Early Christian Philippopolis
are united not only by the streets, by the supposed one and the same name of
the Episcopal basilica and of the personification in the episcopal residence: they
have been united by the periodically performed church processions in the city
streets with crosses and services, performed beginning from the main basilica
and stopping in front of the other Christian buildings, at the Martyrium and
42 On the base of the parallels, three possible decisions of this program can be sup-
posed. In the first variant a second personification can be supposed on the place of the future
fountain. But in this relatively young period of Late Antique personifications, a single rep-
resentation is characteristic, not several ones in one room (except the seasons and months).
The opinion is that the single personification was believed to be more effective. In the second
case, on the example of Kato Paphos in Cyprus (Pl. XII, 2), the panel would contain two
types of meaner-swastica compositions. Finely if all three panels in the room of Eirene had
figural representations, the most possible and the most suitable one would be the vessel with
water symbolizing The Fountain of Life, so often met on the mosaics of the Early Christian
basilicas, the residences and the private houses of Thracia (Pl. XII, 3). See om the theme V.
Popova, Vons vitae in Late Antique Monuments from Bulgaria, Studia academia Šumenensia
3, (2016), 154-188, with references. In this case it is not surprising that later in the second
phase the mosaic symbol has been replaced by a real fountain, which does not change the
essence of the triple symbols: Eirene, the Peace of God and the Church, the cantharos with
wine, the symbol of Euharist, and the Fountain of Life, symbol of Christ, the Christian reli-
gion, the Baptism, the Paradise and the promised everlasting life in the Heavens.
322 Vania Popova
some special spots. At this stage of knowledge, few is known for the begin-
ning of the official Christianity and its martyrs in the 4th century in the city. It
is supposed that the Episcopal basilica had in its apse a place and construction
of the U-typed basilicas (basilicas with deambulatorium) of Rome with relics43.
But in the 5th and 6th century there appeared several more basilicas inside the
city, the martyrium extra muros from the second half-end of 4th century and a
monastery from 5th century, also outsides the city and close to the Eastern Gate
(Pl. I, No No 13 and 17). If the example of Rome has been copied, but also of
Constantinople and the practice of such cities as Parthicopolis in Macedonia,
the stational procession should stop in front of every church, with terminal point
the martyrium and the monastery extra muros, and after that again coming back
to the Episcopal basilica. The principle of the Christian movement is always to
walk direct or turn only to the right side, which allows to go to the martyrium
partly in one and the same way, and to return back partly in the same way, but
on the other side of the street. The street which has been passed twice is leading
to and from the Eastern Gate and is the biggest ancient street in Bulgaria, wide
25 m44. Only its beginning has been excavated, the rest is covered with houses
and other buildings from 18th till 20th century. It is quite possible that this street
is long up to the place the orthogonal grid of the city is meeting the irregular
part coming from the Eastern Gate. At this place can be imagined a representa-
tive piazza, maybe of round or sigma form. The street has been used also for the
adventus, the official meeting of the emperor; for the church processions; for
the triumphs and military marches and for displaying the statues of emperors,
generals and officials with merits to the city. Of course, it was the shortest way
to come out, joining Via Diagonalis to Constantinople, or to enter the city from
the same Via. That’s why the street to and from the Eastern Gate has been most
probably twice used in each church procession.
In order to visit all the Christian buildings during the processions, and
to stop at the places at which eventually God has saved the Christians dur-
ing the terrific earthquakes in the area of Philippopolis, suffering periodically
from them in Antiquity (and nowadays), as in Constantinople, the people should
make several turns on the route. First they could pass by the cardo from the
Episcopal basilica to the Episcopal residence, where the bishop would join to
them. But generally he was also coming to the piazza in front of the basilica,,
43 Kantareva-Decheva and Stanev (in print). A second but very small basilica has
been built in the second part of 4th century on Djambaz tepe, a little higher and not far from
the theatre (No 3 on the plan Pl. I). At the present moment there is no data how the church
and the Episcopal basilica have been connected by a procession, most probably in the same
way as to the theatre, the approach being from the west.
44 I. Topalilov, Porta Triumphalis in Late Antique Thrace, in Studies on the
60-anniversary of Prof. Plamen Pavlov, Veliko Tarnovo, 2020, pp. 309-321, with references.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 323
because this was the usual practice45. The martyrium46 from the second part
of 4th century has been laid with mosaics only in the 6th century, and has be-
come one of the best martyriums in Thracia. It housed the relics of 38 martyrs
murdered namely outside the Eastern Gate, the place pointed in the sources. It
cannot be doubted that this was the usual place of punishment, before entering
the sacral territory of the city and for hygienic considerations. The same place
extra muros at the Eastern Gate and near the same important Via Diagonalis has
been chosen for one of the martyriums of Serdica too, and in Ephesos there is
also Gate of Persecution47. It is even quite possible, that before its erecting, the
relics have been venerated at the deambulatorium of the Episcopal basilica. The
monastery from 5th century north of the martyrium with a venerated tomb was
the last point of the procession, before turning back to the city. This is only one
proposal for the route of the church processions, having in mind the discovered
Early Christian buildings so far. But it seems that Philippopolis, the metropoli-
tan city of Thracia, should possess a greater amount of churches and basilicas to
be included in the visits during the processions48.
45 Than at his residence the route turns to the right and reaches the former synagogue,
transformed to basilica (Pl. I, 5) during the reign of Theodosius I, who has issued laws against
the Jews and has closed their synagogues. After that the procession reaches the so-called
Small basilica (Pl. I, 12), from where it should turn again and find the supposed piazza at the
south end of the official street, coming from the Eastern Gate. Here the direction on our plan
is shown only presumably because of the lack of excavations namely in that part, and the
movement and the joining to the main street could be more direct.
46 I. Topalilov, Mosaik aus dem Martyrium der 38 Martyrer von Philippopolis/Plov-
div, in Pillinger et alli. 2016, No 49, 257-263, with previous publications of the monument; I.
Topalilov, Mosaik aus einem spätantiken (früchristlichen) Gebäudekomplex in der Alexander
Puschkin-StraBe, in Pillinger et alli. 2016, No 48, 254-256, with references.
47 V. Popova, The Martyrium under the Basilica of Saint Sophia in Serdica
and its Pavements, in M. Rakocija (ed.), Niš and Byzantium XIII, (2015), 132-
133, T. I; Ine Jacobs, Gates in Late Antiquity. The Eastern Mediterranean, Bulletin
Antieke Beschaving, (Jan 1, 2009), 199, fig. 3, note 18, with references. Not only
the martyrs, but also all criminals after being sentenced to death have found it name-
ly on this place, outside the city, and immediately at one of its gates. Besides, there
has passed too little time from the persecutions of Diocletian and Galerius to the
time of erecting the martyrium, and the place of martyrdom has been remembered
very well. It can be questioned where have been buried the martyrs initially, and it
seems that it was also in that area, not far from the gate or to the east of it, outside
the city walls. This eastern part since Hellenistic and Roman time has served as a
huge necropolis, excavated only partly. But the martyrs could be buried far from the
usual citizens, even after the end of the necropolis in a non-civilized at all place.
However, the place has been remembered and probably visited secretly, supported
by the fact that the relics have been taken and brought to the martyrium.
48 This expectation concerns especially the area alongside the west side of the official
street, visited on the way back, or near the presumable piazza at the cross with the orthogonal
grid, or in the southeastern part of the city with two more Early Christian monuments – the
unpublished yet painted tomb with the miracles of Christ and the mosaics published by Dya-
kovich. On the mosaic fragments see Б. Дякович, Тракийската гробница при Пловдив и
некрополът на древния град, Сборник за народни умотворения, наука и книжнина, т.
XXII/XXIII, (1906/ 1907), 1-55; В. Попова, Старохристиянски мозайки от България,
Изкуство, 23/ 7, (1973), 25-29; I. Topalilov, Mosaic Pavements of Philippopolis, Thrace, in
324 Vania Popova
Вања Попова
(самостални истраживач)
ПЕРСОНИФИКАЦИЈА ИРЕНЕ ИЗ ЕПИСКОПАЛНОГ РЕЗИДЕНЦИЈЕ У
ФИЛИПОПОЛИСУ / ПЛОВДИВУ
6th c, CE. Some considerations, Journal of Mosaic Research 13, (2020), 268-269, fig. 17-18.
Although thought to belong to a tomb, the latter mosaics are very near from iconographic
and maybe stylistic point of view (since we know them only as black-and white drawings) to
the basilical mosaics of 5th century. Maybe this basilica was cemeterial, with burials, which
gives the wrong impression of only one tomb, instead of a cemetery with basilica and burials,
tombs or crypt. If really coming from a basilica, at that place should remain more significant
remnants of the architecture and the mosaics, than covering the smaller space only of a tomb,
and this is going to be checked and found out in the future. Generally, the reconstruction of
the stational liturgy in the city is a task to be fulfilled in the next several decades following
the future discoveries of Early Christian architectural monuments and inscriptions.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 325
Marina Perseng*
(PhD student at New Bulgarian University)
Abstract: The Early Christian period in the Balkans is saturated with pro-
found social, economic and political changes that change the culture of society.
This naturally reflects on the Early Christian art system, in the choice of certain
Eucharistic scenes, motifs and individual images in the mosaic decoration, in
the stylistic characteristics of the mosaic compositions, as well as in their gra-
dual semantic connection with theological Christian concepts.
Keywords: Early Christian art, Early Christianity, Balkans, Eucharist,
Christian temples, floor mosaics, Fountain of Life
Introduction
The Early Christian art, manifested in the mosaic floor decoration of the
basilicas of the Balkans took place in a short period of about three centuries,
between 313 and the end of the VI-beginning of the VII century. But this period
is full of profound social, economic and political changes that have had a direct
impact and change the culture of society. This naturally reflects on the Early
Christian art system, on the choice of certain Eucharistic scenes, motifs and
individual images in the mosaic decoration, in the stylistic characteristics of the
mosaic compositions, as well as in their obligatory semantic connection with
theological Christian concepts.
Fig. 1. Augusta Trayana, private home, tablinum, mosaic - fragment (foto: A. Mihailov)
Сл. 1 Аугуста Трајана, приватна кућа, таблинум, мозаик - фрагмент
(фото: А. Михаилов)
The style of mosaics from the early decades of this period goes through sev-
eral periods: the rough Tetrarchy, followed by the classic illusionistic style of
the time of Constantine the Great as emperor, sometimes reaching even very
expressive verism, modulating images and figures following ancient illusion-
ist principles. It is manifested mainly in the decoration of Christian temples
and other religious buildings (Constantinople, Philippopolis, Marcianopolis,
Serdica, Stobi, Thessaloniki, etc.), but also in the representative residences to
them and in the private homes (Augusta Trayana, Stobi, Heraclea Linkestis,
Philippi, Athens, Delphi, etc.). The new is in the entering different figurative
meaning of the motives and in their selection, which intensifies with the af-
firmation of the Christian religion2. There is a growing duality, as behind the
ancient illusion lies and intensifies the transformed semantics of a conditional
image, which will become typical of the Middle Ages. There are mosaics from
this period in the basilicas in Constantinople, Thessaloniki, Philippi, Serdica,
Mediana, Ulpiana and others.
The mosaic decoration from the first decade of the IV century belongs to
the Tetrarch mosaic style3. Different schemes, spectacular optical motifs, pro-
nounced color treatment, complex compositional solutions, a variety of geomet-
ric elements, as well as a combination of pagan and christian figurative images4
(Augusta Trayana, Constantinople) are used. A new solution to the concept of
1 V. Popova, Vons vitae in Late Antique monuments from Bulgaria, Studia academi-
ca šumenensia 3 (Shumen 2016), 159-160.
2 J. Elsner, Archaeologies and Agendas: Reflections on Late Ancient Jewish Art and
Early Christian Art. The Journal of Roman Studies 93 (Oxford 2003), 119.
3 V. Popova, Monuments from the Tetrarchy and the Reign of the Constantinian
Dynasty in Bulgaria, Niš i Vizantija XIV (Niš 2016a), 155-186.
4 Op. cit., 170-171.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 327
Fig. 4. Augusta Trayana, residence under the Post Office, mosaic (foto: RHM Stara Zagora)
Сл. 4 Аугуста Трајана, резиденција испод поште, мозаик (фото: РХМ Стара Загора)
the Source was presented in large panels as a main theme in the mosaic decora-
tion (Augusta Trayana, Philippi). Also, the scene is often part of cosmogonic
schemes showing a complete or partial picture of the Christian world and what
God created on the 5th and 7th day of Genesis (Augusta Trayana, Philippi).
During this period, pagan symbols and images were used in parallel with chris-
tian ones. For example, the tablinum of a private home in Augusta Trayana de-
picts nereids, vessels of wine and the Source of Life. Gradually, at a later stage,
the reduction of the used figures begins, until their complete ignoring, when the
geometric-ornamental mosaics replace almost entirely the figural compositions,
but this is more typical for the next period.
With regard to other images related to the Eucharist, we must also note
the presence of the cross and Chrism (Median, Pautalia, Stobi). The Chrism has
a predominance as it is additionally connected with the person of Constantine I.
These images are always placed in front of both the chancel and the altar10. This
10 V. Popova, Liturgy and Mosaics: The Case Study of the Late Antique Monuments
from Bulgaria, Nis i Vizantija XVI (Niš 2018), 148.
330 Marina Perseng
Fig. 5. Marcianopolis,
Episcopal basilica,
nave, mosaic - frag-
ment (foto: G.
Toncheva)
Сл. 5
Марцианополис,
Епископска базилика,
брод, мозаик -
фрагмент (фото: Г.
Тончева)
Fig. 6. Nicopolis ad
Nestum, basilica № 2,
central nave, mosaic
(foto: К. Shestakov)
Сл. 6 Никополис ад
Нестум, базилика бр.
2, централни брод,
мозаик (фото: К.
Шестаков)
once again determines that the inclusion of the most important Early Christian
symbols in the decorative decoration of temples is established at the very begin-
ning of the adoption of Christianity as an equal religion.
During this first period, the mosaic art in the cult Christian buildings un-
derwent significant changes in the style and iconography, which was due to
the search in the artistic aspect, based mainly on the development and estab-
lishment of liturgical practice throughout the empire. In this way, the mosaic
decoration serves as an illustration of the connection between the mosaics and
the liturgy, as this connection can be expressed in different ways and has a dif-
ferent essence11. For example, the mosaics support and allow the performance
of the liturgy through their rhythm, composition, color and individual accents
11 Op. cit., 137-138.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 331
Fig. 7. Odessos, Episcopal basilica, central nave, mosaic - reconstruction (foto: M. Perseng)
Сл. 7 Одеса, епископска базилика, централни брод, мозаик - реконструкција (фото: М.
Персенг)
in the key places of the liturgical space. Of course, the mosaic decoration is not
always directly related to the liturgy, sometimes it is only a background for the
ritual actions, but the mysterial nature of the images also supports the spiritual
messages of the liturgy. However, in most cases the figural motifs and scenes
are the visible symbol or literal repetition of a certain liturgical action. These
examples confirm that from this first period the perception of art as an image-
mystical projection of God’s sacraments is directly manifested in the mosaic as
art, inextricably linked with the rest of the artistic decoration and with the whole
architectural complex of the Early Christian basilica.
Development and location of the images and scenes with a Eucharistic theme
from the epoch of the Theodosian dynasty (379-450).
In artistic terms, the end of the IV century is characterized by changes
in style, defining the Theodosian epoch12. The figural motifs started to began
to get lost, to their complete absence, as the geometric-ornamental composi-
tions became extremely complex and rich. This is due to the development of
theological concepts regarding the image and the desire to avoid Pagan remi-
niscences in art. This also determines the directions in mosaic art, in which
geometric elements gradually take precedence over figurative images. For this
reason, geometric-ornamental compositions are present in the decoration of
Christian religious buildings throughout the Balkans (Thessaloniki, Philippi,
Dion, Philippopolis, Zaldapa, Maroneya).
12 V. Popova, 2016a, 171.
332 Marina Perseng
Fig. 8.
Lychnidos,
Episcopal
basilica, diaco-
nicon, mosaic
– fragment (foto:
M. Perseng)
Сл. 8
Лихнидос,
Епископска
базилика,
ђаконикон,
мозаик -
фрагмент
(фото: М.
Персенг)
Fig. 9. Oraiokastro,
suburban vila,
triclinium, mosaic
– fragment (foto: Π.
Ασημακοπούλου-
Ατζακά)
Сл. 9 Ораиокастро,
приградска вила,
триклинијум, мозаик
- фрагмент (фото: П.
Асимакопулу-Атзака)
in and around the chancel, and along the axes of movement of the clergy. The
figurative representations include ancient vessels - cantaros, chalices and am-
phorae, and in the case of the basilica of Kabile they are not in the nave, but in
the narthex due to the supposed path of the deacons carrying the necessary ves-
sels. It should be noted that the puristic style is observed mainly in the mosaic
monuments in Thrace, Hemimont, Rhodope, Europe and Moesia II, and only in
the Balkans figural inclusions disappear completely (Marcinopolis, Zaldapa).
Taking into account the development of theological thought, geometric-
ornamental compositions are used in the art decoration of temples throughout
the empire and remained until the end of the period under consideration. These
334 Marina Perseng
Fig. 11. Pula, basilica of St. Maria Formosa, south nave, mosaic (foto: Ž. Ujčić)
Сл. 11 Пула, базилика св. Марија Формоза, јужни брод, мозаик (фото: Ж. Ујчић)
new directions in the stylistic and iconographic construction of the mosaic dec-
oration during this period also reflected on the figural images, which gradu-
ally began to be introduced again. In the aniconic mosaics from the time of
Theodosius I, the Source of Life and the Vine are only separate figural images
against the background of a geometric-ornamental composition16.
It should be emphasized that once the figural repertoire is reintroduced,
in most cases these scenes are lost, „sunk“ between the other images. This new
artistic approach to modeling, depicting and interpreting images shows the fi-
nal abandonment of the previous illusionist system, borrowed from Antiquity,
which led to the creation of a new type of floor compositions. In them the figural
motifs are presented in separate panels or in a composition, without a frame
between them (the Euphrasian basilica of Porentos, the basilica of Dion, the
basilica of Salona, basilica № 7 in Pautalia, the basilica on Jambaz Tepe of
Philippopolis). In this way, the main stage, which carries the Eucharistic mes-
sages, disintegrates into separate images (Philippopolis, Heraclea, Pautalia),
and in one decoration can be present vessels with wine or water, a peacock, a
Source of Life, a Vine, etc.
The traced mosaic compositions show that the artistic and aesthetic di-
rections in mosaic art at the end of this period passed into the elegant and ex-
tremely artistic style of the Theodosian dynasty, called fine17. Before reaching
it, however, it should be noted that the mosaic art of the early Theodosius I dif-
fered from the fine style in the palette and was closer to the Valentinians and the
16 Eadem, 2016, 148.
17 V. Popova, 2019, 109.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 335
Fig. 12. Heraclea Lyncestis, Episcopal basilica, nartex, mosaic - fragment (foto: M.
Perseng)
Сл. 12 Хераклеа Линкестис, Епископска базилика, нартекс, мозаик - фрагмент (фото:
М. Персенг)
Fig. 16. Nicopolis, basilica A, transept, mosaic - fragment Fig. 17. Delphi, early christian basilica,
(foto: E. Kitzinger) nave, mosaic - fragment (foto: Π.
Сл. 16 Никополис, базилика А, трансепт, мозаик - Ασημακοπούλου-Ατζακά)
фрагмент (фото: Е. Китзингер) Сл. 17 Делфи, ранохришћанска
базилика, наос, мозаик - фрагмент
(фото: П. Асимакопулу-Атзака)
for placing the Christogram on the floor, but in this case it is most likely under
the influence of Arianism as it has been established in the area that the Goth-
federates have settlements19.
As we have mentioned, the axes of the liturgical movement in relation to
the chancel are also emphasized by the mosaic decoration. In mosaics with a
predominant geometric-ornamental essence, such as the mosaic in the basilica
№ 1B of Kabile, the main axes of movement of the clergy in the process itself
are emphasized by the scheme, composition, rhythm, palette and individual ac-
cents. They support and assist in the perform of the Holy Eucharist20. In a for-
mal aspect, the mosaic decoration serves as an artistic background associated
with the mysterious spirit in the basilica during the sacrament, and the figurative
inclusions (cantaros, amphora) are the visible symbol of the Sacrament. In the
mosaic under consideration, the vessels are placed in the narthex, which can be
connected with the actions of the deacons bringing the vessels into the chancel,
with a kind of reminder and preparation for the expected Holy Communion,
which will take place in the sacred space of the altar. Other similar examples are
the basilica of Democrat of Demetrias, the basilica of Paleochora in Maroneia,
the basilica of Veriya and others.
The connection between the mosaic decoration and the liturgical action
is categorically confirmed by the mentioned examples. In addition, they show
that during the epoch of the Theodosian dynasty the liturgy itself became more
The changes from the second half of the 5th century until the coronation
of Justinian I in 527.
This period was marked by extremely many military conflicts, internal
strife and barbarian invasions23. All these riots also affect the art decoration of
the basilicas, the choice of themes and individual elements in the iconographic
programs. This is especially characteristic of the reign of Zeno, when the end
of the Western Roman Empire, due to its conquest by Odoacer, who in 476 was
proclaimed king of Italy24. The end of the period, during the reign of Anastasius
I, was also marked by political crises, which also affected the church life. The
support of the emperor of the monophysites himself led to clashes and even a
revolt in Constantinople25. All these riots also affect the artistic decoration of
the basilicas, the choice of themes and individual elements in the iconographic
programs.
Fig. 20. Delphi, early christian basilica, central Fig. 21. Molai, early christian basilica,
nave, mosaic – fragment (foto: Π. Ασημακοπούλου- central nave, mosaic – fragment (foto: Π.
Ατζακά) Ασημακοπούλου-Ατζακά)
Сл. 20 Делфи, ранохришћанска базилика, Сл. 21 Молаи, ранохришћанска базилика,
централни брод, мозаик - фрагмент (фото: П. централни брод, мозаик - фрагмент (фото:
Асимакопулу-Атзака) П. Асимакопулу-Атзака)
According to some interpretations, they are a symbol of the inevitable and pre-
destined collision, in which one animal (deer, bull, etc.) creates an allusion to
sacrifice, to the necessary sacrifice in the name of God, and the other animal
that attacks (lion, dog, etc.), is a symbol of the destructive forces of death27. The
sublimated picture represents the struggle of the Life and Death, the Sacrifice
and the Resurrection desire, the sacrifice necessary for the Salvation of the
soul, but above all this scene, of deadly conflict, is the personification of the
Resurrection, using the pre-Christian symbolic meaning of sacrifice28. Such
plots are present in the basilica of Hermione; in a building with an unidentified
function in Thebes; in the Episcopal basilica of Heraclea Lyncestis and others.
In the mosaic decoration of this period, an increasing influence of fres-
coes and wall mosaics from Italy began to be noticed. An example of this is
the mosaic decoration of the chapel of Arapya. The scene presents a Shepherd
and a flock in a pastoral landscape, which has similar iconographic features to
the well-known Good Shepherd scene. This image is present in many Christian
tombs and catacombs near Thessaloniki, undergoing many transformations, de-
fined and related to the texts of the Old and New Testaments. The main differ-
ence with the monument from Arapya is in the specific images of the shepherd,
as well as in the accompanying figurative images. It is the iconographic features
that determine that the composition of the monument in Arapya does not rep-
resent the Good Shepherd, but a biblical story, probably described in the Old
Testament. The symbolism of the Eucharist is also emphasized by the scene
Source of Life, but the whole picture must be interpreted in sync. In this way
divided into three panels - rectangular central and two semicircular at the ends.
The two sides represent the Source of Life and the Creations of the Ocean, and
in the center is a figural scene without an analogue so far - a human figure with
the head of a dog and a large snake around it32. According to M. Zeko, this is St.
Christopher, who caught a snake with one hand and swung to strike it with the
other. The plot can be interpreted in a more general sense, such as the struggle
between the good and evil, the faith and temptation and others. Another anthro-
pomorphic image is presented in the basilica of Mesaplik. It depicts a man in
profile, with hair falling freely to his shoulders, tied with a red ribbon, and on
his head with a helmet. On the right is an inscription in Latin - APAKEAS33.
Various assumptions are given to identify the image that connect it with: the
personification of the North wind; the god Abraxas, revered by the Jewish com-
munity; the builder of the basilica; monk and others34. Above all, however,
these anthropomorphic images show the influence of artistic trends coming
from Northern Italy on mosaic art in the provinces of the Western Balkans.
Although stylistically, the mosaic decoration of Antigonea differs from these
influences in that it is extremely schematic, formalized, with reduced volumes,
disproportionate and even rough. Therefore, we can specify the dating of the
mosaic decoration of this monument and date it rather to the end of VI - begin-
ning of VII century.
As we have repeatedly emphasized, mosaic decoration is a reflection
mainly of the liturgy during the period in which it is traced. During this period,
in addition to mosaic decoration, which is built symmetrically and clearly es-
tablishes the axes of movement, in some basilicas in the decoration there are
a variety of motifs and scenes, placed strictly thoughtfully in the interior. This
speaks of a change in the movement during the performance of the liturgical
rite. Apart from the central and lateral axes (basilica E of Bilis, the Episcopal
basilica of Philippopolis, the Southern basilica of Farosa), the basilicas from
this period also have an asymmetrical one, which is not reflected in the layout of
the basilica, but only in the mosaic decoration (the basilica on Tirsos of Tegea,
the basilica of Antigonea).
These iconographically and stylistically diverse examples show the ex-
ceptional variety of techniques, interpretation, construction, motifs and scenes
used, as well as their location in the temples, in the mosaic compositions of this
period. This transitional period of major political changes is also reflected in
the mosaic decoration, which intertwines Eastern with Western artistic influ-
ences, pagan symbols with Christian messages, but the main leading feature
is the return to figurativeness in iconographic programs, but now completely
different from the ancient principles of shaping. Spirituality has completely
pushed materiality into the images and they act as spiritual messages related to
St. Sacraments.
The new style and choice of place from the epoch of Justinian I.
The role of the emperor and his epoch for the culture of Early Byzantium.
With the reign of Justinian I, many changes take place in the political,
administrative and cultural life of the empire. The main goals he pursued, in
his policy as a statesman, were two: to restore the empire to its former integrity
and to impose Orthodoxy throughout the empire35. The second goal is related
to the unification of the Eastern and Western Churches, as under Justin I, but
under pressure from the future emperor Justinian I, the schism over the Western
Church came to an end. Moreover, during this period, not accidentally called
the „century of Justinian“, the establishment of the Orthodox Church as an in-
stitution with a huge role in the life of the empire is confirmed by the huge
construction of Christian religious buildings36. All these processes of unprece-
dented prosperity and development in the artistic life of the empire are reflected
in mosaic art. For these reasons, the high artistic achievements that marked this
time are called „Justinian’s Renaissance“, because behind all this is the inspir-
ing figure of the emperor himself.
The examples from the mosaic monuments in the Balkans show an ex-
tremely high achievement in terms of the art and technical qualities of the mosa-
ics, but we are also witnessing a refined theological idea behind their making.
For example, the mosaic decoration of the Basilica of Dometios in Nicopolis
has a magnificent iconographic program, saturated with many Eucharistic mes-
sages. The figural motifs are proportional, voluminous, very picturesque, and
the color is rich and influential. The style of mosaics is a great representative of
the high artistic achievements in mosaic art during the Justinian dynasty37. It is
a harmonious combination between the Ancient heritage and the already estab-
lished Early Christian system. It is also an example of how a certain image used
in Ancient art was given a Christian interpretation without arousing discourses
about its Pagan nature. Such figurative images are common in mosaic ornaments
from the Greco-Roman period, and their iconography was adopted and spread
in the Eastern Roman Empire in the IV-VI century. Parallels can be made with
mosaics from Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine, and similar compositions have
been found in Antioch. In the Balkans, such compositional solutions, schemes,
filling motifs and figural images correspond to the mosaic decoration of the
basilicas in Nea Anhialos, Klapsi, Athens, Tegea, Thessaloniki, Amphipolis,
Heraclea Lyncestis, basilica № 7 of Pautalia and others. It should be empha-
sized that the technical execution of the mosaic decoration is extremely precise,
supported by the high artistic mastery of the mosaicists, making the decoration
one of the best examples from the period of Justinian’s Renaissance.
In the variety of additional scenes that permanently enter the iconograph-
ic program of the Christian religious buildings, continue to be used: images of
various birds, animals and sea creatures representing the Creations of the Earth
and Ocean (the basilica of Klapsi, basilica A of Nicopolis); and hunting scenes
(basilica A of Nicopolis, the basilica of Delphi). But during this period, the plots
35 И. Божилов, 2008, 64-65.
36 A. Grabar, L’age d’ore de Justinien (Paris 1966), 38-39.
37 E. Kitzinger, 1951, 110-113.
344 Marina Perseng
representing the seasons and months stand out more and more. These calendar
scenes are also borrowed from Аncient art38. In the Еarly Christianity, they
served mainly to show prosperity, through the cycle of rural life, and associated
this ideal with the patron, the guarantor of the monument itself or, more gener-
ally, of the institution itself, which in this case is the Church39. In this context,
this adds an additional semantic level to their reading, as in addition to the
spheres of the Earth and the Ocean, they also connect with the authority of the
clergy, through their privileged role in the liturgical procession. Some authors
interpret the presence of calendar themes in the cult Christian buildings as em-
phasizing the „christianization of time“, in which traditional holidays, marking
the important moments of the year, give way to Christian holidays and celebra-
tions controlled by the clergy40. Of course, these cycles can be given a different
reading, as the seasons and related holidays are born of God, and their calendar
remains unchanged. This means that their essence is preserved but they receive
different names. Examples of such scenes are found in the mosaic decoration
from the end of the previous period (the basilica of Tirsos in Tegea), but in the
Justinian epoch they are much more common (a building with an unidentified
function in Thebes; the basilica of Delphi).
The return to Ancient art principles, which is a characteristic feature
of this epoch, is visible in many mosaic compositions, such as the basilica of
Delphi, basilica A of Nicopolis, the Southern basilica of Justiniana Prima, a
building of unknown origin in Thebes and others. The anthropomorphic im-
ages, representing the personification of the months (Delphi, Thebes), of hunt-
ers and fishermen (Nicopolis, Bilis) and of a shepherd (Justinian Prima), are
constructed precisely, proportionally, voluminously, in dynamic poses and with
a classical drawing of the figures. However, these images cannot be confused
with the Ancient ones, as the selection of symbolic groups and the spiritual
presence behind the material form speak of an enriched Christian culture of new
recognizable theological suggestions for the cyclical following of the seasons in
the Christian conception of the Time.
During this period, into the mosaic decoration of the Western and Central
Balkans intensified the artistic influences coming from Northern Italy41. An ex-
ample of this is the mosaic decoration of the basilica № 7 in Pautalia, which is
a magnificent combination of technical craftsmanship and artistic techniques42.
The composition in the apse is balanced, with a harmonious and proportional
combination of the individual elements, and the figural images are interpreted
through the classical principles of drawing, proportions, symmetry and color
nuance. In the reconstruction assumes the use of Chrism as the personification
of Jesus and the lambs of the Apostles, with parallel mosaics from the Basilica
38 W. R. Caraher, Church, Society and the Sacred in Early Christian Greece, disserta-
tion (The Ohio State University 2003), 177.
39 Π. Ασημακοπούλου-Ατζακά, Τα παλαιοχριστιανικά ψηφιδωτά δάπεδα του Ανατο-
λικού Ιλλυρικού (Θεσσαλονίκης 1984), 399-402.
40 W. R. Caraher, 2003, 178.
41 E. Polimeri, Epirus Nova në periudhën paleokristiane dhe Bizantine (Shek. IV –
XI), dissertation (Universiteti i Tiranës 2017), 151-152.
42 V. Popova, 2018, 153.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 345
motives due to the disintegration of the main stage. It should be noted that the
auxiliary motifs and scenes are placed in the central and western part of the
church, and in the eastern direction, towards the chancel, the images become
more and more directly connected with the liturgy and accordingly loaded with
more Eucharistic symbolism. This turns the artistic decoration in the temples
into an extremely rich aesthetic spectacle with spiritual messages in the whole
spectrum of Christian theology. In addition, this tendency reinforces the im-
pression of the increasing complexity of the liturgical process and the specific
movements of the clergy, which include, in addition to the central and side
naves, also the auxiliary rooms of the basilica
In the search for and use of Ancient art principles in mosaic ateliers dur-
ing the Justinian epoch, a new dimension of Christian figurative language was
reached. In perfect synthesis with the art mastery that formally builds the im-
ages is the theological message that makes the scenes meaningful, inspired by
God. It is here that the word and the image join hands, building the magnificent
picture of God’s creation and of the Salvation that comes from Jesus.
from the Post-Justinian period, we will find significant differences, which are
expressed in a highly generalized interpretation of the images, and the general
suggestion is for a formalized and heraldic mosaic art.
Mosaic monuments from this period are preserved in Molai, Hermione,
Caesarea and Justinian Prima. In the basilica of Molai in the figural scenes there
are a number of images: a rabbit and a bull (cow), located one above the other;
an eagle with outstretched wings, holding a fox in its claws, and around it a
smaller eagle and two roosters at the bottom; an eagle with outstretched wings,
which has caught a rabbit, and around it a smaller eagle, two fish and two roost-
ers in the lower area, etc. All scenes have the qualities listed above, in addition,
the color scheme is monotonous, and the compositions - without a pronounced
compositional axis. In Hermione the same character of the mosaic decoration
is observed49, as the presented scene Source of Life is interpreted extremely
dryly and anti-classical. The other scenes (two peacocks around a palm tree and
around them vines with leaves and bunches; a goose that caught a snake (fish?)
with another bird behind it, as well as two peacocks in the upper area; an eagle
with outstretched wings caught a smaller bird, etc.) have the same artistic char-
acteristics. It should be noted the dynamics in the scenes, which is due to the
linear structure of the images and the special rhythmicity, a consequence of the
drawing, and not to the movement of the presented birds and animals.
These examples again emphasize that this last stage in the development
of mosaic decoration in the Early Christian period on the Balkans in artistic
terms is emphatically schematic and the images act more as a symbol-sign than
with their artistic qualities. This last stage marks the end of the Eucharistic
theme, which began in the church Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. This mani-
festation in art continued in the following periods, and during the Middle Ages
it acquired aesthetic characteristics that marked the whole epoch. The icono-
graphic and stylistic analysis of the mosaic monuments confirms that there are
several main art centers in the Balkans, which are at the same time the main
administrative and ecclesiastical ones. Such are Constantinople, Thessaloniki,
Nicopolis, Philippopolis, Marcianopolis, Lychnidos, Dirahion and others. The
iconographic programs realized in their mosaic ateliers spread to other centers,
influencing the imposition of certain scenes and motifs. This does not mean that
there are no differences in the smaller centers, but they are not so definite and
do not become widespread.
The multi-layered nature of cultural processes during the Early Christian
period is clearly evident in the monumental arts and specifically in the mosaics,
manifested in the syncretism of the images and the combination of the formal
principles with the symbolic spiritual messages of Christianity. The desire for
immaterial depiction of religious - theological sacraments and feelings is often
intertwined with the illusionistic borrowings of classical art, as an element of
the Ancient cult of images, which are apparently inherited in the Early Christian
art. The transcendence of the Christian worldview is reflected in the art of the
age, through the gradual neglect of material, sensory influence and natural pro-
Марина Персенг
(Докторанд на Новом бугарском универзитету)
ИКОНОГРАФСКИ И СТИЛСКИ РАЗВОЈ ЕВХАРИСТИЈСКИХ СЛИКА
У ПОДНИМ МОЗАИЦИМА НА БАЛКАНУ ТОКОМ РАНОГ ХРИШЋАНСТВА
Graham Jones
(Oxford University School of Geography and the Environment)
Did Helena Augusta and her son Constantine the Great become regard-
ed as saints simply in response to his establishment of Christianity as a state-
sponsored religion and her reported rediscovery of the Cross, or were other,
older impulses in play, external to Christianity? As Constantine’s ambiguous
and synchretic approach to religion becomes more widely recognised, scrutiny
350 Graham Jones
Fig. 1 The Dioscuri with (left) Nemesis, and (right) Helen. Left: Apulian red figure, volute
krater, c. 330-10bce. In a scene of ‘Orpheus in the Underworld’, Nemesis wields sword
and bridle, while the Dioscuri wear travellers’ caps and are accompanied by a star (one of
several around the upper edge of the painting). Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich
(Cat. No. Munich 3297). Right: Helen with kalathos (basket) headwear and fillets (narrow
strips of ribbon or similar material, often worn as a headband or in the hair) hanging from
her wrists. Stele from Sparta (Lindsay, Helen of Troy, p. 215).
Сл. 1 Диоскури са Немезом (лево) и Хеленом (десно). Лево: кратер из Апулије,
црвенофигурално сликарство око 330-10 пре н.е. У сцени „Орфеј у подземном свету“
приказана је Немеза док су Диоскури праћени звездом. Десно: Хелен са калатосом и
повезима у коси. Стела из Спарте.
Fig. 4 Aphrodite Urania seated on globe, Fig. 5 Hera Ourania riding her lion with Dioscuri in at-
wearing chiton and peplos and tiara sur- tendance. Nicolo seal gem, second to fourth century ce,
mounted by a star, and holding a sceptre North Africa. British Museum, 1899,0722.5 (reference,
ending in a loop from which hang two Footnote 33).
fillets (hair or wrist ribbons); star on left. Сл. 5 Хера Уранија на лаву са Диоскурима. Од II до
Ouranopolis, silver stater (numismatic detail, IV века н.е., Северна Африка, по:
Footnote 32) British Museum, 1899,0722.5 (напомена 33)
Сл. 4 Афродита Уранија на глобу, носи
хитон и пеплос, као и тијару састављену
од звезда, држи скиптар са трачицама које
излазе из њене косе; звездаста тијара је
лево. Уранополис (нумизматички детаљ,
напомена, 32)
popular belief. The new age can not be fully understood if divorced from the
old. Change goes hand in hand with continuity, and also with diversity. For
some societies, as Prince Fabrizio declares in Il Gattopardo, set in the Greco-
Latin-Maghrebian cultural amalgam which is Sicily, everything must change
for things to stay the same.3
Fig. 6 Altar from Qassouba, near Byblos, ‘Non aliter caeco nocturni
with dedication to Ourania. Kalathos turbine Cauri
flanked by sculptures of sphinx (refer- scit peritura ratis, cum iam
ences, Footnote 35)
damnata sororis
Сл. 6 Олтар из Касубе, близу Библоса, igne Therapnaei fugerunt car-
са посветом Уранији. Уз калатос су basa fratres.’
скулптуре сфинги (напомена 35)
‘Just so [literally ‘Not other-
wise’] in a blind northwesterly hurricane at night
a ship knows she will perish, when doomed by their sister’s
fire [are its] sails [and] from them the brothers of Therapnae have
fled.’ 7
The brothers are the Dioscuri (‘Sons of Zeus’), Castor and Pollux/
Polydeuces, the heavenly twins who were Helen’s mythic brothers (Fig. 1),8 and
Anonymi in Statii Achilleida commentum. Fulgentii ut fingitur Planciadis super Thebaiden
commentariolum, Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana (Stuttgart,
Teubner, 1997), hereafter Sweeney, ‘Lactantius’.
6 ‘Introduction’, in ‘Statius ed. Shackleton Bailey’, pp. 1-2.
7 Book 7, Lines 791-94. The ship knows she will perish ‘when the brethren of Therap-
nae have fled sails doomed by their sister’s fire’: ‘Statius, ed. Shackleton Bailey’, pp. 456-57.
8 Georgia S. Maas, ‘Castor and Pollux’ in Michael Gagarin (ed.), The Oxford En-
cyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2010). Jack
Lindsay, Helen of Troy, Woman and Goddess (Totowa, New Jersey, Rowman and Littlefield,
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 355
1974), hereafter Lindsay, ‘Helen’, pp. 240-56, 389-91. Fernand Chapouthier, Les Dioscures
au service d’ une Déesse, Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome, Fasci-
cule 137 (Paris, Editions de Boccard, 1935), hereafter Chapouthier, ‘Dioscures’. Carl Robert,
Die griechische Heldensage (3 vols, Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1921-1926), 1, p.
322. Arthur Bernard Cook, Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion (3 vols, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1914, 1925, 1940), 1, pp. 772ff.
9 Jones, ‘Seeds’.
10 Graham Jones, ‘Aspects of Helen: Byzantine and other influences on the reading
of Constantine’s mother in the West’, in Miša Rakocija (ed.), Niš and Byzantium... Scientific
Works II (2004), pp. 13-27, pp. 25-26; ‘The power of Helen’s name: Heritage and legacy,
myth and reality’, in Scientific Works VII (2009), pp. 351-70; ‘Seas, saints, and power-play:
356 Graham Jones
The Homeric Hymn to the Dioscuri, ‘not later than the start of the fifth
century bce and may be earlier’ and based on (?)eighth-century materials, de-
scribes the seafarers’ terror and relief. Helen is not named here, but the Twins
are
‘deliverers of men on earth and of swift-going ships when stormy gales
rage over the ruthless sea. Then the shipmen call upon the sons of great Zeus
with vows of white lambs, going to the forepart of the prow; but the strong wind
and the waves of the sea lay the ship under water, until suddenly these two are
seen darting through the air on tawny wings. Forthwith they allay the blasts of
the cruel winds and still the waves upon the surface of the white sea: fair signs
are they and deliverance from toil. And when the shipmen see them they are
glad and have rest from their pain and labour.’11
The saving twins appear on their own in the poetry of Alcaeus;12 mount-
ed, on a fourth or third century bce relief found at Piraeus showing a figure on a
boat raising his hand to them;13 on another perhaps from Pephnos, the dedicator
beside his ship offering thanks to their statues;14 in the decoration of ships;15
and in the naming of the ship, the Castor and Pollux, in which the apostle Paul
sailed circa 40 to 50ce (Acts 28:2); but together with Helen in the second book
of Pliny’s Natural History, where Pliny (23-79ce), described how the lights,
which he called ‘stars’, settled not only upon the masts and other parts of ships,
but also on the spear-tips of soldiers standing guard on ramparts:
‘Two of these lights foretell good weather and a prosperous voyage, and
extinguish one that appears single and with a threatening aspect – this the sailors
call Helen, but the two they call Castor and Pollux, and invoke them as gods.’
The ‘fires’ are electrical discharges, flux without defined shape.
Nevertheless, the ancients perceived them as celestial lights and classified them,
as Pliny does, as best they could as stars. Several more centuries on, Lactantius,
in his commentary on the Thebaid, followed suit, adding an important snippet
of information (here in bold type):
The role of the supernatural in state-building and culture-forging in the world of Stefan Ne-
manja’, in Scientific Works XIII (2015), pp. 87-104.
11 Hugh G. Evelyn-White (trs. and ed.), Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns and Homerica
(London, William Heinemann, 1914), hereafter Evelyn-White, ‘Hesiod’, 33.6-8. J. Humbert,
Hymnes homériques (Paris, Société d’édition ‘Les Belles Lettres’, 1959), 249-51, dates the
poetry to before the third century ce. and ‘sans doute’ before the sixth. The twins also appear
as sea saviours in, e.g. Theocritus, trs. C. S. Calverley (2nd edn rev., London, George Bell
and Sons, 1883), Idyll 22, ‘The Sons of Leda’, pp. 119ff.
12 D. L. Page, Sappho and Alcaeus (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1955, repr. 1979), pp.
265-68.
13 F. T. Van Straten, ‘Gifts for the Gods’, in H. S. Versnel (ed.), Faith, Hope and Wor-
ship: Aspects of Religious Mentality in the Ancient World (Leiden, Brill, 1981), pp. 65-104,
p. 97 and Fig. 39; H. C. Ackermann and J.-R. Gisler (eds), Lexicon Iconographicum Mytho-
logiae Classicae (Zurich, 1981-), hereafter LIMC, 3.1: ‘Dioskouroi’, no. 121.
14 LIMC 3.2: Dioskouroi, 122.
15 For archaeological wreck discoveries, Amber Gartrell, ‘Caesar’s Castor: The cult
of the Dioscuri in Rome from the mid-Republic to the early Principate’, unpub. DPhil. thesis,
Oxford University, 2015, pp. 201-02.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 357
...quia nautae, cum stellam Helenae viderint – quae Urania dicitur, cuius
tanta est vis incendii, ut malum cauet et navis ima pertundat, ut etiam si aes
fuerit, hoc calore solvatur – ergo si haec stella navi insederit, sciunt se nautae
sine dubio perituros. [Small space] et contra Castorum sidera sunt naviganti-
bus salutaria.
‘when they saw the star Helen - which it is said is Urania – such is the
power of the fire that... if this star was rooted in the ship, the sailors knew they
should fall... [but they] are saved by the beneficial twin stars.’
incessant observation and oral record to chart the cyclical patterns of the cos-
mos. The bard Linus, patron of singers and harpers, is called her son,22 fathered
variously by Apollo,23 Amphimaros son of Poseidon as on Mount Helicon on
the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, site of the most famous of the Muses’
temples,24 and Hermes;25 while Hymenaeus, god of marriages, also is described
as a son of Ourania and Apollo.26 Ourania was also acclaimed a Muse of verse,
song and verse being auxiliary to memory, it might be remarked, not to mention
the arithmetic aesthetics of astronomy.27
Canonically, as on coins of the moneyer Quintus Pomponius Musa,28
proud of his cognomen and inspired by a Greek sculptor (Fig. 3),29 Ourania
appears with a globe to which she points with a little staff, and/or compass.
Equally important is her halo, a single large star or circlet of smaller stars,
symbolising the cosmos and also science. She often gestures towards the heav-
ens, appearing too with a mortal, ‘a source of inspiration to yearn for higher
things’.30 Presiding over astrology, she could foretell the future ‘from the posi-
tion of the stars’.31
22 ‘So Urania bare Linus, a very lovely son’: Diogenes Laertius, 8. 1. 26 , printed as
‘Hesiod, Fragments of Unknown Position 1’, in Evelyn-White, ‘Hesiod’; Folk Songs Frag-
ment 880 (from Scholiast B on Homer’s Iliad) (Greek lyric bce) in D[avid] A. Campbell
(trs.), Greek Lyric V. New School of Poetry and Anonymous Songs, LCL 144 (Cambridge
MA, Harvard University Press, 2014).
23 Pseudo-Hyginus (Roman mythographer of the second century ce), Fabulae, Peter
K. Marshall (ed.), Bibliotheca scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana (Munich
and Leipzig, De Gruyter, 2002), 161, p. 136.
24 Pausanias, ‘Greece’, 4 (Boeotia), 29.5, p. 297. See also Suda (Byzantine Greek
lexicon, tenth century ce), Suidae Lexicon, trs. Ada Adler (5 vols, Leipzig, Teubner, 1928-
1938, repr. 1971) and Suda On Line, <https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-html/>, here-
after ‘Suda’, s.v. ‘Linos’, lambda 568.
25 Suda, s.v. ‘Linos’, lambda 568.
26 Catullus, ed. D. F. S. Thomson, Phoenix Supplementary Volumes 34 (Toronto,
University of Toronto Press, 1997), 61, line 2..
27 D[avid] A. Campbell (trs.), Greek Lyric IV, LCL 461 (Cambridge MA, Harvard
University Press, 2014), pp. 155 (Fragment 6), 139 (5), 137 (4), 213 (16), respectively. See
also Ovid’s Fasti, trs. James George Frazer (London, William Heinemann, 1959), v. 55 (pp.
254-55).
28 David R. Sear, Roman Coins and their Values (London, Spink, 2000), #359, Pom-
ponia 22.
29 Classical Numismatic Group, Triton XVII Virtual Catalog (Lancaster PA, 2013), p.
171, citing Pliny the Elder, Natural History 35.66. Ovid, Fasti, trs. James G. Frazer, rev. G.
P. Goold, LCL 253 (Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, 1931), 6.812.
30 Clifford J. Cunningham, Brian G. Marsden, and Wayne Orchiston, ‘The attribution
of Classical deities in the iconography of Giuseppe Piazzi’, Journal of Astronomical History
and Heritage 14(2) (2011), pp. 129-35. Diodorus of Sicily in Twelve Volumes [first century
bce], trs. C. H. Oldfather (London, William Heinemann, 1933), Bk 4.7.1 (pp. 360-65).
31 Statius, Thebaid [Bk] 8, lines 548 ff, ed. Antony Augoustakis (Oxford,
Oxford University Press, 2016), lines 548-53 (p. 41).
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 359
reported it was ‘the worst sign in the world to sailors, if [the ball of light] be
single; but a very good one, if double. The ancients believed these to be Castor
and Pollux.’ 49 Both fires, single and double, are shown in an engraving accom-
panying the account of a storm-tossed voyage from Alexandria to Rhodes in
October 1582. The Latin phrase heard as the plasma appeared towards the end
of the storm was Sancti Germani sidus, understood by the hearer, the Lithuanian
duke Mikołaj Radziwiłł as ‘the fire of St Germanus’, but surely meant as ‘the
fire of the Holy Brothers’. The single fire is not named.50 The distinction be-
tween the threatening and saving fires may well explain the absence of ‘Ste’ for
‘Saint’ in the first of two French terms for St Elmo’s Fire, Feu d’Helene and
Feu S. Herme, reported in the French-English dictionary of 1611 compiled by
Randle Cotgrave, secretary to William Cecil, Queen Elizabeth I’s chief adviser,
though he appears to have ‘corrected’ the attribution as he perceived it by insert-
ing ‘Saint’ in his translation:51
‘Feu d’Helene. as Feu S.Herme.
Feu S. Herme. Saint Helens, or S. Hermes fire; a Meteor that often
appeares as sea; Looke [i.e. see] Furole...
The importance of putting ‘the star of Helen which they call Ourania’ into
context alongside those other Ouranias, Aphrodite and Hera, becomes further
clear by reference to a message of Horace (65-8bce), wishing a friend a safe
voyage and commending them to the protection of the Dioscuri: ‘Thus may
Cyprus’ heavenly queen [Aphrodite]/ Thus Helen’s brethren, stars of brightest
sheen/ Guide thee!’58
53 Thomas Heyrick, ‘The Submarine Voyage. A Pindarique Ode’, published in Mis-
cellany Poems by Tho. Heyrick (Cambridge, John Hayes for the Author, 1691), pp. 2-3.
54 Joseph Hall, ‘Sea-floor property and imperial future in Thomas Heyrick’s “The
Submarine Voyage” (1691), Eighteenth-Century Fiction 31.4 (Summer 2019), pp. 639-57.
55 Robert Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy (Oxford, Henry Cripps, 1621; repr. Lon-
don, Chatto & Windus, 1924), p. 123.
56 Herodotus ‘History, trs. Rawlinson’, p. 293.
57 Euripides. Orestes, trs. John Peck and Frank Nisetich (Oxford, Oxford University
Press, 1995), p. 87, lines 1709-1711.
58 Horace. The Odes and Carmen Saeculare of Horace, trs. John Conington (London,
364 Graham Jones
gressive competition between similar but rival ideas of pilgrimage, ritual, and
salvation. Other grottoes, other stars came into play under new ownership, and
new branding.
Of the conflicted character of Helen, Lindsay wrote ‘She is the exalted
nurse-mother presiding over [Aphrodite’s] dances and games; she is also the
hanged heroine (in Rhodes). She is the pure emblem of daimonic beauty... an
aspect of the fertility principle... which finds its natural end in delighted mar-
riage; she is also the fatality disrupting marriage and provoking murder... In the
mystery religions the dual aspects can be taken in and the conflicts resolved.
Dionysos torn to pieces by his bulls, is perpetually reborn as the child nursed by
the nymphs. In the rituals of the sacrificed son, Attis, Adonis, Christ, the terrible
death is salved by the resurrection.’61
When mariners of Rhodes in the second century ce dedicated an offering
at Tenos after a successful voyage ‘To the Dioskouroi and Helen’,62 perhaps
they were accepting that enterprise entails risk and that salvation and resolu-
tion are only experienced as the desired and desirable end to a stormy passage,
whether through human relationships or a high wind at sea. Christian ideas of
redemption say much the same.
The sailors most exposed to destructive storms were not the coastal navi-
gators, but those who took to the deep waters to cross from one side of the
Mediterranean to another. They included shipmen from Byblos, who doubtless
knew of Ourania and, having lived to tell the tale, perhaps linked her star with
Helen’s fire, continuing to do so after the shift to Christianity. To what extent
they associated Helen with her imperial namesake remains open to question,
though the legend of Helena calming a storm with a nail from the cross may
be a significant pointer,63 as the firewalking of Thrace64 may point to survival
in the cult of Constantine and Helena of Dionysiac elements evident in, even if
not directly linked to what Lindsay called the ‘spiritualising’ of Helen and the
fourth-century movement to ‘divinise Helen afresh’.65
Грејем Џоунс
(Оксфорд Универзитет, Школа геоградије и животне средине Универзитета)
КОСМИЧКО СВЕТЛО И НАРАТИВ ПРЕЛАЗА СА ГРЧКОГ ХЕЛЕНА НА
УНИВЕРЗАЛАН НАЗИВ ХЕЛЕНА
Ivana Lemcool1
(Faculty of Orthodox Theology, University of Belgrade)
Fig. 1 The opening page of the Mathesis by Iulius Firmicus Maternus, 11th century, Paris,
BnF, Ms. Lat. 17867.
Сл. 1 Почетна страница рукописа Mathesis-a Јулија Фирмика Матерна, XI век, Paris,
BnF, Ms. Lat. 17867.
of the first book, which makes us conclude that the text must have been written
during emperor’s life, that is, before the end of the year of 337.4 The passage
goes as follows:
“the lord and our Augustus, emperor of the whole world, the pious, for-
tunate and far-seeing Constantine, the oldest son of the deified Constantius, a
prince of august and venerable memory, who was chosen to rescue the world
from the rule of tyrants and to suppress evils at home by the favour of his own
majesty, so that through him the squalor of servitude might be washed away and
the gifts of secure freedom restored to us, and so that we might cast off the yoke
of captivity from our already tired and oppressed necks. Always fighting for our
liberty he was never deceived by the fortune of war, that most uncertain thing
among human vicissitudes. Born in Naissus, from the first stage of his age he
held the rudders of empire, which he had acquired under favourable auspices,
and he sustains the Roman world by the salubrious moderation of his rule so
that it enjoys an increase of its everlasting good fortune.”5
Translation is according to Timothy Barnes who emended this paragraph,
since modern editions repeat the error of the eleventh-century scribe in the old-
est preserved manuscript of the Mathesis, where it is written: “Constantinus sci-
licet maximus divi Constantini filius,” instead of Constantii filius. The name of
Constantius is often confused with the name of Constantine in medieval sources
and that mistake has led some researchers to assume that the emperor to whom
Firmicus Maternus gives praise is in fact Constantine II, the son of Constantine
the Great, which would place the composition of the Mathesis at a later date.6
Yet, the mention of Naissus as the birthplace of the emperor brings us to the
conclusion that the Constantine in question seems to be Constantine the Great.
It is known that Constantine II was born in Arles, Constantius II most likely
in Sirmium, and the birthplace of Constans is uncertain.7 Yet, since another
source, the anonymous Origo Constantini Imperatoris, chronologically close to
the Mathesis, also mentions Naissus as the place of Constantine’s birth, we can
be fairly certain that Firmicus Maternus is indeed referring to Constantine the
Great.8 Since Origo was written shortly after Constantine’s death, the Mathesis
can be considered as the older of the two sources.
4 Ancient Astrology Theory and Practice, Matheseos Libri VIII by Firmicus Mater-
nus, trans. J. Rhys Bram, Park Ridge/NJ 1975, I, IV, 10; I, X,13; 18, 29-30.
5 T. Barnes, Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire,
Chichester 2014, 168-9, n. 38.
6 Mace, Dissertation, passim. Common occurrence of medieval copyist’s error in
supplanting the name of Constantius with that of his son was highlighted by L.Thorndike
History of Magic and Experimental Science During the First Thirteen Centuries of Our Era,
vol.1, London 1923, 526.
7 Of Arles as birthplace of Constantine II, we learn from Epitome de Caesaribus,
trans. T. B. Bachich, Buffalo NY 2018, 41 and Zosimus, New History, trans. R. T. Ridley,
Canberra 2006, 33. Julian’s Oration to Constantius mentions that he was born in Illyricum,
and since it is recorded in Theodosian Code that Constantine was in Sirmium two months
prior to the birth of Constantius in 317, it is probably there that his third son was born. Julian,
Orations I. 5D, The Works of Emperor Julian I, trans. W. C. Wright, Cambridge MA 1913, 15;
CTh. 11. 30. 7.
8 The Origin of Constantine: The Anonymous Valesianus pars Prior (Origo Con-
370 Ivana Lemcool
The laudatory passage quoted is found in the chapter devoted to the influ-
ence of the stars on the physiognomy and disposition of men based on the place
they were born, and the author uses the example of the emperor to illustrate
his point. Praise to the emperor was a literary convention in Classical writing;
that in the Mathesis it is inserted in the section dealing with planetary effects
on the people in different geographic zones may be more than a coincidence.
Following this passage, Maternus invokes each of the planets, as well as the sun
and moon, which were counted among the planets in ancient astronomy, and
beseeches them to aid and protect Constantine and his sons:
“... by virtue of the harmony of your rule, and obedient to the highest
god who gives you never-ending lordship, vouchsafe that Constantine the Most
Great Princeps and his unconquered children, our lords and Caesars, rule over
our children and our children’s children through endless ages so that, freed from
all misfortune, the human race may enjoy everlasting peace and prosperity.”9
It has been put forward that the highest god mentioned in this passage,
to whom Maternus claims the planets are obedient, is none other than the God
of the Christians.10 In 343, Firmicus Maternus wrote a Christian polemic De
Errore Profanarum Religionum- “On the error of profane religions” in which
he urges the Emperors Constantius and Constans to suppress pagan rites in the
western parts of the Roman Empire.11 In earlier scholarship, it was doubted that
the author of an astrological manual could be the author of a staunch attack on
pagan religions and it was contested that both works were written by Maternus;
however, a stylistic analysis has proven that indeed both works were written by
the same person.12 The later treatise is characterized by violent rhetoric which
has been interpreted by some researchers as a sign of zeal of a recent con-
vert.13 Still, there have been those, such as Lynn Thorndike, who believed that
Maternus was a Christian even at the time he was writing the Mathesis.14
stantini), 2, trans. J. Stevenson, From Constantine to Julian: Pagan and Byzantine Views, A
Source History, eds. S. N. C. Lieu and D. Montserrat, London 1996, 39–62, 43.
9 Mathesis, I, X, 14; 29-30.
10 Barnes, Constantine, 169.
11 While the date of the polemic has been placed generally between 343 and 350,
George Woudhuysen argues convincingly for 343 as the year Maternus wrote this work,
based on the vivid description of Constans’ visit to Britain in 343 and the lack of mention of
events that occurred later that year and the following one in the East, which indicates that
news of Constantius’ victory in 343 and the Battle of Singara in 344 had not yet reached the
West. G. Woudhuysen, Uncovering Constans’ Image, Imagining Emperors in the Later Ro-
man Empire, eds. D. W. P. Burgersdijk and A. J. Ross, (Leiden/Boston 2018), 158-182, 172.
12 C. H. Moore, Julius Firmicus Maternus: der Heide und der Christ, PhD disserta-
tion, Munich 1897.
13 H. A. Drake, Firmicus Maternus and the Politics of Conversion, Qui Miscuit
Utile Dulci: Festschrift Essays for Paul Lachlan MacKendrick, eds. G. Schmeling and J.
D. Mikalson, (Wauconda ILL 1998), 133–150; M. Kahlos, The Rhetoric of Tolerance and
Intolerance – From Lactantius to Firmicus Maternus, Continuity and Discontinuity in Early
Christian Apologetics, eds. J. Ulrich, A.-C. Jacobsen, and M. Kahlos, (Aarhus 2009), 79–95.
14 Thorndike, History of Magic, 527-531. More recently, the view of Maternus as a
Christian adherent at the time of his writing of the astrological handbook is also espoused in
Woudhuysen, Uncovering Constans’ Image, 171.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 371
In both works, Maternus uses the term Summus Deus, which is often
found in the extant letters and documents of Constantine, as well as in the writ-
ings of some of the Church Fathers such as Lactantius.15 But it was also used by
a great number of Romans, from those worshiping Jupiter, to those belonging to
the cult of Mithras, as well as those that would consider themselves Hermetists
or Neoplatonists. Thus, application of this term should be viewed as a part of a
conscious effort to appeal to a broad religious audience, which certainly must
have been the case with Constantine and Lactantius, as well as Maternus.16
Throughout the Mathesis, he talks of multiple gods, which should make us re-
frain or at least make cautious from leaping to conclusions when it comes to his
religious adherence during the writing of this work. It is most likely that he did
not want to alienate himself and his subject matter from any potential readers. It
is possible that he was leaning towards Christianity already, or it may be that he
wanted to appeal to those in the highest instances of power who had Christian
predilections, such as the Emperor Constantine himself.
Producing a thoroughly Christian version of astrology would have been
a highly risky endeavor, since opposing attitudes towards astrology and divina-
tion in general have been expressed in the writings of numerous early Church
fathers, and prohibitions of astrological practice among Christian believers are
found already in Didache.17 However, we have evidence of many Christians
practicing astrology, as we can surmise from the complaints and condemnations
of those same Church Fathers that testify of astrological activity among their
congregation.18 There are also preserved horoscopes of persons with Christian
names and epitaphs showing zodiacal signs alongside Christian symbols.19
While there were some heretical groups which tried to incorporate astrological
theories into Christian teachings, there were many converts who simply contin-
ued consulting astrologers.20 Some researchers have pointed out how Maternus
15 N. Lenski, Early Retrospectives on the Christian Constantine: Athanasius and
Firmicus Maternus, Constantino prima e dopo Constantino/Constantine before and after
Constantine, eds. G. Bonamente, N. Lenski and R. Lizzi Testa, (Bari 2012), 465–479, 476–
477. Lactantius uses the term Summus Deus more than any other Latin Church Father, as
concluded in E. DePalma Digeser, The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius & Rome,
Ithaca/London 2000, 68.
16 Loc. cit.
17 The Didache, 3, trans. M. B. Riddle (Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 7), Buffalo NY
1886. For an overview of writings of Early Christian Fathers on astrology, see T. Hegedus,
Early Christianity and Ancient Astrology, New York 2007.
18 Tertullian, On Idolatry, 9, 1, trans. S. Thellwall, Buffallo NY 1885; Origen, Homi-
lies on Joshua, 5, 6, trans. B. J. Bruce, Washington DC 2002.
19 In a group of papyri from late fourth-century Antinoe, there are horoscopes calcu-
lated for birth times of two men whose names- Ioannes and Kyrillos, lead us to conclusion
that they must have been Christian. R. S. Bagnall, Egypt in the Late Antiquity, Princeton NJ
1993, 274. On the mid fourth-century tomb of a boy named Simplicius in Rome, the sign of
Capricorn and the letters Alpha and Omega are carved. J. McCaul, Christian Epitaphs of the
First Six Centuries, Toronto 1869, 54–55.
20 On astrological beliefs among heretical groups, see Hippolytus, Refutation of All
Heresies, 4.46-50, trans. J. H. MacMahon, Buffalo NY 1886; Irenaeus, Against Heresies, I,
15, 6; I, 24, 7, trans. A. Roberts and W. Rambaut, Buffalo NY 1885.
372 Ivana Lemcool
21 C. Sogno, Astrology, Morality, the Emperor, and the Law in Firmicus Maternus’
„Mathesis“, Illinois Classical Studies 30 (2005), 167–176; H. Mace, Astrology and Religion
in Late Antiquity, A Companion to Religion in Late Antiquity, ed. J. Lössl and N. J. Baker-
Brian, (Hoboken NJ/ Malden MA 2018), 433–451, 447.
22 Mathesis II, XXX; 68-70.
23 Frederick Cramer, Astrology in Roman Law and Politics, Philadelphia PA 1954,
279–280. The text of the edict has not been preserved, but some of its promulgations have
been preserved by Cassius Dio. Dio’s Roman History VII, 56, 25, 5, trans. E. Cary, London
and Cambridge MA 1955, 57.
24 Mathesis II, XXX, 3; 69.
25 Mathesis II, XXX, 4; 69.
26 Mathesis II, XXX, 5; 69.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 373
stars.27 In fact, some of the emperors had used their nativities to proclaim their
glorious destiny and dispel any rumors of their impending fall or approaching
death. That was the case with Augustus who made his horoscope public in the
same edict of 11 AD, or Septimius Severus, who had the ceilings of reception
halls in his palace painted with his horoscopes.28 However, Maternus here pres-
ents us with a novel cosmological conception of a sovereign who is above the
law of the stars and subordinate only to the Supreme God.
Yet, throughout the Mathesis, Maternus contradicts his own stance on
the emperor’s exemption from astrological determinism. Firstly, when he uses
the example of Emperor Constantine to illustrate how the place of one’s birth
influences the complexion and character of the native.29 In the same passage,
he states that Constantine received his rule under favorable auspices and calls
him fortunate, an adjective which could imply some degree of fatalistic notions.
That he expects the planets to exert influence on the life of the emperor is re-
vealed by the prayer addressed to them at the end of the first book. Furthermore,
he identifies placements which indicate if a person shall become an emperor or
be involved in the affairs of the emperor; e.g. “Located on the ascendant by day
with Saturn, the Sun will make emperors or kings” or “the Moon moving from
Mercury toward Jupiter will make the natives great and powerful, entrusted
with papers and secrets of emperors.”30 He lists certain positions and aspects
of planets which make a person an object of emperor’s hatred and he points out
those which caused the emperor to pass sentence on an individual whose chart
he analyses in the second book of the Mathesis.31 This individual, as Maternus
states, was well known to him and his friend, Lollianus Mavortius, to whom
he dedicated his astrological handbook and at whose request he composed it.
As Maternus mentions in the preface of the first book, at the time they met,
Mavortius was a governor of Campania, when he commissioned the work on
astrology, he was appointed governor of the entire East, “by the wise and re-
spected judgment of our Lord and Emperor Constantine Augustus”, and at the
time it was completed, he claims that Mavortius was proconsul and designated
consul ordinarius.32 Since the life and career of Mavortius are well attested in
the sources, all of the positions mentioned by Maternus can be corroborated,
except for the consulship which is evidenced at a much later date, in 355.33
This has also been a source of confusion and suspicion regarding the date of
the writing of the Mathesis.34 However, the most probable explanation is that
Mavortius was denied consulship at the time he was nominated and later ap-
pointed consul. It may be that the death of Emperor Constantine postponed his
election or that his consulship was revoked by Constantine’s successors.35 It has
even been suggested that the dedication of this astrological manual could have
affected his election.36
Whatever the case may be, Mavortius was certainly a high-profile and
aspiring individual whose career was influenced by decisions of the highest
instances of power in the state and the political circumstances surrounding it.
Thus, it seems highly likely that any enquiries regarding his own future would
involve calculation of nativities of the most important political actors, such as
the emperor or his sons. Before devoting himself to the writing of the astrologi-
cal handbook, Maternus abandoned his legal practice, as he claims in the fourth
book of the Mathesis.37 Being a lawyer, he must have been very well aware of
legal restrictions on astrological activities imposed by the Augustan edict of
11 AD. He could have been familiar with cases in which accusations of illicit
astrological inquiries led to the charges of treason, or were used as an evidence
of plotting against the emperor in maiestas trials.38
Since Maternus clearly believed that the stars had an impact on the life
and decisions of an emperor, his statements in the second book of the Mathesis
claiming otherwise thus may be perceived as a mere rhetorical device. His con-
tention that emperors are exempt from astrological influence may have been
expressed with a desire to flatter Constantine, perhaps conform somewhat to
his religious inclinations and positions on astrological prognostication.39 Also,
what may have been an additional motive was an intention to absolve Mavortius
of any suspicions of being involved in predictions concerning the fate of the
33 Unlike Iulius Firmicus Maternus, Q. Flavius Maesius Egnatius Lollianus signo Ma-
vortius is well attested in historical sources. A. H. M. Jones, J. R. Martindale, J. Morris, The
Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, vol. 1, AD 260–395, Cambridge 1971, 512-514.
34 See Mace, Dissertation, 17-19, 22-28.
35 R. S. Bagnall, A. Cameron, S. R. Schwartz and K.A. Worp, Consuls of the Later
Roman Empire, (Atlanta 1987), 19.
36 Lenski, Early Retrospectives, 472.
37 Mathesis 4, pr. 2.
38 Many of these cases are listed in Cramer, Astrology in Roman Law and Politics,
254-275.
39 Since we do not have any explicit remarks in historical sources that would unam-
biguously reveal the attitude of Constantine towards astrological practice, in my upcoming
paper, I have aimed to reconstruct and hypothesize on his stance by analyzing contemporary
sources, legislative decisions, as well as a possible astrological background of Constantine’s
vision before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. I devoted significant attention to the Mathesis
of Firmicus Maternus and its novel cosmological conception of imperial power. I. Lem-
cool, “Our Own Augustus”: Constantine and the Use of Astrology in Imperial Propaganda,
Prophetie, Prognose und Politik. Personengeschichtliche Perspektiven zwischen Antike und
Neuzeit/ Prophecy, Prognosis, and Politics: Perspectives from the History of Persons Be-
tween Antiquity and the Modern Age, ed. C. Hoffarth, (Frankfurt am Main, forthcoming.)
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 375
drawing up of the chart and collecting all data.51 This is established by deter-
mining the power of the ruler of the chart: “For often, even though certain plan-
ets are well located, the ruler of the chart indicates a short span of life; the whole
of what the well-placed planets had predicted is changed by an early death.”52
Further on, he informs Mavortius that he had explained in detail the computing
of the time of life in a single book written for their friend Murinus.53 He men-
tions two other books within the text of the Mathesis: one on the Myriogenesis,
which was not yet finished at the time, and one which he had already written for
Mavortius on the end of life.54 Neither of the works survive and it is unknown
if the Myriogenesis was ever completed. Its subject matter also seems unclear.55
He mentions it in the chapter concerning the death of parents where he says:
“If you wish to learn more about this matter in detail you must turn to my
Myriogenesis, where many obscure things are discussed.”56 Thus, we can see
that Maternus was largely unconcerned over legal ramifications of his treatises
providing technical information for calculation of a person’s time of death. Yet,
providing information directly on how to calculate the nativity chart of the rul-
ing emperor was a different matter which could bring the lives and careers of
himself and his dedicatee under risk. However, considering how much interest
Mavortius displayed on the topic of the time of death in an individual’s horo-
scope and to what extent his career depended on the goodwill of the emperor,
it seems highly possible that other details concerning the positions of planets
at the time of birth of Constantine were disclosed in the other books. As has
been concluded, no one could have been able to practice astrology with only
Mathesis at hand.57
Some additional information could have been provided through aspects
indicating other occurrences and circumstances of Constantine’s life known to
Maternus and Mavortius which could have also been pertinent to the emperor’s
chart. Mother of low-class is marked by the moon in the third or fourth house,
or in aspect with Mars.58 In the third book, Maternus states that Saturn in the
second house from the ascendant makes native the murderer of his wife and
children; the loss of wife and children is also marked by Jupiter in the seventh
house in a nocturnal chart, and violence toward them, including homicide, is
also signaled by Mars in the same house.59 Violent and horrible death of a wife
is also indicated by Mars and the Moon in opposition, as well as Jupiter and
Mars on the degree of Medium Coeli, and an entire chapter in the seventh book
is devoted to different aspects denoting murder of spouses, namely wives, as it
is only those that are listed by Maternus.60
With few relevant pieces of information, a person versed in astrology
could reconstruct an entire nativity chart. By combining aspects and placements
listed by Maternus that could have related to the chart of Constantine and com-
paring them to actual positions of planets on the date of his birth for the years
around the third quarter of the third century, a skilled astrologer could confirm
or disprove conjectures made in this paper. Even the year taken as the birth year
by Maternus could be surmised, if the placement of the slow-moving planet
such as Saturn could be determined in that tentative horoscope. Whatever the
case may be, this astrological handbook has already proven to be a valuable
historical source on the social and political conditions of the Late Antiquity.61
While in the future it may prove to be an even more significant source for the
history of Constantine, the Mathesis of Firmicus Maternus is already a notewor-
thy source for the history of the city of Niš. Not only that it is the earliest source
that informs us it was on the territory of the ancient town that once stood in its
place that Constantine the Great was born, but that it was owing to that fortu-
itous circumstance that good fortune was bestowed upon the future emperor and
the ruler of the whole world.
Ивана Лемкул
(Православни богословски факултет, Унивезитет у Београду)
„APUD NAISSUM GENITUS“: КОНСТАНТИН У MATHESIS-У ФИРМИКА МАТЕРНА
Lars Ramskold
(Independent researcher)
1 Cash handouts to the military are known as donativa and those to civilians were
called a congiarium.
382 Lars Ramskold
Fig. 1. The first illustrations of the AVGVSTVS / CAESAR and CAESAR / X X multiples
by Du Cange 1680, attributed by him to Constans. The specimens may be the ones now in
the Paris BNF, Cat. nos. 13 and 37 herein.
name of the rulers. They were first described over 300 years ago by Du Cange2
(1680) and Banduri3 (1718) who assigned the types to Constans (Du Cange) or
Constantine I and one of his sons (Banduri).
The specimens figured by Du Cange may be the ones still in Paris BNF
(fig. 1). In 1755, de France4 figured the specimen still in the Vienna KHM (fig.
2). Various authors have subsequently attributed the AVGVSTVS / CAESAR
type to Constantine I, Constantine II, or Constantius II, and the CAESAR / X X
type to Constantine II, Constans, Constantius Gallus, or Julian. Depending on
the identification, the date has varied from 336 to 357 CE.
In 1949, Jean Lafaurie published a seminal study of the 14 examples
then known to him5. He pointed out that some examples carried the mint mark
CONST6. This mint mark was used in Arles only in 327-340 and again in 353-
370. Further, there were no Caesars in 337-351 or after 360. The possible dates
could be further constrained by the mint mark TSE for Thessalonica, known
only from 335-337. Lafaurie accordingly attributed the AVGVSTVS / CAESAR
type to Constantine I. He further regarded the X X on the second medallion type
as referring to the vicennalia of Constantine Caesar, celebrated 1st March 336
– 1st March 337. These conclusions have been followed by subsequent authors.
Fig. 2. Illustration by de France 1755 (pl. 108, fig. 1) of the medallion in Vienna KHM (Cat.
no. 15).
Most of the multiples carry a mint mark. These show that the mul-
tiples were struck at the mints of Arles, Lyon, Trier, Aquileia, Rome, Siscia,
and Thessalonica7. In addition, there is a small number of multiples lacking
a mint mark. On stylistic grounds, Lafaurie attributed the latter to the mints
of Constantinopolis and Nicomedia. Lafaurie’s attributions were accepted by
Bruun8 1966 who used them in RIC VII in his list of types from each mint9.
Material
Since Lafaurie’s study in 1949, the number of known multiples has
increased from 15 to 38 (see the Catalogue). There are now twenty-three
AVGVSTVS / CAESAR specimens known and fourteen CAESAR / X X exam-
ples10, plus possibly one hybrid. Exactly half of the specimens are in public col-
lections, the remainder in private collections. There are also some seven modern
forgeries known. The material now permits a renewed study of these multiples.
7 All except Rome were known by Lafaurie 1949, op. cit., and Bruun 1966; P.
Bruun, Constantine and Licinius A.D. 313-337. The Roman Imperial Coinage, Vol. VII, ed.
C.H.V. Sutherland, R.A.G. Carson. London 1966. The example with the Rome mint mark
was published by Gerasimov already in 1939, op. cit.
8 Bruun 1966, op. cit.
9 Between the time of Lafaurie’s study and Bruun’s, only one further medallion was
discovered, the Lyon specimen in the Kaiseraugst hoard (Cat. no. 20).
10 In this study, only medallions necessary for the discussions are figured. The re-
mainder have been well illustrated in the studies referred to. The fragmentary CAESAR / X
X multiple from Trier (Cat. no. 9) is cut in half and then cut again. The legend CAESAR and
the mint mark TR are intact on the preserved part.
384 Lars Ramskold
Fig. 3. 1/24-pound AVGVSTVS / CAESAR multiples assigned here to the mint of Rome.
A, Cat. no. 24 (Gerasimov 1939). B, Cat. no. 35 (Cesano 1957). C, Cat. no. 36 (NAC 88,
lot 699).
hibit a particularly distinct style. The medallion shows three diverging diadem
ties, a feature seen also in the two multiples from Arles (fig. 4G), and in two of
the Trier examples (fig. 4D, authenticity questioned by BOC 1991; the second
example is one of the multiples in the Saint-Ouen-du-Breuil hoard which is
mint marked TR). There are marked similarities between the unmarked speci-
men and both the two known Arles examples and the first of the Trier examples.
All other mints can be excluded, and the earlier attribution to Nicomedia is
rejected here, but at present it is not possible to determine if it was the Arles or
the Trier mint that struck the medallion.
One further unmarked example has been discovered later. It is one of the
nine specimens in the Saint-Ouen-du-Breuil hoard (see below). The obverse has
been published (Reinert 2008b, centre medallion; fig. 4F) but not the reverse16.
There are similarities to Arles and Aquileia and less so to Trier, but any attribu-
tion is uncertain.
In conclusion, the attributions to Constantinople and Nicomedia are re-
jected here. Two of the unmarked examples can be firmly identified as products
of the Rome mint. The three remaining unmarked examples are not firmly at-
tributed here, but only western mints show iconographical similarities.
Remarks on unmarked gold and silver donatives. The unmarked
1/24-pound multiples constitute an exception to the rule. There was an obvious
need for both the imperial treasury and the local mint to keep track of the exact
amounts of gold and silver used for the various donatives produced. For this
reason, virtually all coins and coin-like products carried the abbreviated name
of the producing mint, and often also a letter denoting the officina or the perhaps
the batch of precious metal.
There are very few unmarked examples among the vast diversity of
Constantinian coin-like donatives. Searching for a parallel, with emissions of
both marked and unmarked examples, one finds the VOT / XXX gold multiples
from Constantine’s tricennalia (335-336 CE). Thessalonica struck gold multi-
ples mint marked TSE (RIC 207). The similar medallion RIC VII Thessalonica
20617 lacks a mint mark and was recently re-assigned to the mint of Rome
by Ramskold (2018, fig. 6F). There is in addition a unique silver example of
this medallion, also lacking a mint mark, but the style points unambiguously to
Rome18. Another example of an unmarked type is the famous so-called Ticinum
16 The obverse is the central specimen in the assemblage from the Saint-Ouen-du-
Breuil hoard figured by Reinert in 2008; F. Reinert, Der Schatz von Saint-Ouen-du-Breuil,
Moselgold. Der römische Schatz von Machtum. Ein kaiserliches Geschenk [Exhibition cata-
logue, Luxembourg, Musée National d’Histoire et d’Art Luxembourg, 10 October 2008 – 18
Januar 2009] (Publications du Musée National d’Histoire et d’Art Luxembourg 6), ed. F.
Reinert (Luxembourg 2008), 222, fig. 2. The reverse has kindly been made available to the
present author by M. Amandry.
17 Sammlung Franz Trau. Münzen der Römischen Kaiser. Gilhofer & Ranschburg,
Wien, Austria and A. Hess A.G., Luzern, Switzerland. (22 May 1935), pl. 44, no. 3889.
18 Gnecchi op. cit., pl. 29, fig. 7.
388 Lars Ramskold
medallion (RIC VII 36). Again, the lack of a mint mark has created difficulties
in identifying the producing mint, and although most authors agree on a Ticinum
origin, the mints of Rome or Constantinople have recently been suggested19.
A further group of donatives from the reigns of Constantine and his sons
should be mentioned. These are the uniface gold medallions, intended as gifts
to “barbarians” outside the limes20. Most of these lack a mint mark. There are
exceptions, and medallions marked SIS for Siscia21 and AQ (?), possibly for
Aquileia22, are known. The style of the unmarked medallions has been tak-
en to indicate the mints of Trier, Sirmium, and others. The relevance here of
these donatives is the fact that they were all produced in the imperial mints,
but in most cases without an identifying mint mark. Like the silver multiples
described herein, they were donatives produced in precious metal from the im-
perial treasury, and all of these donatives must have been subject to the same
rigorous control.
The plan appears to have been simple and clear: Constantine would be suc-
ceeded by an imperial college of two augusti - Constantine and Constantius -
and two Caesars - Constans and Dalmatius27. Of these, Constantine junior was
the most senior and would have had some priority, but the coinage shows that
Constantine I promoted the two elder sons equally. Every gold emission after
the elimination of Crispus shows parallel types of the two elder Caesars, with
no priority of either. The silver is rarer and less known but was also produced
equally, with only one possible exception28.
One other unequal production of donatives is of interest here, involving
Dalmatius. The exact extent of the realm allotted by Constantine I to Dalmatius
is unknown, and it is not known if it included the province of Europa, the
eastern-most part of Thracia which included the minting cities of Heraclea and
Constantinopolis. In Moesia, definitely part of Dalmatius’ area, there was the
mint of Thessalonica. The silver emission Thessalonica RIC 214-217, struck for
Constantine’s tricennalia, is known from the following number of examples for
each ruler: Constantine I - 11; Constantine Caesar – 6; Constantius Caesar – 5;
Constans Caesar – 6; Dalmatius Caesar – 11. The numbers are small and any
conclusions must be tentative. However, Dalmatius is clearly well represented
and it even appears that twice as many examples were struck for Constantine
I and Dalmatius as for each of the three remaining Caesars. This was possibly
an attempt by Constantine I to promote the authority of his newly appointed
Caesar in the realm allotted to him. Similar silver emissions were struck also in
Constantinople and Heraclea, but in these mints Dalmatius was apparently not
unequally treated29.
In conclusion, during the last years of Constantine I, there are a few rare
examples of one or the other Caesar being unequally treated in emissions of
struck silver donatives. In all mints, the gold is too rare to permit any conclusions
regarding Dalmatius, but it is clear that Constantine Caesar and Constantius
Caesar were treated equally. As detailed below, the date proposed here for the
AVGVSTVS / CAESAR and CAESAR / X X silver multiples removes them
from the reign of Constantine I, and accordingly they were not a sign of the
emperor favouring Constantine Caesar.
Date of the AVGVSTVS / CAESAR and CAESAR / X X silver multiples
The date and purpose of these multiples have been debated for over 150
years. The style of the busts unquestionably indicates a date no earlier than 333
C, but it could be several years or even decades later. Due to the X X legend, the
multiples have usually been thought to celebrate the vicennalia of Constantine
Caesar in 336. This paper proposes a new date for the multiples as well as a new
27 In addition, Hanniballianus would presumably be installed as the ruler of Armenia.
28 Two of the later silver emissions from Constantinople (emissions 6 and 7 of Rams-
kold op. cit. appear to have included one particular type (the 4 standards) for Constantine
Caesar but not for Constantius. Other types from the same emissions were produced for both
Caesars, so the significance of the 4-standards type is unclear.
29 Number of specimens, RIC VII Heraclea 146-147 and unlisted: Constantine I - 2;
Constantine Caesar – 6; Constantius Caesar – 2; Constans Caesar – 3; Dalmatius Caesar – 2.
Constantinopolis Emission 7 of Ramskold 2018: Constantine I - 14; Constantine Caesar – 12;
Constantius Caesar – 9; Constans Caesar – 4; Dalmatius Caesar – 3.
390 Lars Ramskold
purpose. The key to the date proposed here for the multiples lies in the distribu-
tion of the producing mints. The previously published list of mints producing
the multiples suffered from some errors. The list of mints was emended by
Ramskold (2018), but at the time no new date was proposed.
43 Eusebius op. cit. 4.51.1; Origo Constantini Imperatoris, op. cit., 35; Epitome de
Caesaribus 41.20; see Barnes 1982 op. cit. 198.
44 The divisions of 335 and 337 were deliberately confused by Eusebius in VC, see
Barnes 1982 op. cit. 198.
45 Burgess op. cit. This is confirmed by the author’s database of Constantinian gold
donatives, regularly showing similar numbers of examples struck for the two brothers.
46 Libanius Orat. 59.46, from 349 CE, indicates that Constantine remained in com-
plete control of the empire; Panegyric on Constantius and Constans. Libanios. Discours.
Tome IV: Discours LIX. Texte établi et traduit par Pierre-Louis Malosse [In Greek and
French]. Les Belles Lettres, Paris 2003.
47 Chronicon Paschale, Olympiad 279, 337; Chronicon Paschale 284-628 AD. Mi-
chael Whitby & Mary Whitby. Liverpool University Press 1989.
48 Kent 1981 (RIC VIII), 440 states that of Constantine I, Constantinople “passed
first to Constantine II and on his death to Constantius”. This description omits the interval be-
tween the death of Constantine and the accession of the three Augusti. See J. P. C. Kent, The
Roman Imperial Coinage vol. VIII. The Family of Constantine I. A.D. 337–364, ed. C.H.V.
Sutherland - R.A.G. Carson. Spink and Son Ltd, London 1981.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 393
Officina RIC
Augustus
A B Γ D E S Z H TH I IA no.
Constantine II 4 6 3 6 1 3 6 15
Constantius II 10 5 18
Constans 6 4 20
Table 1. Distribution of the Victory type siliquae (RIC VIII 15, 18 and 20) from the mint
of Constantinopolis, with numbers of examples in the author’s database. This table cor-
rects the errors and omissions of RIC VIII. Seven officinae struck for Constantine II and
two officinae each for Constantius II and Constans. The predominance for Constantine II
may indicate that the city of Constantinopolis was under his authority when this emission
was produced. Note: all listed specimens show a rosette diadem. Eight otherwise similar
49 Also the absence from the other Thracian mint, Heraclea, is significant. The ab-
sence from all Asian mints, including Nicomedia, further supports the conclusions in this
study. Even considering the rarity of the specimens, the distribution of the mints known to
produce medallions is too ordered to be coincidental.
50 The whereabouts of Constantine II during this time are in essence unknown. We
may never know if he visited Constantinopolis during the time he presumably ruled the city.
394 Lars Ramskold
specimens for Constans, all from off. I (not in RIC VIII), and one for Constantius II, from
off. Γ (RIC VIII 17), show a laurel wreath and are not included since they may be from a
later emission.
Table 2. The three 2-standards Gloria emissions from Constantinopolis. An officina letter
in brackets indicates a single known example. The allocation of the officinae in the first
(330) emission remains unchanged throughout, with Constans and Dalmatius simply added
to the scheme in 335. Compare with Table 1 and note how the four officinae allocated to
51 This table is based on over 300 coins in the author’s database. It agrees exactly
with the second table given by Kent op. cit. p. 441. Almost every difference from the listings
in RIC VII is due to unique r5 listed coins in the latter. They are of a certain interest but they
also obscure the allocation of officinae. Table 2 includes four such unique coins, verified by
me, whereas many of the r5 coins listed by Bruun are regarded here as misread letters.
52 The final emission, of 1-standard Gloria type (RIC VII 137-155) needs further
study to be understood.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 395
The allocation of officinae shown in the two tables indicates clearly that
after becoming Augustus, Constantine II took over his father’s officinae, an
obvious display of seniority. This is a strong indication that he had executive
control of the mint. It is also relevant to note that Constantine I tended to allo-
cate the officinae in alphabetical order according to rank, giving himself the first
officina (A or P), and then the caesars the second, third and fourth officina, etc.,
in order of seniority. This sign of senior status was taken over by Constantine II.
The distribution of officinae indicates that for some time after the 9
September agreement, the mint seems to have been under the control of
Constantine II53, and with the mint, also the city of Constantinopolis, con-
firming the statement in Chronicon Paschale. This should be an anomaly
since Constantinopolis was situated far from the other areas directly ruled by
Constantine II. However, it must have been a result of the negotiations leading
up to the division formalized on 9 September 337, enabling Constantine II to
gain control of Constantinopolis. Kent (1981), stated: “...the best solution to the
historical problem is to ascribe Heraclea and Constantinople to the Prefecture
of Italy, Africa and Illyricum, under the nominal rule of Constantine II, but ef-
fectively subject to an administration loyal to Constans”54. This situation may
have lasted one year (if Chronicon Paschale is correct)55, but it ended at the
latest in 339 when Constans revolted against Constantine II, a revolt that led
Constantine to attack Constans (or vice versa56), which resulted in the death of
Constantine II.
Had Constantine Caesar been in control of Constantinopolis already dur-
ing the interregnum, we would have expected to see AVGVSTVS / CAESAR
and CAESAR / X X multiples struck there, and also at Heraclea. But we
don’t57. Lafaurie, followed by Bruun58, attributed an unmarked specimen to
53 This pattern is a continuation of how Constantine I used to strike for himself in
many officinae and for the Caesars in only one or two each; see the Providentiae coinage
from Siscia and Antioch, and the dafne coinage from Constantinopolis, to mention but a few.
54 Kent 1981 (RIC VIII), Heraclea, p. 427.
55 It is possible that there was a meeting between the three brothers in Viminacium
in June 338. C. Th. X.10.4 gives the presence there of Constantine II on 12 June 338; Co-
dex Theodosianus. Based on the Latin text of Mommsen and Meyer’s edition: Theodosiani
libri XVI cvm Constitvtionibvs Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianvm pertinentes.
Consilio et avctoritate Academiae Litterarvm Regiae Borvssicae edidervnt Th. Mommsen et
P. M. Meyer, Berlin 1905 (http://droitro- main.upmf-grenoble.fr/); see A. Piganiol, L’Empire
Chretien (325-395). Presses universitaires de France, Paris 1973, 81-82. Perhaps a re-shuf-
fling of provinces took place and Constantine II lost Constantinopolis on this occasion.
56 W. Lewis, Constantine II and His Brothers: The Civil War of AD 340, The Sons of
Constantine, AD 337-361. In the shadows of Constantine and Julian, ed. N. Baker-Brian – S.
Tougher, 57-94. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham Switzerland 2020.
57 Although the small number of known medallions means that the absence of medal-
lions from Constantinopolis in itself is no proof that such were not produced.
58 Bruun op. cit., RIC VII Constantinople 132. It is unclear to me if Bruun cites one
396 Lars Ramskold
Fig. 5. Donatives struck in the name of Dalmatius in the “home mints” of Constantine
Caesar and Constans Caesar. A, siliqua, Rome mint, not in RIC but similar to Rome 379-
380. 3.09g, 19.8mm. Private collection. B, Trier mint, not in RIC but similar to Trier 572-
576. The metal is stated to be silver, weight 2.02g, 20mm. Adapted from Robertson 1982,
271, pl. 63, fig. D.1.
Constantinopolis but it has a portrait incompatible with any mint but Rome.
The reason forwarded here for the absence of these multiples from the mint
of Constantinopolis is that the city – during the interregnum – was under the
authority of Constantius.
or two examples, first the Piancastello specimen of Cesano 1957 (S. L. Cesano, Catalogo
della collezione numismatica di Carlo Piancastelli, Forli 195) and then the one of J. Hirsch,
München, Germany, auction 29 (9 Nov. 1910). They are the same specimen (Cat. #25 herein).
59 Burgess op. cit. 42.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 397
Fig. 6. Areas controlled by the three Caesars during the 3-month interregnum in 337 CE.
After the murder of Dalmatius, his provinces were taken over by Constans (Moesia) and
Constantius (Thracia), and the division entered Stage 2 (see text). Only in Stage 2 were the
seven mints producing the 1/24-pound AVGVSTVS / CAESAR and CAESAR / X X dona-
tives controlled by Constantine Caesar, either directly or indirectly through Constans.
“The sons of Constantine did not name Dalmatius on any gold or sil-
ver struck at their home mints [Trier, Rome, Antioch] while Dalmatius was
Caesar and still alive. From the beginning we find evidence for hostility toward
Dalmatius on the part of the other Caesars and a coordinated response to his ac-
cession as Caesar on the part of all three.”60
This conclusion cannot, however, be upheld. Examples unknown to
Burgess or found more recently show that both Trier61 and Rome62 did strike in
precious metal for Dalmatius (fig. 5). Only two examples are known to me but
the emissions are exceedingly rare and incompletely known. It appears likely
that donatives in Dalmatius’ name were produced normally in all mints includ-
ing the “home mints”. Burgess is surely right when he states that the other
Caesars were against the elevation of Dalmatius, but they clearly had no power
in deciding the composition of the gold and silver donatives. This production
was controlled by their father Constantine I, a fact which has bearings on the
authority of the production of the AVGVSTVS / CAESAR and CAESAR / X
X multiples.
Constantine’s tricennial donative emissions show no evidence of execu-
tive control of the mints by the Caesars. On the contrary, the gold and silver
emissions indicate that Constantine I remained in control of all mints until he
died. The material also shows that Constantine I did not favour any of his sons
in the output of donatives. It is inconceivable that he would have authorized the
massive output of the AVGVSTVS / CAESAR and CAESAR / X X multiples
in mints allotted to Constantine and Constans and Dalmatius but not in the ones
allotted to Constantius. The inescapable conclusion is that the multiples were
produced after the death of Constantine I.
1/24-pound multiples carrying a mint mark are known from the following
mints: Arles, Lyon, Trier, Aquileia, Rome, Siscia, and Thessalonica63. No ex-
amples are known from the following mints active at the time: Constantinopolis,
Heraclea, Nicomedia, Cyzikus, Antioch, and Alexandria. Plotting the geo-
graphical distribution of the mints, it is evident that no mints under Constantius’
control struck such multiples (fig. 6). Between 18 September 335 and 22 May
337, all striking mints except Thessalonica were in areas under the authority
of Constantine Caesar, either directly or through his inferred guardianship of
Constans64. Thessalonica was not under the control of Constantine Caesar but
under Dalmatius. When Constantine I died, the Caesars gained executive con-
trol of the mints in their respective realm. Following the murder of Dalmatius,
Constans received Macedonia including Thessalonica, in reality meaning that
his guardian Constantine Caesar gained control of the city. This meant that be-
tween the murder of Dalmatius and the proclamation of the three remaining
Caesars as Augusti (9 September 337), all seven mints producing the multiples
were de facto controlled by Constantine Caesar.
It is concluded here that the AVGVSTVS / CAESAR and CAESAR / X
X multiples were struck in every mint under the direct or indirect control of
Constantine Caesar during the interregnum, the roughly three-month long peri-
od between the murder of Dalmatius and the proclamation of the three Augusti.
The AVGVSTVS / CAESAR and CAESAR / X X silver multiples consti-
tuted a completely new type of donative. There are no other emissions, in any
metal, that appear to be associated with the multiples. It has been suggested that
they were likely given out in pairs, and we know from papyri that the weight of
two such multiples equaled the sum paid to a praepositus (a military officer) on
the occasion of a jubilee in Constantinian times65. In view of the highly unstable
situation following the death of Constantine I and the murder of Dalmatius, it
must have been crucial to secure the loyalty of the army. It is proposed here that
this was the objective behind the multiples.
It appears that Constantine Caesar may possibly have overstepped his po-
sition in issuing multiples stating his own 20-year jubilee, but with no reference
to his brothers66. The explanation may be the situation at the time of issuing. The
63 The medallion published by Gerasimov op. cit. carries the mint mark of Rome
(fig. 3A). Two further examples lacking mint mark (fig. 4B-C) were assigned to Rome by
Ramskold op. cit.
64 This was only a nominal authority. As long as Constantine I was alive, he retained
control of the minting of gold and silver, as outlined in this paper.
65 Kampmann op. cit.
66 There are several indications that Constantine Caesar regarded himself as some-
what elevated above his brothers. One example from the interregnum is that he restored the
controversial bishop Athanasius to Alexandria, asserting that he was fulfilling his father’s
wishes (see Lewis op.cit. 69). Alexandria was in Constantius’ realm, and the action of Con-
stantine Caesar is clear evidence that he saw himself as the primary heir to Constantine I.
This is also clear from his title MAXIMVS, which – apparently in error (see RIC VIII p. 339)
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 399
long-reigning Augustus Constantine had recently died, and the fourth Caesar,
Dalmatius, had just been assassinated together with his brother Hanniballianus
and numerous relatives. And for the first time in several hundred years, there
was no Augustus to rule the Empire. The situation must have been tense, to say
the least. There was a clear danger of the Empire being thrown into turmoil.
The loyalty of the army was crucial. Donatives stressing both the succession
from the Augustus to the Caesar and the 20-year long position and experience
of the Caesar Constantine could be forwarded to reinforce the legitimacy of the
continuation of the dynasty in general and of Constantine Caesar in particu-
lar. So even if it was several months late to celebrate the actual vicennalia of
Constantine Caesar, the jubilee could be used as an excuse to present donatives,
that is, to buy the loyalty of the army. In the east, controlled by Constantius
Caesar, no similar donatives were struck, perhaps indicating that he was un-
aware of the emission or that he was already certain of the loyalty of his troops.
– was used briefly also for Constans and Constantius but their coins soon replace MAX with
P F. Unambiguous evidence for the superiority of Constantine II is provided by three mile-
stones from Cyprus which give Constantine II the titles MAXIMO TRIUMFATORI AVG,
while his brothers are only VICTORIBVS SEMPER AVGG (T. B. Mitford, Milestones in
Western Cyprus. The Journal of Roman Studies 29 (1939) 187; and T. B. Mitford, Some new
inscriptions from Early Christian Cyprus. Byzantion 20, Actes du VIIe Congrès des Ètudes
Byzantines Bruxelles 1948, II (1950), 143-147.
67 Бистра Божкoвa [Bistra Božkova], Римски медальони IV б. от българските
земи [Roman medallions of the IV C. from Bulgarian territory], Нумизматика [Numizma-
tika] 23, 3 (1989), 31-36; idem, Монетно съкровище от с. Дебелт (Бургаска област)
[Coin treasure from the village of Debelt (Burgas region)]. Нумизматика и сфрагистика
[Numizmatika i sfragistika], 1-4 (1993), 58-73; idem, Gold and Silver Medallions (Mul-
tiples) from the 4th Century AD found in the Territory of Bulgaria. Macedonian Numismatic
Journal 2 (1996), 71-85.
68 Йорданка Юрукова [Jordanka Yurukova], Монетни находки открити в
България през 1981 г [Coin finds discovered in Bulgaria in 1981]. Археология [Archeol-
ogy] 24, 1-2 (1983), 116.
400 Lars Ramskold
In her 1989 study, Božkova wrote: “Thanks to the kindness of Mr. I. Dior
(numismatic cabinet - Geneva69), three silver medallions were added to the al-
ready known find of miliarense from the first half of the IV C., found in the
village of Debelt (Burgas region).”
In the 1993 study, Božkova wrote: “Thanks to the efforts of the staff of
the National Museum of History70, part of an extremely rare and interesting
coin find is stored today in its holdings - 100 pieces of silver coins (miliarense)
from the time of the Roman Emperor Constantine I. Later, based on the infor-
mation of the late colleague Mr. Dior from the numismatic cabinet in Geneva,
three more pieces of this find became known - three medium-sized medallions
from the time of Constantine I.” Božkova continued: “The find was tracked
down and redeemed for NIM thanks to the efforts of our late colleague, Ph.D.
Stefan Damyanov, head of the excavations in Debelt.”
This sparse information can be supplemented by accounts found online71,
telling the story as follows, based on an interview in 1982 with the finder of the
hoard: Sometime between 1976 and 1980, a pig farmer reportedly found a hoard
of Roman silver coins in Bulgaria. The farmer was a Thracian expatriate and
could have brought the coins from afar, but it is believed that they were found
somewhere not too far from Debelt in the Burgas Province in southeastern
Bulgaria. Debelt is a village next to the ancient city of Deultum. At the time, the
Bulgarian archaeologist Stefan Damyanov72 had begun excavating in the area.
The farmer approached Damyanov, who first offered 10BGN for each coin, but
the price was raised to 80BGN each. The farmer agreed and Damyanov paid
BGN 8,00073 for 100 coins. This was the full number of coins brought by the
farmer and it may have been the entire hoard. When the deal was agreed, the
farmer took out three additional coins and gave to Damyanov. Damyanov then
transferred the first 100 coins to NIM (where he worked until his death)74. The
three added coins never entered NIM but were transported abroad and sold at
auctions in Basel and Geneva.
The contents of the hoard have been published by Božkova (1993)
and were as follows. There were 100 miliarense75: 86 of Constantine I (56
Table 3. The one-hundred 4-standards miliarense of the Debelt Hoard. All have the obverse
anepigraphic, head with plain diadem, looking upwards (bust E4); all reverses have four
standards.
The report of 1/24-pound silver multiples originating from Bulgaria being
sold in Basel and Geneva appears to reflect the actual circumstances. It is clear
that these multiples were never officially recorded in Bulgaria. Božkova (1989)
stated that the information that three 1/24-pound silver multiples (termed four
siliquae pieces) were part of the hoard came from the Numismatic Cabinet in
Geneva. Obviously, staff at the cabinet followed the sales of the major auction
houses and became aware of the unprecedented appearance of a group of such
multiples. Apparently, information about a provenance from the Debelt hoard
surfaced and was forwarded to the staff at NIM. Božkova described the three
multiples76, referred to the sales data, and used the auction photos as illustra-
tions.
In 1991, the experts publishing BOC had studied a number of 1/24-pound
multiples and they came to the following conclusions77:
“In late 1980 two quite spectacular silver medallions appeared on the
European market. Both were four siliquae pieces from the mint of Siscia, one
of Constantine I and the other of his eldest son, Constantine Caesar, and both
soon entered the collection of Nelson Bunker Hunt. What was not realized at
the time was that these two coins had been used as the models for an extensive
and dangerous group of struck forgeries, presumably coming from Bulgaria.”
arense from Constantine’s reign, from eight mints, is less than 90, so the Debelt hoard more
than doubles that number.
76 Božkova 1989 op. cit. 34-35, nos. 3, 4, and 5.
77 The False Silver Four Siliquae Pieces of Constantine I & II. Bulletin on Counter-
feits (BOC) 16, No. 1 (1991), 2-10. The International Bureau for the Suppression of Counter-
feit Coins (IBSCC), an organ of the IAPN.
402 Lars Ramskold
discussed by BOC, two genuine multiples had been found and these were used
as templates for several copies. Both the genuine and the fake specimens were
then offered for sale in Switzerland and Germany.
Table 4. The Debelt multiples (Božkova 1996), and the Hunt multiples (Sotheby’s 1991).
Božkova nos. 4 and 5 are forgeries were based on the latter genuine examples. Note that
Božkova nr. 5 (NFA XII) is double die matched to four further forgeries listed by BOC
(1991, pp. 5-8), and Božkova nr. 4 is an obverse die match to the Leu 3 mule forgery, the
reverse of which is a die match to Božkova no. 5 and the four forgeries listed by BOC.
80 The find was reported in 2001: “Un trésor monétaire (vers 345-350) trouvé dans
une fosse et contenu dans un gobelet trévire est notamment composé de 16 solidi, 23 mé-
daillons en argent, 3 cuillères en argent” [A monetary treasure (around 345-350) found in a
pit and contained in a Treveran cup is notably composed of 16 solidi, 23 silver multiples, 3
silver spoons.]; V. Gonzalez - P. Ouzoulias – P. Van Ossel, Saint-Ouen-du-Breuil (Haute-
Normandie, Frankreich) – eine germanische Siedlung aus der Mitte des 4. Jahrhunderts in
der Lugdunensis Secunda. Germania 79 (1) (2001), 43-61. The date 1994 was provided by
Amandry - Gautier op.cit. 136.
81 Reinert 2008 op. cit. 222-223.
82 Amandry - Gautier op. cit. 135, fig. 3.
83 Ferrando did not identify the specimen as coming from the Saint-Ouen-du-
Breuil hoard; P. Ferrando, L’Atelier Monétaire d’Arles. De Constantin le Grand à Romulus
Augustule, 313–476, Graveson, Decumanus Editions 2010.
404 Lars Ramskold
hoard. Although illustrations must await official publication of the hoard, I have
been given permission to study both sides of the multiples from the photos and
can give some information here.
Mint Cat.
Type Mint Reference
mark no.
1 AVGVSTVS / CAESAR CONST Arles Reinert op. cit. 223, centre 12
Amandry - Gautier op. cit. 135,
fig. 3
Ferrando op. cit. 65, no. 14
2 AVGVSTVS / CAESAR TR Trier Reinert op. cit. at 7 o’clock 2
3 AVGVSTVS / CAESAR TR Trier Reinert op. cit. 222, at 10 o’clock 3
4 AVGVSTVS / CAESAR TR Trier Reinert op. cit. 223, at 12 o’clock 4
5 AVGVSTVS / CAESAR TR Trier Reinert op. cit. 223, centre 5
6 CAESAR / X X TR Trier Reinert op. cit. 222, at 1 o’clock 6
7 CAESAR / X X TR Trier Reinert op. cit. 222, at 5 o’clock 7
8 CAESAR / X X TR Trier Reinert op. cit. 223, at 6 o’clock 8
9 CAESAR / X X - ? Reinert op. cit. 222, centre 38
Table 5. The nine multiples of AVGVSTVS / CAESAR and CAESAR / X X type from the
Saint-Ouen-du-Breuil hoard (Haute-Normandie, France). The specimens are kept in the
BNF (Paris) under INV-45-2178-023.
Of the nine multiples, one is from Arles, seven from Trier, and one lacks
any mint mark (Table 5). It is of some interest that if we disregard the Arles
example, there are four multiples of each type, and all but one are mint marked
TR (the unmarked one may also be from Trier, or even from Arles). Kampmann
(op. cit.) pointed out that such multiples would have been given out in pairs.
“In the case of Constantine’s II vicennalia, two medallions would have
been distributed to each praepositus – leader of a military unit – one portraying
the father, the other the son. Our medallion was worth 12 scruple of gold. One
solidus had the weight of 4 scruples meaning two of these medallions were
worth 6 solidi or 5 old aurei. According to the Oxyrynchus papyrus, that was the
amount of money paid to a praepositus in Constantinian times on the occasion
of a jubilee.”
It is tempting to see four such pairs of multiples in the Saint-Ouen-du-
Breuil hoard.
Fig. 7. A possible inspiration for the design of the AVGVSTVS / CAESAR multiples. Æ
As of Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE), Pergamum mint (RIC I 486; RPC I 2235). Struck circa
27-23 BCE. CNG 78 (14 May 2008), lot 1631, 9.99g, 27mm.
at least 329g92. While acknowledging that the weight of the Roman libra may
have varied both geographically and through time, the examples could indicate
that at the time and place where these particular weights were used, the Roman
pound might have had a weight of no less than 332-333g. Much more study
would be needed to evaluate this suggestion. In this paper, 330g is considered
closer to the actual weight of a Roman pound than the conventionally used 323-
329g.
Returning to the multiples, they represent the introduction of a new de-
nomination. There is ample evidence that donatives in silver were produced in
multiples or fractions of a Roman pound93. Many authors have remarked that
the silver multiples apparently were struck at 24 to the pound94. In 337 CE,
when the first 1/24-pound multiples were produced, the siliqua was struck at 96
per pound. Each multiple would thus have equaled four siliquae. As discussed
above, the libra equaled about 330g, so 1/24 of this was 13.75g. The average
weight of the 12 superbly preserved silver multiples in the Kaiseraugst hoard is
13.09g95, that is, 4.8% less than expected96. Even if one accounts for some loss
due to corrosion, cleaning and polishing, the difference appears too large to be
92 L. Holland, A Bronze Five-Pound Roman Weight. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und
Epigraphik 167 (2008), 225-226
93 Beyeler op. cit.
94 This denomination is regularly described as 6 siliquae or 3 light miliarense by
scholars and auction cataloguers. However, the weight of these multiples remained stable
throughout their existence, whereas the weight of the siliqua and the miliarense did not. This
denomination should therefore simply be called the 1/24-pound denomination rather than
being arbitrarily converted into siliquae and miliarense.
95 H. A. Cahn, Münzen und Medallions M1-186, Der spätrömische Silberschatz von
Kaiseraugst (Basler Beiträge zur Ur- und Frühgeschichte 19), ed. H. A. Cahn – A. Kaufmann-
Heinimann, Derendingen 1984. Textband 337-345, Tafelband pls. 194-205.
96 Using the weight of 322.8g calculated by Duncan-Jones op. cit., 1/24 libra equals
13.45g, that is, the medallions show a weight 2.7% less than expected.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 407
explained by losses, and the low weight is therefore real and difficult to evalu-
ate. A similar problem is seen in the siliqua, which was presumably struck at 96
to a pound, meaning a weight of 3.44g. However, actual weights from the three
most numerous emissions 326-327 CE have the following mean weights: Rome
3.05g97, Siscia 3.06g98, Constantinopolis 3.07g99. These figures agree exactly
with the mean weight 3.06g reported for similar silver pieces in the KHM by
Vondrovec100. These weights are at least 10% lower than expected if the siliqua
was struck at 96 to a pound.
In conclusion, both denominations - the 1/24-pound multiples and the
siliqua – were struck at a lower weight than expected from a simple division of
the pound. The deviation is too large to be due to chance or to preservational
factors or to the uncertain weight of the pound. There are several possible ex-
planations for the discrepancy but further discussion falls outside the scope of
this paper.
The 1/24-pound donative denomination continued to be produced inter-
mittently well into the 5th century. Apart from the thirty-eight AVGVSTVS /
CAESAR and CAESAR / X X specimens, there are some 70 further known
examples of 1/24-pound multiples101. Their next appearance after 337 was in a
small emission struck before 340 CE in Siscia by Constans102. Interestingly, it
appears that during the joint reign of Constans and Constantius II, these mul-
tiples were produced only in mints controlled by Constans. The majority of the
known 1/24-pound donatives (at least 54 specimens of over 70) were struck
by Constans for him and Constantius on two occasions103, their regnal jubi-
lees in the 340’s104. These must have been very large emissions, and examples
existing today were struck in Trier (9 ex.), Aquileia (4 ex.), Siscia (22 ex.) and
Thessalonika (19 ex.). Slightly later, in the early 350’s, Magnentius (350-353
CE) produced an unusual type at Trier105.
97 Mean weight of 19 well-preserved examples of the Rome Victory emission which
includes RIC 378 and unlisted.
98 Mean weight of 19 well-preserved examples of the Siscia Victory emission includ-
ing RIC 210 and unlisted.
99 Mean weight of 18 well-preserved examples of the Constantinopolis Victory emis-
sion including RIC 5 and unlisted.
100 K. Vondrovec, Argenteus und Siliqua, Zum Silbergeld im 4. Jahrhundert n. Chr.
Stabilität und Instabilität von Geldsystemen. Tagungsband zum 7. Österreichischen Numis-
matikertag (Wien, vom 19. – 20. Mai 2016). Oesterreichische Nationalbank 2018, 24.
101 Beyeler op. cit. 22 knew of a total of around 80 1/24-pound multiples and observed
that at least 60 of these came from three hoards: the Trier Neutor hoard of 1635 (21 ex.),
Kaiseraugst (17 ex.), and Saint-Ouen-du-Breuil (22 ex.).
102 RIC VIII Siscia 41, Gnecchi op. cit. pl. 30, fig. 2.
103 The presence of two mint marks, TES and TSE, in the Thessalonican SIC/V/SIC/X
multiples for Constans could indicate one emission at the beginning of the celebration year
and one emission at the end of that year.
104 The vota formulae SIC/V/SIC/X and SIC/X/SIC/XX were used for Constans and
SIC/X/SIC/XX and SIC/XX/SIC/XXX for Constantius. The inconsistent use of VOTA for-
mulae in Late Roman coinage makes it impossible to date the multiples solely on the vota.
105 RIC VIII Trier 255, reverse with SECVRITAS REIPVBLICAE; London BM no.
1844,1008.70, 12.94g.
408 Lars Ramskold
106 Constantinople not in RIC IX, Gorny & Mosch 118, lot 2429, 12.03g; Obolos 20,
lot 392, 12.94g.
107 Aquileia not in RIC IX, NAC 95, lot 354, 13.58g.
108 Aquileia not in RIC IX, NAC 62, lot 2117, 13.49g.
109 E.g., Lafaurie op. cit.; A. R. Bellinger, Roman and Byzantine Medallions in the
Dumbarton Oaks Collection. Dumbarton Oaks Papers 12 (1958), 125, 127–156.
110 Acknowledgements. I thank the organisers of the symposium NIŠ AND BYZ-
ANTIUM XIX for inviting me to present this study. Photographs of the medallions from
the Saint-Ouen-du-Breuil hoard were kindly supplied by Michel Amandry. Bistra Božkova
kindly supplied copies of Bulgarian publications difficult to find. An earlier draft of this paper
was read by Enrico Zuddas, who provided numerous insightful comments, and Wolfram Til-
lack suggested several important improvements of the manuscript. All errors remain mine.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 409
Catalogue
The Public Collections and Auction Catalogues referred to are listed after
the Catalogue.
11 Gnecchi 1912 op. cit. 64, pl. 31, fig. 6 Museum of 1912 13.50 410
Nijmegen
Lafaurie 1949 op. cit. pl. 5, fig. 8
Amandry & Gautier 2004 op. cit. 135, fig.
2, p. 136, no. 1
12 Reinert op. cit. fig. 2. From the Saint-Ouen- Paris, BNF, 1994 13.28
du-Breuil hoard INV-45-
Amandry & Gautier 2004 op. cit. 135, fig. 2178-023
3, p. 136, no. 2
Ferrando 2010 op. cit. 65, no. 14
Type B. CAESAR / X X
13 ? Du Cange 1680 op. cit. 35 (fig.), 36 Paris BNF 1680 13.50 411
(description) 191 1912
Gnecchi 1912 op. cit. 72, pl. 33, fig. 16
Lafaurie 1949 op. cit. pl. 5, fig. 9
Amandry & Gautier 2004 op. cit. 135, fig.
4, 136, no. 3
Ferrando 2010 op. cit. 189, no. 797
14 Triton 2, lot 1064 Private Coll. 1998-12- 13.02
Triton 4, lot 705 02
Amandry & Gautier 2004 op. cit. 137, fig. 2000-12-
6, 138, no. 5 05
15 de France 1755 op. cit. xxvi, pl. 108, fig. 1 Vienna 1755 13.22
Kubitschek 19091, no. 338, pl. 18 32427
Amandry - Gautier 2004 op. cit. 137, fig. 5,
138, no. 4
16 Bastien 19942, pl. 185, fig. 3 Utrecht 1972 12.45
Amandry & Gautier 2004 op. cit. 137, fig. 1972-0709
8, 138, no. 7
17 Amandry & Gautier 2004 op. cit. 137, fig. Private - 12.95
7, 138, no. 6 coll.
Lugdunum, mint mark LVG
Type A. AVGVSTVS / CAESAR
18 Bastien 19823, pl. 19, fig. 279a Paris BNF 1949 10.97 283
Lafaurie 1949 op. cit. pl. 5, fig. 11
19 Rollin et Feuardent, 1896, lot 854 (Montagu Lyon 1896 12.79
coll.)
Bastien 1982 op.cit. pl. 19, fig. 279b
20 Bastien 1982 op.cit. pl. 19, fig. 279c Roman 1962 12.76
Museum,
Cahn 1984 op. cit. 341, pl. 199, M84
Augusta
(Kaiseraugst)
Raurica,
Cahn 19844 74, M84
inv.
Peter 20085, 164, fig. 24
1962.77.
M84
Type B. CAESAR / X X
21 Colson 18576, fig. on p. 407 Turin, 1857 12.08 284
Toynbee 19447, pl. 14, fig. 2 Mazzini
Lafaurie 1949 op. cit. pl. 5, fig. 12 coll.
Mazzini 19588, v. 5, 206, pl. 55, fig. 60 -
M & M Basel 19, lot 264 (to Turin) 12.14
Fava et al. 19649, no. 468, p. 108, pl. 34, fig. 9
Bastien 1982 op.cit. pl. 19, fig. 280 1959-06-
05
Aquileia, mint mark AQ
Type B. CAESAR / X X
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 411
22 Gnecchi 1912 op. cit. 72, pl. 33, fig. 15 Paris, BNF 1913 12.45 138
Ricci 191310, figure on p. 271
Lafaurie 1949 op. cit. pl. 4, fig. 7
Paolucci - Zub 200011 100, no. 316
Asolati 2014a12, fig. 32
23 Lafaurie 1949 op. cit. pl. 4, fig. 3 (mint Paris, BNF 1949 12.33
mark area broken)
Rome, mint mark R
Type A. AVGVSTVS / CAESAR
24 Gerasimov 1939 op. cit. 339, fig. 369 Sofia, 1939 13.40 -
Božkova 1989 op. cit. 33, fig. 2 NAM, no.
Božkova 199013, front cover photo Božkova 3228 (ex
1996 op. cit. 74, no. 3, (not figured) 3262) 13.37
Siscia, mint mark SIS
Type A. AVGVSTVS / CAESAR
25 Grueber 187414 87, pl. 59, fig. 2 London 1874 12.78 259
Gnecchi 1912 op. cit. 64, pl. 31, fig. 8 BM, 12.85
Lafaurie 1949 op. cit. pl. 4, fig. 4 B.11465
Kent - Hirmer 197815 no. 660
26 Naville Ars Classica 17, lot 1929 (Evans coll.) Dumbarton 1934 13.16
Lafaurie 1949 op. cit. pl. 4, fig. 5 Oaks
Bellinger 1958 op. cit. no. 12
Breckenridge 197916 41, no. 37
BOC 1991 op. cit. 4, fig. 1e
Bastien 1994 op. cit. pl. 166, fig. 3
27 New York Sale 4, lot 402 Private coll. 2002-01-17 13.20
28 Lorber 198317 273, no. 160 Private coll. 13.04
Sotheby’s New York Sale 6147, lot 947 1991-06-20 13.10
BOC 1991 op. cit. 3, fig. 1a
29 NFA 28, lot 1349 Private coll. 1992-04-23 ?
G. Hirsch 177, lot 1313 1993-02-10
Type B. CAESAR / X X
30 Trau 1935 op. cit. pl. 50, no. 4336 Library 1935-05-21 12.7 260
Toynbee 1944 op. cit. pl. 14, fig. 1 of the
Lafaurie 1949 op. cit. pl. 4, fig. 6 Romanian
Moisil et al. 200218 108, no. 2 Academy
31 Bank Leu 28, lot 571 Private coll. 1981-05-06 13.05
Lorber 1983 op. cit. 272, no. 159
Sotheby’s New York Sale 6147, lot 948
Božkova 1996 op. cit. no. 6 (Debelt Hoard, 1991-06-20
Burgas, Bulgaria)
Thessalonica, mint mark TSE
Type A. AVGVSTVS / CAESAR
412 Lars Ramskold
32 J. Hirsch 29 lot 1410 (coll. Herzfelder fide Private coll. 1910-11-09 13.11 221
Gnecchi 1912) 1924-06-25
Naville 8 (Bement Coll.), 1924, lot 1495
Lafaurie 1949 op. cit. pl. 5, fig. 10
Bank Leu and NFA (Garrett 2) 1984, lot 338 1984-10-16
(fide BOC)
BOC 1991 op. cit. 4, fig. 1f (Garrett)
33 Gemini 3, lot 460 Private coll. 2007-01-09 12.87
Asolati 201219 34, fig. 27
Asolati 2014 op.cit. fig. 33
Asolati 201420 fig. 3
34 NAC 78, lot 1157 Private coll. 2014-05-27 13.42
NO MINT MARK
and William Herbert Hunt Collections, ed. J. Firth Tompkins. Kimbell Art Museum, Fort
Worth 1983, 155-294.
18 D. Moisil – E. Oberländer-Târnoveanu – B. Constantinescu, Multipli de argint
tomani târzii din colecția ing. Constantin C. Orghidan (Some Late Roman Silver Multiples
from the Eng. Constantin C. Orghidan Collection). Cercetäri Numismatice VIII (2002), 107-
109.
19 M. Asolati, Una ‘tetradracma’ di Costantino I per la dedicazione di Constantino-
polis, Praestantia Nummorum. Temi e note di numismatica tardo antica e alto medievale, ed.
M. Asolati, (Numismatica Patavina 11) (Esedra, Padova 2012), 17-34.
20 Idem, Tradizione ellenistica nella moneta di Flavio Costantino e persistenze “fla-
vie” nella moneta altomedievale: segni di un’eredità, Costantino il Grande a 1700 anni dall’
“Editto di Milano”, ed. G. Cuscito, [Atti della XLIV Settimana di Studi Aquileiesi, 30 mag-
gio – 1 giugno 2013], (Antichità altoadriatiche 78), Trieste 2014, 255–282.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 415
Public collections
New York Sale The New York Sale, Baldwin’s Auctions Ltd, London,
UK & M&M Numismatics Ltd, Washington DC, USA & Italo Vecchi Ltd,
London, UK. 4 (17 Jan. 2002).
Numismatica Genevensis Numismatica Genevensis Sa, Geneva,
Switxerland. 5 (2-3 Dec. 2008).
Obolos Nomos AG, Zürich, Switzerland. 20 (10 July 2020).
Peus Dr Busso Peus Nachf., Frankfurt am Main, Germany. 421 (1-3 Nov.
2017).
Rollin et Feuardent Rollin et Feuardent, Paris, France. 1896
(Montagu Coll.).
Sotheby’s Sotheby’s, London, UK. New York Sale 6147 (Bunker Hunt
coll. IV, 19-20 June 1991).
Triton CNG and Freeman & Sear and NAC. 2 (1-2 Dec. 1998); 4 (5
Dec. 2000); 7 (13-14 Jan. 2004).
Ларс Рамсколд
(независни истраживач)
АВГУСТ /ЦЕЗАР И ЦЕЗАР: СРЕБРНЕ МУЛТИПЛЕ И МЕЂУВЛАШЋЕ 337 Н.Е.
Љубиша Васиљевић
(Народни музеј Крушевац)
Сл.1 Порфирна
статуа Асклепија из
Медијане, фото. Љ.
Васиљевић
Fig. 1 Porphyry
Statue of Hygeia
and Asclepius from
Mediana, photo by
LJ. Vasiljević
Сл. 2 Порфирна
статуа Хигије из
Медијане, фото. Љ.
Васиљевић
Fig. 2 Porphyry
Statue of Hygeia
and Asclepius from
Mediana, photo by
LJ. Vasiljević
22 P. Petrović, Trebič kod Sokobanje, Arheološki pregled 10, (Beograd 1968), 132-
135, nap. 3.
23 isto, 134-135.
24 И. Здравковић, Средњовековни градови у Србији, Београд 1970, 54.
424 Љубиша Васиљевић
35 исто, 249.
36 Б. Филиповић, нав. дело, 50.
37 М. Гарашанин, Д. Гарашанин, Археолошка налазишта у Србији, Београд
1951, 207.
38 Ф. Каниц, нав. дело, 339.
39 S. Stamenković, Rimsko nasleđe u Leskovačkoj kotlini, Beograd 2013, 176.
40 С. Ерцеговић Павловић, Д. Костић, Археолошки споменици и налазишта
лесковачког краја, Београд–Лесковац 1976, 184.
41 А. Јовановић, Белешке о култу воде у римским провинцијама на тлу Србије,
Зборник Матице српске за класичне студије 14, (Нови Сад 2012), 153-154.
42 Ч. Јордовић, Римске терме у селу Баце, Прокупље у праисторији, антици и
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 427
Прва рекогносцирања
простора Врањске Бање показала
су да се на рту Бабуљица, везаном
за брдо на десној обали реке
Бањштице, проналазе римске опеке.
Испод падине бра констатована су
два паралелна зида од ломљеног
камена и малтера.51 На локалитету
Селиште, смештеном на десној
обали реке Бањштице, између реке и
Бабуљице, делом у равници, а делом
на падини, на површини од више
хектара, проналазе се фрагменти
црвене римске керамике и римске
опеке.52 У брдовитом залеђу бањске
котлине налазе се утврђења на
локалитетима Црквиште и Кале.
Остаци утврђења Црквиште
одавно привлаче пажњу
истраживача. Каниц је 1889. године Сл. 5 Скица основе утврђења на локалитету
забележио да је „на узаном платоу Црквиште, према: Д. Радичевић, Г. Стојичић, Г.
Изамно“ уочио „јак правоугаони Митровић и А. Ранисављев 2004, 149, сл. 2.
антички кастел са дужим странама Fig. 5. Drawing of the fortification base at the Crkvište
које су се спуштале ка реци и тамо site near Vranjska Banja.
завршавале у једном објекту са 1,4
м дебелим и 45 м дугим зидовима“. На обали реке, узводно од овог потока,
запазио је темеље округле куле пречника 2,5 метара, а на основу свега
откривеног, што је за тему нашег рада изузетно битно, закључио је да су
Римљани користили изворе топле воде заштитивши их јаким утврђењем.53
Ситуација утврђена на локалитету знатно се разликује од описа
ранијих истраживача. Издигнутији, североисточни део утврђења углавном
је остао непромењен. Ради се о издуженом, елипсоидном платоу, димензија
око 70 х 30 м, са постепеним падом у правцу југозапада. Целом дужином
северозападног обода платоа јасно се уочава траса бедема, чији су остаци
на појединим местима видљиви и на површини терена. Остаци бедема се
не примећују на југоисточном ободу платоа, а питање је и да ли је ту икада
постојао, будући да је плато на тој страни природно брањен стеновитим
литицама и неприступачним падинама.54 (Сл. 5)
Покретни налази са Црквишта (керамика, опеке, новац, тегуле, стакло)
датују се у период IV─VI века, мада се јављају и фрагменти праисторијске
51 Д. Гарашанин, М. Гарашанин, нав. дело, 11.
52 исто.
53 Ф. Каниц, Србија земља и становништво – од римског доба до краја XIX
века, прва књига, Београд 1985, 263.
54 Д. Радичевић, Г. Стојичић, Г. Митровић и А- Ранисављев, Сондажна
истраживања рановизантијских утврђења у Врањској Бањи и Корбевцу, Гласник
Српског археолошког друштва 20, (Београд 2004), 150.
430 Љубиша Васиљевић
Ljubiša Vasiljević
(National museum Kruševac)
ARCHAELOGICAL SITES AND DISCOVERIES RELATED
TO HEALING SPRINGS IN SOUTHERN SERBIA
The subject of the paper presents archaeological sites and discoveries found near the
healing springs in Southern Serbia. Discoveries from the following sites have been present-
ed: Niška Banja – Mediana, Soko Banja, Banja Jošanjica, Zvonačka Banja, Krupac, Tularska
Banja, Sijarinska Banja, Vranjska Banja, Toplac and Levosojе.
These discoveries witness that the healing springs in this region were known, used and
respected during prehistoric, antique and medieval periods. Apart from using healing waters
in everyday life, knowledge of healing properties of the springs led to foundation of sacral
spaces related to cults of iatric and soteriological nature.
There is an open question of interpretation of numerous movable and immovable dis-
coveries found near healing springs, at places where we cannot claim that their natural wealth
had role in everyday life of the population. The answer to this question can only be obtained
by new researches, related to further archaeological excavations or by conclusions derived
from new analogies or by systematization of previous knowledge.
Svetla Petrova
(Archaeological museum Sandanski)
The village of Banya is situated in South Thracia, in the south skirts of the
mountain Sredna gora, generally north of Via Diagonalis, now almost repeated
and covered by the highway Sofia-Istanbul (A-1). The climate here is mild and
there are too thermal sources. 7 km north of the village is situated the biggest
ore deposit of copper and non-ferrous metals, including gold. Here is located a
434 Svetla Petrova
in the main group of Asia Minor are rarely to be found in Rome, where they
are predominantly as half-fabricated items from Proconnessos8. The lid from
Banya compared to the products of the local provincial sculpture, is different in
its working, carving and the quality of its marble: one of the best examples of
the local production from Sinitovo9 demonstrates asymmetry of the head; rude
representation of the face features; poor polishing of marble; and a lot of other
failings. All these features are absent in the cline-lid from Banya. That’s the
reason to reject the idea of its local production, and on the opposite, to consider
it as import from a workshop with good professional practice and well trained
masters. For us it is unbelievable a local master to learn the iconography and
the carving of a cline-lid in details, but to carve only one piece. In this case, he
is expected to create at least several ones offered on the market to the notables
of Philippopolis and beyond.
It is quite possible that the cline-lid is ordered in Asia Minor workshop,
and for the purpose the sculptor has arrived to the domain of this magistrate at
Banya. In this case he would not trust the marble from the local quarries, be-
cause according to the known data, a block of marble before carving should stay
at the open, outsides for a long time, as to be checked that inside the block there
are no defects, and it want be broken during work. Besides, a foreign sculptor
not knowing the qualities of the local marbles could hardly agree to work with
local marble. He would prefer to transport to the place of the monument a piece
of marble from a quarry with which he is well acquainted. These arguments as
the given so far, do not allow accepting the thesis of the local production of the
Banya’s cline-lid. The very fact that to the moment other cline-lids have not
been discovered in the interior of Thracia (on the territory of Bulgaria), prove
8 G. Koch, Sarcophagi of Roman Imperial Times in the Balkan Provinces. – N.
Cambi – G. Koch (eds). Funerary Sculpture of the Western Illyricum and neighboring Re-
gions of the Roman Empire: in Proceedings of the International Scholarly Conference held in
Split 2009, Split 2013, 116 and notes 70 and 71. It seems that Koch has not seen the cline-lid,
but only the photos in the publication of P. Georgiev from 1990. That’s why he erroneously
speaks of ‘the lid from Plovdiv’.
9 В. Попова-Мороз, Римската портретна пластика от Бесапара и нейната
територия, Годишник на Националния археологически музей, VIII, 1992, 203-214; Р.
Милчева, Юношески портрет от Синитово, Изкуство, 9, 1982, 26-30.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 437
that they were unfamiliar to the local population and that it had no affinity to its
usage. That’s the reason to consider that the magistrate represented on the cline-
lid had contacts with the Asia Minor provinces Bythinia et Pontus and Phrygia
as its governor, administrator, or in the another possibility, his origin to be from
the Eastern provinces. Unfortunately, the lack of his portrait head cannot sup-
port our supposition.
Another reason to deal with this monument is the thesis of its first pub-
lisher that the lid is an eclecticаl product of a local workshop. This lid, together
with the fragments of Varna, are considered as carved in 2nd-4th century, and
the conclusion has been made that the cline-lids were not popular in these prov-
inces10. In the recent 30 years the information on the iconography, production
and distribution of such kind of monuments is enriched significantly. The quar-
ries have been studied and also the chemical analysis of the marbles extracted
in the three primary centers of production of sarcophagi: Asia Minor, Attica and
Rome. The data base of the numerous provincial quarries has been created, ex-
cept these three centers11. There was an attempt to re-examine the so-called ‘in-
dustry’ of the Roman sarcophagi, to count approximately the number of them,
the time necessary for carving one item, the number of masters occupied in its
working etc.12. All these new data allow a new look and new analysis on the
cline-lid from Banya13.
The right side of the border of the cline, the fulcrum, which was limiting
from both sides the mattress, is now very chipped. But during the opening a
dolphin has been seen on both sides of the fulcrum, with his tail up to the nar-
10 P. Georgiev, Op. cit, 1990, 523; Idem, Op. cit., 1997, 40;. L. Andreeva, Petrogra-
phische Untersuchung der Marmore aus dem Grabgevölbe beim Dorf Banja, bezirk Pazard-
shik, Archaeologia Bulgarica, 1997, 3, 46-49.
11 The major part of the quarries and its production have been reported and published
in ASMOSIA, as well as in a lot of local studies.
12 B. Russel, The Roman Sarcophagus ‘Industry’: a Reconsideration, J. Elsner & J.
Huskinson (eds), Life, Death and Representation: Some New Work on Roman Sarcophagi,
Millennium-Studien / Millennium Studies, no. 29, Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter
Gmbh, 2011, 119-147.
13 Preserved dimensions of the cline-lid: 1.74 m long and 1.11 wide.
438 Svetla Petrova
Fig. 6. Cline-lid.
The mattress and the
figures on it.
Сл. 6. Клинасти
поклопац, фигуре
на лежају.
row part of the border of the cline. Aside of the dolphin, in the triangle space of
the border, a sitting duck or another water bird has been depicted in direction to
the middle of the mattress14. Unfortunately, now the left side is missing, and the
right one very strongly battered (fig. 4 and 5). The cline has a lavish decoration
of laurel wreath. The mattress possesses a rich decoration of tendrils, bordered
by strips alongside the wide part of the mattress. These strips of the tendrils con-
tinue on its front long side and in its stamens, forming four almost square fields
with modelled swastika, whose arms are counter clockwise way. The middle
of the front long side is marked by four-leaf rosette and winded tenia, tidying
together the two contrary ends of the wreath. Over it, almost in the middle of the
mattress, two wreaths are represented concentrically inscribed one in the other,
in almost a square frame (fig. 6).
This decoration of the cline lids with a couple, where the husband em-
braces the wife by the shoulders, holding plants, a vessel, a rotula and his wife
wheat-ears, a garland etc., appears in the Antonine period. The same subject and
iconography continues in the Severan period too15. But there are differences
between the Attic and the Asia Minor mattress16. In Attica among the alternat-
ing panels made of vertical convex bands are placed panels with mythological
scenes or animals17. In Asia Minor the sculpted plant decoration is dominating,
the couple is on a cline under the mattress’ frame, with low backs and richly
decorated mattress.
14 At the beginning it has been identified as a head of animal, see P. Georgiev, Op.
cit., 1997, 37.
15 The earliest are in Rome, at Trajan. See G. Koch, H. Sichtermann, Römische Sar-
kophage, München 1982, 28-30; G. Koch, Klinen-Deckel lokaler Sarkophage Der Kaiserzeit
in Kleinasien, Adalya XII, 2009, 117-143.
16 P. Georgiev, Op. cit., 1997, 37-43.
17 M. Waelkens, Dokimeion. Die Werkstatt Der Repräsentativen Kleinasiatischen
Sarkophage. Chronologie Und Typologie Ihrer Produktion, Berlin, Gebr. Mann., 1982; C.
Kintrup, Attische Sarkophage aus Ephesos. – Ergänzungshefte zu den Jahresheften des
Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes, Heft 16, Wien 2017, 133-140, Taf. 23, Abb.
103, Taf. 24, Abb. 104, 105; G. Koch, Einige Überlungen zu de Sarkophagen der kleinasi-
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 439
atischen Hauptgruppe, Munus. Festschrift für Hans Wiegartz, ed. T. Mattern vd, Münster,
Scriptorium, 2000, 139-148.
18 The major part of the cline-lids in the museum of Afyion, are production of the
Docimium masters, who have created their own model of cline-lids.
19 С. Петрова, Римско-йонийски капители от Мизия и Тракия, София 1996, 44-
47; S. Petrova. The roman architectonic decoration reused in the Early Christian Buildings
of Parthicopolis, PATRIMONIUM.MK, 15, 2017, 345-384; S. Petrova, The application of the
Roman Ionic order in Augusta Traiana, Studia Academica Šumenensia, 4, Shumen Univer-
sity Press 2017, 115-153.
20 That’s the reason to call the building during the Severan period, ‘Hadrian’s Renais-
sance’.
21 Now the cline-lid, consisting of two big parts, is exposed in the lobby of the build-
ing of the mayor of Banya.
22 The sarcophagus of Flavius Agricola. Indianapolis. Museum of Art. See: P. Zank-
er, Die mythologischen Sarkophagreliefs und ihre Betrachter, Bayerische Akademie der Wis-
senschaften München, 2000, Heft 2, 10, Abb. 5.
23 C. Kintrup, Op.cit., 133-140, Taf. 23, Abb. 103, Taf. 24, Abb. 104, 105.
440 Svetla Petrova
Fig. 7.
Husband’s torso
with a hole for
mounting the
new head.
Сл. 7. Мушки
торзо са рупом
за постављање
нове главе.
preserved (figs. 3, 4, 6, 8). Differently to her husband, her head was monolithi-
cally made together with the neck and the body. She is dressed in short-sleeved
chiton girded under the breast and tied with the Heracles’ knot, the symbol of
her matrimonial status. Her head is covered with a veil supported by her left
arm, leaned by the elbow to the mattress. In her right hand she holds a garland.
The sculptural decoration of the fulcrum, the mattress and of the pillow is made
on the frontal part of the lid continuing to the middle of its back sides. The back
of the fulcrum is not decorated. In spite of this fact, the back of the man and the
woman are sculpted plastically, with the well visible folds of the pallium and
the chiton (fig. 9). The husband embraces the wife immediately in front of him
and both are holding subjects which are insigniae of their gender and social and
family status.
In our opinion the cline-lid from Banya belongs to the main Asia Minor
group24; product of Asia Minor producing centers. It is proved that in Lower
Moesia and Thracia there was import of different architectural details, sar-
cophagi and Early Christian furniture. Most of them come from the quarries
and workshops of Asia Minor: from Docimium, Epheso; from Proconessos and
Pentelikon; also from the Aegeian islands Paros and Naxos25. The iconographic
24 See: G. Koch, Op.cit., 2000, 139-148; G. Koch, Op.cit., 2013, 107, fig. 6.
25 A. B. Biernacki, V. Yotov, A. Minčev, The Origin of the Marble of the Archi-
tectural Elements and Details from the Early-Christian Church at Cape Sveti Atanas near
Bjala (Bulgaria), AD FINES IMPERII ROMANI, ed. A. Tomas, Varsaviae 2015, 417-435; J.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 441
Fig. 8. Cline-lid. Detail - the upper part of the woman’s body and face.
Сл. 8. Поклопац. горњи део женског тела и лица, детаљ
scheme and decorative motifs we saw on the cline-lid from Banya, undoubtedly
belong to the group of Asia Minor sarcophagi. The quality of marble, too differ-
ent from the marble extracted in the Rhodope Mountains, is very near to the qual-
ity of the sarcophagus with Amazonomachy from the Plovdiv Archaeological
museum26. The discovered details so far, import from the Asia Minor quarries
and workshops, reveal that in Thracia and most of all in Philippopolis was real-
ized the import of architectural details together with other marble items. A close
example of import of masters and marble is the decoration of the Roman villa
Armira in its first building period, where the Aphrodosian School has made
the wall marble revetment. Having in mind that the elite of Philippopolis often
was part of the governing of the Asia Minor provinces of Bithynia et Pontus
and Phrygia27, we do not exclude the possibility some of these workshops to
work on and supply with the cline-lid28. It is proved that the Docimium quar-
ries were the most often suppliers of architectural and another details connected
with the lands north and south of Hemus. That’s the reason not to exclude the
possibility that most probably the cline-lid was commissioned only as a lid,
not including the sarcophagus itself. This possible order is only of one part of
the whole monument (the cline-lid), while there exists also a full order of the
trough together with the lid, or the third possibility of a semi-finished product,
examples of which are discovered in the quarries of Docimium29. In our case
the cline-lid was half ready-made, half semi-fabricated, because the head and
the body of the spouse was completely sculpted as a monolithic piece, while the
head of the man was mobile.
This fact points to the wish of the husband to have a more veristic and
not a banal portrait. This means the possibility that the head has been brought
to him semi-manufactured and only after that has been sculpted in situ in the
ancient settlement by an itinerant Asia Minor master, and inserted in the neck of
the statue. This was the way the cline-lid has been completed and set together
with the statue of the wife. I have not met so far a parallel for the mobile head
of the cline-lid. A case like that, but in the round sculpture is the headless bust
with hollow for the head from a tomb in Parthicopolis. He was a local magis-
trate, buried according to the guilt coin, in the period of Constantine I30. We can
suppose another possibility because of the fact that no other cline-lid has with
mobile head been discovered so far. It is that initially in the first burial the male
head was also monolithic. But during the second burial in 30s of 4th century the
head has been obliterated, a new head sculpted, for which the hollow made for
its montage. The cutting of the marble in order to ensure the montage of the
new head is obvious also from the battered and formless shoulders of the male
figure.
No trough of the sarcophagus made of the same material and style as
the cline-lid of Banya has been found so far. The trough under the lid in the
burial of the tomb of Banya is made of another kind of marble by its structure,
colour and manner of work, consisting of several plates and very rudely worked
out. The colour of its marble of the fragment of sarcophagus with scenes of
Amazonomachy from Plovdiv and of the sarcophagus from Banya is identical;
also the very precisely work allowing relating it to the Asia Minor workshops.
The two monuments: from Banya and from the Archaeological museum of
Plovdiv31 show that in Philippopolis and its area have been imported such kind
of sarcophagi for the elite in this part of Tracia, predominantly the upper class
of the urban magistrates.
It is possible that the domain in Banya was a possession of the family of
Virdii, a famous Romanized Thracian gens in Philippopolis, belonging to the
class of equites. A representative of this family, named Virdius Cemellinus, is
procurator of Bithynia et Pontus during the period of Trajan. This family has
governed in Philippopolis as thracarchs and neocors in the period between the
second half of 2nd – first half of 3rd century32. In inscription from Philippi is
said that the thracarch Teres had erected a statue to his brother33 Julius C(ai)
f(illius) Vol(tina) [M]aximus Mucianus, on a place pointed by a decret of the
decurions. Antoninus Pius (138-161 г.) has granted him the rank of senator – vir
clarissimus laticlavius, questor of province Ponthus et Bithynia. He was also
pointed as ‘aedilis cerealis’ with rank of praetor, and has been also decurion of
Philippi and decurion of the province of Thracia. These two inscriptions reveal
that these rich notabiles with significant farm domains, governing the religious
and administrative affairs of the cities in Thracia34 and Macedonia, are belong-
ing to the class of equites. From other inscriptions also coming from Thracia35
it is obvious that the thracarchs were also heirs of the old Thracian aristocracy,
and were among the most important magistrates in the religious and public life
in the cities of Thracia.
It is considered that the trough, the cline-lid and the male head are local
production made of local marble. After the chemical analysis of them made in
1997, it is announced that it is identical for all three samples and coincides with
the chemical analysis of the marble from the quarry ‘Lepenitsa’, situated 10 km
far from Velingrad and 100 km south of Banya36. In this way, the origin ac-
cording to L. Andreeva of the initial cline-lid, the trough from the earlier burial
of end of 2nd – beginning of 3rd century and the later male head and the plates
for the second burial from the 30s of 4th century is one and the same. However,
even visually, it is on the opposite, the marble is different. Besides, in the cited
study has not been used the method of isotopic analysis, in order to differenti-
ate quarries with close or similar compositions. If the quarry has been used in
Antiquity, there should be some proofs for it when visiting the place: traces
from the extraction of blocks, instruments, some ready production around, ei-
ther architectural element or sculpture kept in the Bulgarian museums, for in-
stance in Plovdiv, Pazardjik, Velingrad or Sofia. Philippopolis has the biggest
collection of sculpture from South Bulgaria, and both Banya and Lepenitsa are
situated not far from it. If the quarry of Lepenitsa did existed, monuments de-
scending from there should be in this and the other collections, but Lepenitsa
or a close to it location is not among the provenance of the ancient sculptures.
We can also compare the marble of our monument to the marble of the portrait
heads and the votive reliefs, which are surely local production of Bessapara
(now the village of Sinitovo), situated not far from Banya37. The marble of the
Bessapara monuments is also quite different from that in Banya in its colour,
texture and fracture.
Anyway, the supposed provenance of the marble from Lepenitsa does not
explain why this monument is unique for the Thracian lands and different from
the Attic import in Odessos of cline-lids and of the import from Proconessos of
semi-manufactured sarcophagi with ridge-roof decorated with acroteria38. The
notabiles of Philippopolis have been buried also in sarcophagi, Proconessian
and Asia Minor import, but do not display interest to the type of Banya. It is
obvious that the latter cline-lid was not popular among the elite in Thracia,
maybe because of its high price including the far distance. Probably only very
rich magistrates could afford such sepulchral monument. Another reason for
the preference was also the dominant mode at the end of the Antonines–the
Severans, and the existing constant trade and artistic connections of the cities in
Thracia with particular sculptural schools and workshops to them. The cline-lid
from Banya is rather an exception on the background of the accepted types of
sarcophagi in Thracia and Moesia.
The treatment and the very good knowledge in details of the iconography
of the Banya cline-lid show that not a local, but well trained Asia Minor master
has created it. He has sculpted and carved a lot of such monuments, not only
one. The second master in the 4th century has disturbed the canon of monolithic
heads, probably in search of a portrait verism: the male head has been trans-
formed to mobile for the new burial, and during the process part of shoulders of
36 P. Georgiev, Op.cit., 1990, 523; Idem 1997, Op.cit., See Andreeva 1997, 46-49. In
my opinion, our knowledge on the problem and the methods used at that time in the years of
the analysis were very limited: also a modern data base for comparison was absent.
37 В. Попова-Мороз, Op.cit., 203-214; Р. Милчева, Op.cit., 26-30.
38 Л. Гетов, За вноса на саркофази в Одесос през римската епоха, Археология,
2, 1978, 13-19; A. Minchev, From Proconnessos to Odessos: Unfinished Roman Marbles
from Odessos and Marcianopolis (2nd-3rd c. AD), Histria Antiqua 21, 2012, 49-60.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 445
his figure has been destroyed. The very white small-grained marble probably is
the typical one for the Asia Minor quarries, which had used the models of the
workshops of Docimium39 and Ephesos40. Here have been sculpted and cre-
ated the iconographic schemes of the basic groups of cline-lids and sarcophagi.
Although of another kind of monuments, some import also from Docimium
is known in Novae in Moesia Superior, alongside the Black Sea littoral and
Thracia. The scene of a couple on a cline generally is represented also from
the steles with coena funebris and the funeral wall painting in Thracia, Moesia
and Macedonia41. The cline-lid from the village of Banya shows very skillful
masters in making every detail and connoisseurs of the subject. In this case
the iconography, style and treatment allow connecting the cline-lid from Banya
with the ateliers in Docimium or with close to them workshops42.
The second problem is the reason the lid to appear namely here in Banya.
Maybe it is connected with the occupations of the man and the high social sta-
tus of this family. He had most probably some high magistrate post in Thracia
judging by represented opened document in his left hand. It is possible that he
is somehow connected with the Asia Minor province Bithynia et Pontus, where
according some data Thracians by origin were taking part in its governing43.
This is how he was well acquainted with the current mode and the production
in the funeral monuments there. The family probably represents not only the
wholesale farming in the province of Thracia with a big family domain, but
was also connected with the extraction of gold around Banya. That’s why the
man could afford easily to order during his lifetime the sarcophagus from Asia
Minor, as was the habit in Roman times, to prepare the place and the form of
the future family burial.
The next problem is the date of the cline-lid, ordered and brought here
from the Asia Minor workshops and his portrait completed in situ by the itiner-
ant probably master from the period end of 2nd – the first decades of the 3rd
century during the early Severans. This cline-lid reveals the connection between
the Attic and Asia Minor ateliers in the mentioned period. The very rare for
this part of Thracia kind of sarcophagus has been brought by a long way from
Asia Minor to Thracia, possibly together with the sent other set of architectural
articles and sarcophagi for Philippopolis. It is possible that the magistrate has
39 The Docimium quarries which are imperial domain have supplied a significant
number of the Ancient Minor cities, including the architectural and sculptural decoration
of Hierapolis, comparatively closely situated to Aphrodisias, which was the center of the
ancient sculpture, and whose masters have worked in Rome, Italy, North Africa, Athens in
Greece, the Balkans, etc. See M. Waelkens, Op.cit., 1982; M. Waelkens, Carrières de marbre
en Phrygia, Bmus Art, 1982, 33-54.
40 C. Kintrup, Op.cit., Wien 2017.
41 М. Иванов, Coena funebris върху надгробните плочи от провинция Тракиял,
Сборник в памет на академик Д. П. Димитров, София 2013, 394-407.
42 Already in the 80s of 20th century has been raised the problem of schools and
workshops connected with the workshops of Docimium, See: M. Waelkens, Op.cit., Berlin
1982; J. C. Fant, Op.cit., 655-662.
43 See above in the text - the family of Virdii
446 Svetla Petrova
not taken the sarcophagus directly from Philippopolis but it has been arranged
the itinerant Asia Minor master to accompany the order to the domain of the
magistrate in Banya and to finish the portrait of him there.
The mobile head of the husband and the monolith one of his wife raise
other problems of the portrait forms, because in literature cannot be found data
on mobile heads on the cline-lids in Rome, Attica and Asia Minor. We can read
of half-manufactured lids44, as a whole and non-finito male and female heads45,
but not of mobile separate heads. This fact supposes that the itinerant or local
master could end the sculpting and carving in situ in Banya. It is possible that
during the secondary use of the cline-lid the original male head has been broken
occasionally or considered not suitable for the portrait of the next male from the
second burial, so it has been copied the practice in round sculpture: the original
head obliterated, a hollow made and a new ruder head with tenon inserted.
More than almost one hundred years later, the cline-lid was used as spolia
again with the same function in a new burial, but with a new trough, probably
because the old one was already broken and unfit for use. It is quite possible
that this was made by some successor of the same familia from the 4rd century,
because the place of burial was belonging traditionally to it in the same domain.
But the successor had not the same financial possibilities in comparison to the
magistrate from end of 2nd – the first decades of the 3rd century, because of the
very rude and purely made trough. The time was another and the family wealth
too. But the cline-lid has remained from the most successful time in Thracia
reminding of the glorious and illustrious times of the family.
Светла Петрова
(Археолошки музеј Сандански)
О ПУТОВАЊУ АНТИЧКОГ ПОКЛОПЦА ОТКРИВЕН У СЕЛУ БАЊА У ТРАКИЈИ
seek to demonstrate the nature and purpose of their cooperation in the context
of the Arian/Homoean controversy, during which the Church of Constantinople
began the first extension of its influence in the politico-ecclesiastical sphere.
Eudoxius began his ecclesiastical career as bishop of Germanicia, but he then
became bishop of Antioch in 357 and, finally, of Constantinople in 360. He first
appears in the sources at the Synod of Antioch in 341. Athanasius of Alexandria
reports that he received his bishop’s position precisely because of his Arian
orientation and the support he received from the Eusebians. Very quickly, he
became one of the most prominent members of this group, along with Valens
and Ursacius. In order to shed light on the background of their cooperation, par-
ticular attention will be paid to the following events: 1- Eudoxius’ participation,
in 341 and 343, at the synods of Antioch and Serdica; 2- his role, in 344, as a
member of the delegation sent by the Synod of Antioch to the Western bishops;
3- his participation, in 351, at the Council of Sirmium; 4- his consecration, in
357, as bishop of Antioch together with the aims of the synod he organised in
the following year; 5- his role, in 359, at the Council of Seleucia; 6- his conse-
cration, in 360, as bishop of Constantinople.
Bishop of Germanicia
As can be deduced from the information given by Philostorgius,2
Eudoxius’ father, Caesarius, was from the city Arabissus (modern Afşin) in
Lesser Armenia. Although there is nothing written about Eudoxius’ early life
in Photius’ Epitome of Philostorgius, we can assume that Eudoxius grew up in
a Christian family, since his father achieved martyrdom.3 This probably hap-
pened under Emperor Galerius,4 between 305 and 311, when the latter ruled
as Augustus over Asia Minor and Illyricum, as his share of the Empire. So
Eudoxius must have been born before that time or, at the latest, a few months
later.
We do not know when exactly Eudoxius was consecrated bishop of
Germanicia, a city in the northern Syrian region of Commagene (modern Maraş),
not far from Arabissus. The only data we have about his episcopal consecration
are Athanasius’ encyclical letter to the bishops of Egypt and Libya, written in
tique Lower Danube is financially supported by both the French National Research Agency
(ANR) and the I-SITE ULNE Foundation. It is based at the University of Lille, within the
HALMA–UMR 8164 research centre, and its principal investigator is Dominic Moreau. For
more information, see https://danubius.huma-num.fr. The authors would like to thank Ivan
Bugarski, researcher at the Archaeological Institute of Belgrade, for the translation of a long
version of the abstract in Serbian.
2 Philost. h.e. 4.4.2.
3 Philost. h.e. 4.4.2.
4 Philost. h.e. 4.4a (= Suda ε 3428).
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 449
356,5 and his Historia Arianorum,6 written at the end of 357.7 In the first one,
the Alexandrian prelate writes that Eudoxius became bishop on account of his
impiety with the support of the Eusebians.8 He repeats the same information
(except that he talks about Arians and not Eusebians) in the parallel passage of
his History of the Arians, adding that the consecration took place immediately
after the banishment of Bishop Eustathius of Antioch. Eustathius was unseated
and exiled between 327 and 330/31.9 So, about this time, Eudoxius was probably
ordained bishop. Unfortunately, due to the polemical nature of the passage, the
information given by Athanasius should be treated with caution. As Athanasius
intends to portray Eustathius as the most important defender of the orthodox
religion in Antioch, we cannot be entirely certain that the changes10 cited by
Athanasius actually took place immediately after Eustathius was expelled from
the city. Therefore, the only reliable information about when Eudoxius was a
bishop is his participation in the Synod of Antioch in 341, which he attended as
the bishop of Germanicia.11
of 341.16 More than fifty bishops17 from different parts of Italy attended the
synod and decided that the exiled Nicene bishops were not guilty of the offences
they were accused of in the East.18 Despite being invited, the bishops from the
Eastern part of the Empire did not attend the synod for purely principled rea-
sons. They were convinced that any reconsideration of the issues already dealt
with by the Eastern synods would detract from their credibility. Athanasius ex-
plained the absence of the Eastern bishops in another way. He accused his op-
ponents of not coming to the synod because they were afraid of the truth being
revealed.19
It is precisely in connection with the Synod of Rome that Valens and
Ursacius are referred to again in the sources after 335. In his Apologia secunda,
Athanasius mentions only the names of Valens and Ursacius as his opponents
for the first time.20 They both later confessed – as he writes – that Eusebius and
his group of bishops did not respond to the invitation to the Synod of Rome
because they feared that it would not have clarified how they had not acted
properly in the past. Taken alone, this passage from Athanasius’ writings is let-
ting us deduce that Valens and Ursacius were at this time well acquainted with
the current views of the Eastern pro-Arian group. However, a passage of a let-
ter written by the so-called “Western party” of the Council of Serdica and ad-
dressed to all churches proves that, even then, as during the Synod of Tyr, they
were among the most active in this group.21
As we see in the same letter, the “Western” bishops justified their posi-
tion on Athanasius and Marcellus of Ancyra also by referring to a letter sent
by Eusebius of Nicomedia and his followers – probably before the Synod of
Rome met at the end of 340 or at the spring of 34122 – to Pope Julius with the
purpose of explaining their opposition to Athanasius and Marcellus. With the
exception of Eusebius, all the signatories were members of the commission sent
to Mareotis by the Synod of Tyr in order to examine the justification of accusa-
tions against Athanasius. In the aftermath of the Synod of Rome, this group was
necessarily affected by its conclusions, since the meeting justified the inadmis-
sibility of Athanasius’ condemnation on the basis of inadequate membership
and improper functioning of the commission sent to Mareotis.23 In the section
dealing with these events, surprisingly in the Apologia secunda Athanasius pri-
marily focuses on the case of Valens and Ursacius, even though they were only
two among other signatories. As both later (347) – after being expelled from the
Church’s communion – condemned their own actions against Athanasius, we
understand that the Alexandrian bishop used the two Illyrians more than other
figures as evidence of his own innocence, in proving the falsehood and incon-
sistency of his adversaries.
Yet Athanasius’ pointing to Valens and Ursacius would perhaps not only
serve to justify his accusation against the so-called “Eastern party”. Emphasising
the guilt of both Illyrian bishops could also be understood because they were
most probably the ones who delivered the letter informing Pope Julius that the
Eastern bishops would not attend the synod he convened, as if they were doubly
guilty. The possibility of this assumption is supported by quite a few data pre-
served in the sources.
As Athanasius’ case was one of the central issues the Synod of Rome
intended to address, the former members of the group sent to Mareotis surely
played an important role in drafting the response to Julius’ invitation. This sup-
position is at least partly proven by the above-mentioned letter written against
Athanasius and sent to Pope Julius by as many as five former members of the
group sent to Mareotis: Maris, Theodorus, Diognitus/Theogni(tu)s, Ursacius
and Valens.24 The content of this document is partly known, thanks to the letter
written by the “Western” bishops at the Council of Serdica in 343 and addressed
to all Churches.25 We understand from it that the Eusebians’ letter explained the
position of the “Eastern party” towards Athanasius and Marcellus, while at the
same time rejecting the Julius’s invitation to attend the Synod of Rome.
Although we have no clear information on who brought the letter to Rome,
why can we suppose that it could have been brought by Valens and Ursacius? As
Julius of Rome wrote in his letter to the bishops who were gathered in Antioch
in 341, letters against Athanasius were brought to him by Eusebius’ agents in
the past.26 Since bishops Maris of Chalcedon and Theodorus of Heraclea were
sent to the West only a few months later to acquaint the “Western” bishops with
the Fourth Creed of Antioch, and since long journeys were likely to have been
too wearisome for Eusebius of Nicomedia, the task could have been entrusted
to the two bishops of Illyricum. Such an assumption is also strengthened by the
fact that at least Valens of Mursa was in Aquileia in the early 340s. At that time,
the election of a new Aquileian bishop resulted in bloody riots in which Bishop
Viator lost his life as a result of the raging crowds.27 The only source reporting
the event is the letter sent by the “Western party” of the Council of Serdica to
Pope Julius.28 The incident is briefly presented and only two people in link with
are mentioned: on the one hand, the tragically deceased Viator and, on the other
hand, Valens. The authors of the letter leave no doubt that this latter instigated
the rebellion and was guilty of Viator’s death, as he sought to leave the episco-
pal see of Mursa, in order to become bishop of Aquileia. Nevertheless, the same
letter omits the conclusion of the episode: viz. that Valens failed to achieve his
purpose, since Fortunatianus was elected the new bishop of Aquileia.29
24 Hil., coll. antiar. B.II.1.2.1. The only member of the commission who is not men-
tioned among the authors of the letter is Macedonius of Mopsuestia.
25 Hil., coll. antiar. B.II.1.
26 Ath. Alex., apol. sec. 26.1 = Jul. Papa, ep. 2.8 = K. Herbers (dir), Regesta ponti-
ficum Romanorum ab condita ad annum post Christum natum MCXCVIII edidit Philippus
Jaffé 1: (A S. Petro usque ad a. DCIV), Göttingen 2016, no 431.
27 R. Bratož, La basilica di Aquileia nelle fonti letterarie dal IV al VII secolo, in G.
Cuscito & T. Lehmann (eds), La basilica di Aquileia. Storia, archeologia ed arte – Der Dom von
Aquileia. Geschichte, Archäologie und Kunst. Atti della XL Settimana di studi aquileiesi, 7–9
maggio 2009 (Antichità Altoadriatiche 69/1), Trieste 2010, 23, n. 20; R. Bratož, Med Italijo in
Ilirikom. Slovenski prostor in njegovo sosedstvo v pozni antiki, Ljubljana 2014, 260, n. 82.
28 Hil., coll. antiar. B.II.2.4 (12) = Jul. Papa, 4.4.
29 For the event in Aquileia, cf. R. Bratož, Cerkvenopolitični in kulturnozgodovinski
odnosi med Sirmijem in Akvilejo, Zgodovinski časopis 37/4 (1983), 264 ; R. Bratož, Chris-
tianisierung des Nordadria- und Westbalkanraumes im 4. Jahrhundert, in R. Bratož (ed),
Westillyricum und Nordostitalien in der spätrömischen Zeit – Zahodni Ilirik in severovzho-
dna Italija v poznorimski dobi, Ljubljana 1996, 323.
454 Alenka Cedilnik, Dominic Moreau
30 Ath. Alex., apol. sec. 26 = Jul. Papa, ep. 2 = K. Herbers (dir), Regesta pontificum
Romanorum ab condita ad annum post Christum natum MCXCVIII edidit Philippus Jaffé 1:
(A S. Petro usque ad a. DCIV), Göttingen 2016, no 431. Glen L. Thompson (The Correspond-
ence of Pope Julius I, Washington 2015, 28 and 30) thinks that the letter was sent on summer
341, but he assumes that the Synod of Rome was only gathered shortly after mid-March 341.
This hypothesis of a late organisation of the meeting is certainly not the one that prevails.
The authors of the latest edition of Jaffé’s Regesta pontificum Romanorum tend rather to a
sending of the letter between the end of 340 and the very beginning of 341. See K. Herbers
(dir), Regesta pontificum Romanorum ab condita ad annum post Christum natum MCXCVIII
edidit Philippus Jaffé 1: (A S. Petro usque ad a. DCIV), Göttingen 2016, no 431.
31 Hil., coll. antiar. A.IV.1.16.1.
32 Hil., coll. antiar. A.IV.3.19 and 73.
33 Among the bishops deposed by the “Western” Council of Serdica (Valens and
Ursacius), only bishop George of Laodicea is said to have been absent from the synod. See
Ath. Alex., apol. sec. 47.3; Hil., coll. antiar. B.II.1.8.2. Cf. also Ath. Alex., H. Ar. 17.3; Ath.
Alex., apol. sec. 40.3; Soz. h.e. 3.12.3; Hil., coll. antiar. B.II.2.4, and B.II.3; Thdt., h.e. 2.38.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 455
and Ursacius came from the Western part of the Empire, they belonged then to
the so-called “Eastern” bishops party and were, thus, participating in the same
events in which Eudoxius also took part.34
Relying on the sources, we can assume that the role played by Valens
and Ursacius was then more noticeable to contemporaries than Eudoxius’ role,
since both Illyrian bishops were condemned and deposed by the “Western”
bishops gathered at Serdica,35 whereas the third one was not. Furthermore, the
sources written by the so-called “Westerners” are identifying clearly as the lead-
ers of the Eusebians following Eusebius of Nicomedia’s death: Theodorus of
Heraclea, Narcissus of Neronias/Eirenopolis, Acacius of Caesarea, Stephanus
of Antioch, Ursacius of Singidunum, Valens of Mursa, Menophantus of Ephesus
and George of Laodicea.36 Again, Eudoxius is not named.
In the context that followed the failure of the Council of Serdica, which
greatly weakened the political and religious position of Emperor Constantius II,
especially towards his brother Constans, the roles of all the concerned bishops
changed. As soon as the year after the council, Valens and Ursacius, since they
were bishops in the Western part of the Empire, no longer appeared among the
most active pleaders of the prevailing theological interpretations in the Eastern
part. On the contrary, it is at that precise moment that Eudoxius “comes on
stage” for the first time as a prominent representative of these views. Together
with bishops Demophilus of Beroë, Macedonius of Mopsuestia and Martyrius,
perhaps of Naupactus in Achaea,37 Eudoxius was sent to the West by the Synod
of Antioch of 344, in order to bring the “Western” bishops a synodical letter
and the so-called Long Creed.38 These documents were discussed at the Synod
of Milan in 345. In an atmosphere of high political tension between Constans
and Constantius, the “Long Creed” was an attempt at reconciliation in religious
matters between a then weakened East and more confident West, after Serdica.
The success of this mission should have greatly benefited Valens and
Ursacius. Among the bishops who were excommunicated by the pro-Nicene
“Western” bishops at the Council of Serdica, they were the only ones from the
Western part of the Empire and they were definitely exposed to a certain pres-
sure. We might imagine that if the embassy had succeeded – which was not
34 Eudoxius’ name is written in the list of signatories added at the end of the letter sent
to Africa by the “Eastern” bishops gathered at the Council of Serdica. See Hil., coll. antiar.
A.IV.3.19. Otherwise, the sources do not mention him in connection with the Council of Serdica.
35 The “Western” bishops of the Council of Serdica excommunicated Theodorus of
Heraclea, Narcissus of Neronias/Eirenopolis, Acacius of Caesarea, Stephanus of Antioch,
Ursacius of Singidunum, Valens of Mursa, Menophantus of Ephesus and George of Laodi-
cea. See Ath. Alex., apol. sec. 47.3; Hil., coll. antiar. B.II.1.8.2.
36 Ath. Alex., apol. sec. 46.1; Hil., coll. antiar. B.II.1.7
37 A. Cedilnik, D. Moreau, Demophilus, the Last Arian Bishop of Constantinople?
Contribution (II) to the Christian Prosopography of the Dioecesis Thraciarum, in Z. Ger-
dzhikova and I. Topalilov (eds), Late Antique Christianity in Southeastern Europe (Folia
Balcanica), Sofia (forthcoming).
38 Ath., syn. 26.1; Hil., coll. antiar. A.VII.4; Socr., h.e. 2.19.1; Soz., h.e. 3.11.2. Cf.
also M. Simonetti, La crisi ariana nel IV secolo, Rome 1975, 189–190; T. D. Barnes, Atha-
nasius and Constantius. Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, Cambridge
(Mass.)/London 1993, 88.
456 Alenka Cedilnik, Dominic Moreau
the case –, both Illyrian bishops certainly wouldn’t have had to anathematised
Arius’ teachings and confessed that they had wrongly accused Athanasius in the
past, like they were forced to in 347, in order to be rehabilitated.39 However, this
repositioning was completely forgot as soon as the political situation changed
after Constans’ death in 350.
Because of the personal interests that bound Valens and Ursacius to the
mission sent to Milan, we might imagine that the connection between both
Illyrian bishops and the members of the delegation was strengthened during
this time. Moreover, we can also assume that the bishops knew each other quite
well before 344. The ambassadors were, in addition to Eudoxius: Macedonius
of Mopsuestia, Demophilus of Beroë and a certain Martyrius (of Naupactus
in Achaea ?). Eudoxius and Demophilus were at the Council of Serdica with
Valens and Ursacius. As for Macedonius, he was a member of the commis-
sion sent to Mareotis in 335, and had, therefore, a long acquaintance with both
Illyrian bishops. Only about Martyrius do we know nothing reliable,40 except
the fact that he was a member of the delegation sent to Milan. Still, we can al-
most be sure that all the members of the delegation to Milan were at the Synod
of Antioch in 344, and we can also assume that on their way to Milan they
stopped in Singidunum and/or Mursa.41
If we compare the delegation sent to Milan in 344/5 with the one that took
the Fourth Creed of Antioch to Trier in 342, we find that three of their respective
members also participated in the investigation of Athanasius’ case in Mareotis
in 335: Macedonius of Mopsuestia (who went both to Milan and Trier), Maris
39 For Valens and Ursacius’ letter addressed to the bishop Julius of Rome, see Jul.
Papa, ep. 6 = Hil., coll. antiar. B.II.6 = Ath. Alex., apol. sec. 58.1–4 = Soz. h.e. 3.23.2–5;
Ath. Alex., h. Ar. 26.3; Thdt., h.e. 2.16.11. Valens and Ursacius’ letter addressed to the bishop
Athanasius of Alexandria: Hil., coll. antiar. B.II.8 = Ath. Alex., apol. sec. 58.5 = Soz. h.e.
3.24.1–2; Ath. Alex., h. Ar. 26.4. Cf. also A. Cedilnik, Ilirik med Konstantinom Velikim in
Teodozijem Velikim. Balkansko-podonavski prostor v poročilih Atanazija, Hilarija, Sokrata
Sholastika, Sozomena, Teodoreta in Filostorgija, Ljubljana, 2004, 153–165.
40 The letter written by Dianius, Flacillus, Narcissus, Eusebius, Maris, Macedonius,
Theodorus and their friends was brought to Julius of Rome by Macarius the Presbyter and
Martyrius and Hesychius the Deacons. See Ath. Alex., apol. sec. 22.3, 24.3, 26.1 = Jul. Papa,
ep. 2.2, 4 and 8 = K. Herbers (dir), Regesta pontificum Romanorum ab condita ad annum post
Christum natum MCXCVIII edidit Philippus Jaffé 1: (A S. Petro usque ad a. DCIV), Göttin-
gen 2016, no 431. Perhaps this Martyrius could be identified with the namesake ambassador
sent to Milan in 344.
41 Timothy D. Barnes (Athanasius and Constantius. Theology and Politics in the Con-
stantinian Empire, Cambridge (Mass.)/London 1993, 88) supposes that the delegation of four
bishops was accompanied by the comes Thalassius, who met with Emperor Constans at Poet-
ovio. The meeting is reported by Athanasius (apol. Const. 3). If the bishops travelled accom-
panied by Thalassius, then there is no doubt that they travelled by land. On the contrary, if the
comes did not accompany them, there is no longer any certainty about the means of transport.
As the Synod of Milan, to which they went, probably met before Easter, the bishops travelled,
however, at a time unfavourable for sailing. On the date of the synod, see A. Cedilnik, Ilirik
med Konstantinom Velikim in Teodozijem Velikim. Balkansko-podonavski prostor v poročilih
Atanazija, Hilarija, Sokrata Sholastika, Sozomena, Teodoreta in Filostorgija, Ljubljana, 2004,
143–144. If the bishops travelled by land, Singidunum and Mursa were on their way, and it
seems very probable that the bishops stopped in at least one of those two cities.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 457
gathered at the council.49 At least three of the four members of the embassy sent
to Milan in 344 (Demophilus, Macedonius and Eudoxius)50 participated in that
meeting. That could prove that participants in this embassy strengthened ties
with both Valens and Ursacius. Indeed, the close interconnection between the
to the Council of Sirmium of 351, it is, however, certainly flawed, as it does not name Pho-
tinus’ successor, Germinius, who attended the council. See H. C. Brennecke, Hilarius von
Poitiers und die Bischofsopposition gegen Konstantius II. Untersuchungen zur dritten Phase
des arianischen Streites (337–361), Berlin/New York 1984, 95–96. It should be noted that the
traditional numbering of the Councils of Sirmium (1- 347/8, 2- 351, 3- 357 and 4-358-359)
is not used here, because there are too many uncertainties concerning it. See T. D. Barnes,
Athanasius and Constantius. Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, Cambridge
(Mass.)/London 1993, 231–232.
49 Although an accurate and reliable list of participants in the council has not been
preserved, we can assume that the bishops from the Western part of the Empire did not par-
ticipate in the council; see H. C. Brennecke, Hilarius von Poitiers und die Bischofsopposition
gegen Konstantius II. Untersuchungen zur dritten Phase des arianischen Streites (337–361),
Berlin/New York 1984, 95; W. A. Löhr, Die Entstehung der homöischen und homöusiani-
schen Kirchenparteien. Studien zur Synodalgeschichte des 4. Jahrhunderts, Witterschlick/
Bonn 1986, 37. The same can be supposed of most of the bishops in Illyricum. Although the
removal of Photinus was not entirely contrary to the interests of the Western bishops – since
we know that Photinus was condemned by them more than 5 years before at the Synod of
Milan of 345 and, again, two years later by another synod probably in the same city – we
can imagine that the bishops of Illyricum, who almost unanimously supported Athanasius of
Alexandria as well as the other exiled pro-Nicene bishops at the Council of Serdica, didn’t
want to collaborate with the pro-Arian bishops assembled in Sirmium in 351 (so when a part
of Illyricum was already under Constantius’ full authority). Regarding Photinus’ condemna-
tion in 345 and 347 see M. Simonetti, La crisi ariana nel IV secolo, Rome 1975, 202; H. C.
Brennecke, Hilarius von Poitiers und die Bischofsopposition gegen Konstantius II. Unter-
suchungen zur dritten Phase des arianischen Streites (337–361), Berlin/New York 1984, 57
and 62; W. A. Löhr, Die Entstehung der homöischen und homöusianischen Kirchenparteien.
Studien zur Synodalgeschichte des 4. Jahrhunderts, Witterschlick/Bonn 1986, 37.
50 Hilarius recorded the names of the following participants in the Council of Sirmi-
um of 351: Narcissus of Neronias/Eirenopolis, Theodorus of Heraclea in Europe, Basilius of
Ancyra in Galatia, Eudoxius of Germanicia in Syria Prima, Demophilus of Beroë in Thrace,
Cecropius of Nicomedia in Bithynia, Silvanus of Tarsus in Cilicia, Ursacius of Singidunum
in Moesia Superior, Valens of Mursa in Pannonia Superior, Euagrius, perhaps bishop of Myt-
ilene on Lesbos (see A. L. Feder, Studien zu Hilarius von Poitiers 2: Bischofsnamen und
Bischofssitze bei Hilarius. Kritische Untersuchungen zur kirchlichen Prosopographie und
Topographie des 4. Jahrhunderts, Vienna 1911, 102), Hireneus, perhaps Eirenaios of Tripo-
lis in Phoenicia (ibid., 102), a certain Exuperantius, Terentianus, Bassus (who could be the
same bishop who attended the Council in Serdica and who is believed to be from the island
of Carpathos; see ibid., 102), Gaudentius (who is neither a bishop from Naissus nor from
Ariminum; see ibid., 102), Macedonius of Mopsuestia in Cilicia, Marcus of Arethusa in Syria
Prima, Acacius of Caesarea in Palestine, Julius (probably not bishop of Thebae in Achaia; see
ibid., 103), Surinus, Simplicius and Junior. We have supplemented the list of bishops with the
names of episcopal sees after A. L. Feder, Studien zu Hilarius von Poitiers 2: Bischofsnamen
und Bischofssitze bei Hilarius. Kritische Untersuchungen zur kirchlichen Prosopographie
und Topographie des 4. Jahrhunderts, Vienna 1911, 101–103. Most of the bishops on the
list – insofar as they can be identified – supported the theological conclusions of the synods
of Antioch (341 and 344) and of the “Eastern” party of the Council of Serdica (343). See H.
C. Brennecke, Hilarius von Poitiers und die Bischofsopposition gegen Konstantius II. Unter-
suchungen zur dritten Phase des arianischen Streites (337–361), Berlin/New York 1984, 95.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 459
most active pro-Arian bishops of the moment is also indicated by the fact that
most of the members of the delegation sent to Trier in 342, attended the Council
of Sirmium of 351.51 Relying on the composition of both embassies of the 340s
that introduced the theological thinking of the East in the West, it seems clear
that their members were closely connected with the group sent to Mareotis.
Thus, there can be no doubt about the connection between Eudoxius, Valens and
Urasacius during the Council of Sirmium, and even before it.
While trying to determinate the role which the former associates of
Eusebius of Nicomedia could have played at the Council of Sirmium, it seems
worth noting that Germinius, who was appointed by the council as the new
bishop of Sirmium to replace Photinus,52 came from Cyzicus.53 This city was
already closely connected with Constantinople during this period, although it
was not in the province of Europe, but in that of Hellespontus.54 Therefore, it
could be assumed that behind the decision to make Germinius the new bish-
op of Sirmium, we have to suspect the religious authorities of Constantinople
or the group of bishops (the so-called Eusebians, who had been making sys-
tematic efforts since Eusebius’ time) working to strengthen the power of the
Constantinopolitan episcopal see on both sides of the Propontis.55
The role of Eudoxius, Valens and Ursacius at the council is not precisely
known: apart from their presence at the meeting, the sources tell us nothing.
Notwithstanding, in the period after the Council of Sirmium of 351 and during
the whole reign of Constantius in the West, we find all three of them among the
most influential representatives of the “Arian” Church.
51 The Council of Sirmium of 351 was attended by three of the four members of
the embassy sent to Trier (Narcissus of Neronias/Eirenopolis, Theodorus of Heraclea, Mark
of Arethusa, but not by Maris of Chalcedon), and by three of the four members of the em-
bassy sent to Milan (Eudoxius of Germanicia, Macedonius of Mopsuestia and Demophilus
of Beroë, but not by Martyrius (of Naupactus in Achaea ?)).
52 Photinus, a pupil of Marcellus of Ancyra, was consecrated bishop of Sirmium
sometime between 343 and 345, since no Sirmian bishop is mentioned in the lists of Serdica,
while Photinus is mentioned in this position for the first time at the Synod of Milan in 345,
when he was condemned by the “Western” bishops.
53 Ath. Alex., h. Ar. 74.5.
54 Eleusius was consecrated bishop of Cyzicus by Macedonius of Constantinople
(bishop in 342–343, 344–346 and 349–360). See Socr., h.e. 2.38.3–4; Soz., h.e. 4.20.1–2. For
the dates of Macedonius’ episcopate in Constantinople, see T. D. Barnes, Emperors and Bish-
ops of Constantinople (324–431), in G. E. Demacopoulos & A. Papanikolaou (eds), Christi-
anity, Democracy, and the Shadow of Constantine (Orthodox Christianity and Contemporary
Thought), New York 2017, 176–180. As for Eunomius of Cyzicus, he was consecrated by
Eudoxius of Constantinople (360–370). See Philost., h.e. 5.3; Soz., h.e. 4.25.6, 6.8.7. Moreo-
ver, the consecration of a new bishop of Cyzicus was the first act of Demophilus after he was
elected on the see of Constantinople in 370. See Philost., h.e. 9.13.
55 D. Moreau, La partitio imperii et la géographie des Balkans: entre géopolitique et
géo-ecclésiologie, in Costellazioni geo-ecclesiali da Constantino a Giustiniano: dalle chiese
‘principali’ alle chiese patriarcali. XLIII Incontro di studiosi dell’Antichità cristiana (Rome,
7–9 May 2015), Rome 2017, 268–271; D. Moreau, The establishment, affirmation and ex-
pansion of the Patriarchate of Constantinople up to Justinian: a political or “heretical” is-
sue?, in D. I. Mureșan, D. Moreau (eds), An Ecumene of Changes. Jurisdictional Spaces and
Frontiers of the Patriarchate of Constantinople (4th–20th C.), London (forthcoming).
460 Alenka Cedilnik, Dominic Moreau
56 Sulp. Sev., chron. 2.39. On Valens’ and Ursacius’ participation in the Synod of
Arles, see M. Simonetti, La crisi ariana nel IV secolo, Rome 1975, 217; H. C. Brennecke,
Hilarius von Poitiers und die Bischofsopposition gegen Konstantius II. Untersuchungen zur
dritten Phase des arianischen Streites (337–361), Berlin/New York 1984, 137; R. P. C. Han-
son, The Search of the Christian Doctrine of God. The Arian Controversy, 318–381, Edin-
burgh 1988, 331–332.
57 For more details on the role of the Illyrian bishops at the Synod of Milan and in
the events directly connected with it, see A. Cedilnik, Ilirik med Konstantinom Velikim in
Teodozijem Velikim. Balkansko-podonavski prostor v poročilih Atanazija, Hilarija, Sokrata
Sholastika, Sozomena, Teodoreta in Filostorgija, Ljubljana, 2004, 218–225. On the synod,
cf. also M. Simonetti, La crisi ariana nel IV secolo, Rome 1975, 218–220; H. C. Brennecke,
Hilarius von Poitiers und die Bischofsopposition gegen Konstantius II. Untersuchungen zur
dritten Phase des arianischen Streites (337–361), Berlin/New York 1984, 164–184; T. D.
Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius. Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire,
Cambridge (Mass.)/London 1993, 117–118.
58 As reported by Hilarius of Poitiers, it was allegedly Valens’ fault that the pro-
Nicene bishops at the synod could not prevent the condemnation of Athanasius. See Hil.,
coll. antiar., app. 2.3. The bishop of Mursa is supposed to have prevented the signing of the
Creed adopted in Nicaea, by which Athanasius’ adherents at the synod wanted to divert the
participants’ attention, in order to present the issue of the condemnation of Athanasius as
purely religious. See Ath. Alex, h. Ar., 76, 4–5. Among the authors of that time, Hilarius is
the only one who reports the event. Therefore, the passage raises doubts whether the incident
described actually took place. Specifically, it is not known for sure whether the Nicene Creed
in its original form from 325 was known in the West at the time of the Synod in Milan. See
H. C. Brennecke, Hilarius von Poitiers und die Bischofsopposition gegen Konstantius II. Un-
tersuchungen zur dritten Phase des arianischen Streites (337–361), Berlin/New York 1984,
175–182. Cf. also T. D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius. Theology and Politics in the
Constantinian Empire, Cambridge (Mass.)/London 1993, 117–118, who, on his side, allows
the possibility that the Nicene Creed was known in the West at that time.
59 The sources do not only highlight the role of Valens, but also of Ursacius. Accord-
ing to Athanasius (h. Ar. 41.1–2), it was the fault of both Illyrian bishops that the deputies of
the Roman bishop Liberius, the priest Eutropius (in fact, Pancratius; see H.-G. Opitz, Atha-
nasius Werke II/1: Die Apologien 5–6 [7–8], Berlin 1940, 205, n. 32) and the deacon Hilarius,
were extremely inappropriately treated in Milan, because they did not support Athanasius’
condemnation. While the priest Pancratius(-Eutropius) was immediately expelled, Hilarius
was first stripped, whipped and ridiculed, and then sent into exile. The description of the
event is reminiscent of stories about the suffering of martyrs and is, therefore, not entirely
reliable. Despite several questions raised by the description of the event, it is certainly worth
noting that ancient authors often report physical punishment on church representatives.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 461
Bishop of Antioch
According to Socrates, Eudoxius was in Rome when the news reached
him that Leontius, bishop of Antioch, had died.68 Under the pretext that his
own Church urgently needed him, he obtained the Emperor’s permission to
leave Rome and return to Germanicia immediately.69 He took advantage of the
situation to install himself as bishop of Antioch.70 Sozomen’s report is similar,
but slightly less detailed.71 Both ecclesiastical historians agree that Eudoxius
became the head of the Church of Antioch with strong supports from the impe-
rial court.72 However, Sozomen is adding that Constantius may have directly
supported him in his episcopal translation.73
and more than three hundred from the West. See Socr., h.e. 2.36.1; Soz., h.e. 4.9.1. However,
the list of participants in the synod gives only the names of thirty bishops. See supra n. 60. If
the information provided by both Church historians is accurate, then the list of signatories to
Athanasius’ condemnation is very deficient.
66 Ossius of Cordova’s letter to Constantius proves that Valens and Ursacius acted as
influential imperial advisers in the period after the Synod of Milan. The Spanish bishop warns the
Emperor not to believe Ursacius, Valens and their fellows. See Ath. Alex., h. Ar. 44.1 and 5–6.
67 After the synods of Arles (353) and Milan (355), Constantius sent his representa-
tives throughout the Western part of the Empire, in order to obtain, with the help of officials,
consent to the condemnation of Athanasius from the bishops who had not participated in
these meetings. Athanasius writes that the Emperor’s commissioners were accompanied by
the clergy from the sees of Mursa and Singidunum to inspire these officials with zeal and to
control them. See Ath. Alex., h. Ar. 31.2–4.
68 Socr., h.e. 2.37.7–11.
69 Constantius was in Rome from the 28th of April to the 29th of May 357. See D.
Kienast, W. Eck, M. Heil, Römische Kaisertabelle. Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchro-
nologie, Darmstadt 2017, 301.
70 Theodoret of Cyrus (h.e. 2.25, 2.26.1) writes similarly, stating that the Emperor,
when informed of Eudoxius’ conduct, even demanded that the bishop be expelled from the city.
71 Soz., h.e. 4.12.3–4.
72 According to Socrates (h.e. 2.37.9), Eudoxius’ supporters were some of the offic-
ers of Constantius’ bedchamber, and, according to Sozomen (h.e. 4.12.4), eunuchs belonging
to the palace, who, like Eudoxius, favoured the doctrine of Aëtius. That he was appointed
bishop of Antioch by the Anomoeans can also be deduced from Photius’ Epitome of Philos-
torgius (Philost. h.e. 4.4.1).
73 Soz., h.e. 4.12.4; cf. also 4.14.1. When writing about Eudoxius’ installation as
bishop of Antioch, Sozomen emphasises that there was no sanction from George of Laodicea,
Mark of Arethusa nor other bishops, Syrian or not, who had the right to ordain. See Soz., h.e.
4.12.4. On the circumstances in which Eudoxius was appointed bishop, cf. also M. Simonetti,
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 463
While the sources are not giving us clear information on the Emperor’s
role in Eudoxius’ appointment as bishop of Antioch, we can be sure that this
was made, as Philostorgius writes, with the support of those who shared his
views. Philostorgius and Sozomen define the theological beliefs of Eudoxius’
supporters as Anomoean.74 This could also be deduced from Socrates’ report.
At the beginning of the passage, in which he speaks of the ordination, he says
that Eudoxius’ predecessor, Bishop Leontius, had ordained Aëtius as deacon,75
and he concludes the same passage with the information that Eudoxius’ first
desire as head of the Church of Antioch was to restore him in his position.76
However, the newly-appointed prelate did not succeed in this intention, be-
cause – as Socrates77 goes on – Aëtius’ opponents won over Eudoxius’ efforts.
Therefore, we can assume that the Anomoeans78 alone were not strong enough
to make Eudoxius’ appointment. The only reasonable assumption is that there
was also an intervention outside this religious party.79
Whether he received such “external” help or not to achieve its ambitions,
Eudoxius continued to work closely with his pro-Arian Illyrian colleagues. In
357 (maybe in the summer),80 a new council met in Sirmium. In accordance
with Constantius’ wishes, the participants in the council were to compose a
creed which was to be the theological basis for an upcoming ecumenical council.
This Council of Sirmium was certainly attended by Valens of Mursa, Ursacius
of Singidunum and Germinius of Sirmium, but it is not known whether other
bishops were also present.81 We can, therefore, imagine that the Illyrian bish-
ops, and especially Valens and Ursacius, were the main authors of the formula
La crisi ariana nel IV secolo, Rome 1975, 237; T. D. Barnes, Athanasius and Constantius.
Theology and Politics in the Constantinian Empire, Cambridge (Mass.)/London 1993, 139.
74 Philost., h.e. 4.4; Soz., h.e. 4.12.4. Cf. also B. Bleckmann, M. Stein, (ed. & transl.),
Philostorgios, Kirchengeschichte, vol. 2, Paderborn 2015, 283–284. In the Suda it is written
that Aëtius was Eudoxius’ teacher. See Philost., h.e. 5.2a and 8.18a (= Suda α 4450).
75 Richard P.C. Hanson (The Search of the Christian Doctrine of God. The Arian
Controversy, 318–381, Edinburgh 1988, 599) thinks that Aëtius could hardly be ordained
deacon earlier than 346.
76 Socr., h.e. 2.37.7–11. In the letter sent in 358 to the bishops gathered in Ancyra,
George of Laodicea states that disciples of Aëtius were promoted by Eudoxius to high cleri-
cal positions. See Soz., h.e. 4.13.2. The information provided by Philostorgius is similar, as
he reports that Eudoxius intended to elevate Eunomius to the diaconate, but the latter did not
accept the office. See Philost., h.e. 4.5.
77 Socr., h.e. 2.37.11.
78 In researching Eudoxius’ collaboration with the Anomoeans, the fact – pointed out
in Th. A. Kopecek, A History of Neo-Arianism, Cambridge 1979, 171 – that the Anomoean
difference-in-essence formula was based on the ungenerated/generated distinction of the
Long Creed is not unimportant. It was Eudoxius who was a member of the delegation of four
bishops who in 345 presented this creed in the West.
79 Thomas A. Kopecek (A History of Neo-Arianism, Cambridge 1979, 150–151) also
assumes – albeit based on different arguments – that Eudoxius did not enjoy the support of
the Anomoeans when he was appointed bishop of Antioch.
80 M. Simonetti, La crisi ariana nel IV secolo, Rome 1975, 229.
81 Ath. Alex., h. Ar. 45.4–5; Ath. Alex., syn. 28.2; Socr., h.e. 2.30.31; Soz., h.e. 4.12.6.
The presence of Ossius of Cordova and Potamius of Olisipo/Lisbon is not reliable.
464 Alenka Cedilnik, Dominic Moreau
Unlike Eudoxius and the Anomoeans88 gathered around him, most of the
“Eastern” bishops did not want to accept the Second Creed of Sirmium. This
resulted in the convening of a new council in Sirmium in 358, at which the
Homoiousians (condemned by the Council of Sirmium of 357) gathered around
Basilius of Ancyra, following a synod also in 358 in that city, had the decisive
say.89 While Eudoxius’ Illyrian colleagues attended the council, the bishop of
Antioch lost Constantius’ favour and was at his command convicted, for his
support of the Anomoeans.90 In these new circumstances, in which Basilius of
Ancyra won for some time the Emperor’s benevolence, Valens and Ursacius
lost, for their part, the politico-religious influence they had had until then, but
without being openly denounced. This trust Basilius and his followers gained
with Constantius did not last long. As soon as spring 359, Basilius’ opponents91
managed to weaken significantly his influence at the imperial court. Bishops
who Constantius had previously expelled were then allowed to return from ex-
ile. As we can suppose, Eudoxius was among these bishops.92
Athanasius reports that not only Ursacius, Valens, Germinius and
Eudoxius, but also Acacius of Caesarea and Patrophilus of Scythopolis man-
aged to convince the Emperor along other influential figures of the need to re-
launch the debates.93 Thus, the Council of Sirmium, which seems not to have
collaborating with the Anomoeans, their contacts with them, if any existed, were, however,
certainly not as close as those of Eudoxius; Philost., h.e. 4.8.
88 Soz., h.e. 4.13–14.
89 According to Sozomen, but some historians are not considering his report as reli-
able, the main participants at the opening of the Council of Sirmium were Ursacius, Valens
and Germinius, together with, from the Eastern part, Basilius of Ancyra, Eustathius of Se-
basteia, Eleusius of Cyzicus, and from the Western part, Liberius of Rome and four African
bishops whose episcopal see cannot be identified: Athanasius, Alexander, Severianus and
Crescens. Soz., h.e. 4.15.1–4; Ch. Pietri, Roma Christiana. Recherches sur l’Eglise de Rome,
son organisation, sa politique, son idéologie de Miltiade à Sixte III (311–440), Rome 1976,
258–259 (who thinks that Liberius was at the opening, but that he conducted negotiations
on his own, directly with the Emperor, and left for Rome without really participating to
the synod); H. C. Brennecke, Hilarius von Poitiers und die Bischofsopposition gegen Kon-
stantius II. Untersuchungen zur dritten Phase des arianischen Streites (337–361), Berlin/
New York 1984, 288–292 (who thinks that Sozomen’s report is simply not reliable and that
Liberius never attended this council). In any case, there is a consensus that the Pope did not
sign the Third Sirmium Formula. On the African bishops, see A. Mandouze, Prosopographie
chrétienne du Bas-Empire 1 : Prosopographie de l’Afrique chrétienne (303–533), Paris 1982,
51, 98–99, 222 and 1068.
90 Soz., h.e. 4.13.6, 4.14.1; Thdt., h.e. 2.26.1. Philostorgius (h.e. 4.8.2) reports that
the Emperor ordered Eudoxius to leave Antioch and return to his homeland. On the privilege
of such a condemnation, see B. Bleckmann, M. Stein, (ed. & transl.), Philostorgios, Kirch-
engeschichte, vol. 2, Paderborn 2015, 288. Considering the “soft sentence” enjoyed by Eu-
doxius, one might assume that Constantius did not fully believe the accusations made against
the bishop by Basilius of Ancyra and Eustathius of Sebasteia (Philost., h.e. 4.1), according to
which Eudoxius allegedly participated – together with Aëtius – in Gallus’ revolt.
91 Philostorgius (h.e. 4.10.1) is giving the names of Patrophilus of Scythopolis and
Narcissus of Neronias/Eirenopolis.
92 Philost., h.e. 4.10.1.
93 Ath. Alex., syn. 1.3–4.
466 Alenka Cedilnik, Dominic Moreau
been completely closed yet, met again on the 22th of May 359 (unless there
was a new summons by the Emperor to Sirmium, which does not seem likely).
In addition to Valens, Ursacius and Germinius, Marcus of Arethusa, Basilius
of Ancyra, George of Alexandria, Pancratius of Pelusium and Hypatian of
Heraclea attended this most important session.94 The creed adopted then de-
fined the relationship between the Father and the Son with the term ὅμοιος κατὰ
πάντα, and served as a basis for achieving consensus on theological issues at the
councils of Ariminum/Rimini and Seleucia.
The sources are not mentioning Eudoxius as a participant in this coun-
cil. However, he was not only among those who had to act in the shadows
for a reversal of the situation in Sirmium, but was also among those who ac-
tively participated in the preparations for the planned ecumenical councils in
Ariminum and Seleucia.95 Like Valens and Ursacius, he attended one of these
“ecumenical” councils. While both Illyrians, together with their fellow coun-
trymen Germinius and Gaius (of Savaria in Pannonia Prima ?), attended the
Council of Ariminum, Eudoxius attended the Council of Seleucia. Since the
promoters96 of the so-called “Fourth Creed of Sirmium” were in a large minor-
ity in both Ariminum and Seleucia, they were initially deposed by the Niceans/
Homoousians in Ariminum97 and by the Homoiousians in Seleucia.98 Despite
the resistance of both parties, the bishops assembled in Ariminum and Seleucia
finally adopted the Homoean Creed. Thus, it became binding on the whole
Church, and the bishops who from the very beginning had worked most vigor-
ously for its confirmation became for some time the most influential prelates in
the Empire.
In this situation, the Homoeans gathered around Acacius of Caesarea
convened a new synod in Constantinople, in January 360, in order to conse-
crate Eudoxius as the new bishop of the imperial capital.99 He replaced then
Macedonius, who was deposed by the same meeting, on the basis of criminal
acts he had committed in the past. This latter had once enjoyed a strong support
94 Epiph., haer. 73.22.5–7 and 26.1; Hil., coll. antiar. B.VI.3.1. Cf. also M. Simo-
netti, La crisi ariana nel IV secolo, Rome 1975, 246, n.79; R. P. C. Hanson, The Search of the
Christian Doctrine of God. The Arian Controversy, 318–381, Edinburgh 1988, 363.
95 Soz., h.e. 4.16.21.
96 The most important bishops of this group in Seleucia were: Acacius of Caesarea,
George of Alexandria, Uranius of Tyr, Patrophilus of Scythopolis and Eudoxius of Antioch;
Socr., h.e. 2.39.16; Soz., h.e. 4.22.7.
97 Among the bishops deposed by the Council of Ariminum, there was: Valens of
Mursa, Ursacius of Singidunum, Germinius of Sirmium and Gaius. See Hil., coll. antiar.
A.IX.3; Ath. Alex., syn. 9.3, 11.1; Socr., h.e. 2.37.51; Soz., h.e. 4.17.9 and 11. Cf. also H.-G.
Opitz, Athanasius Werke II/1: Die Apologien 6–7 [8–9], Berlin 1940, 236–237, n. 32.
98 Among the bishops deposed at the Council in Seleucia, there was: Acacius of
Caesarea, George of Alexandria, Uranius of Tyr, Patrophilus of Scythopolis and Eudoxius of
Antioch. See Ath. Alex., syn. 12.5; Socr., h.e. 2.40.43; Soz., h.e. 4.22.25.
99 Philost., h.e. 4.12.2, 5.1.1, 5.1.5; Socr., h.e. 2.43.7, 2.44.3; Soz., h.e. 3.5.10, 4.25.6,
4.26.1; Chron. Pasch. s.a 360.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 467
and confidence within the Eusebians,100 but it was impossible for the newly cre-
ated Homoean party to keep it in his position anymore, as he refused to accept
their doctrine.101
Bishop of Constantinople
Eudoxius was bishop of Constantinople from 360 to 370. For this period,
there is almost no evidence to suggest that he continued to maintain contact
with the Illyrian bishops. After Constantius’ death, the circumstances in which
the bishops operated changed greatly. While Eudoxius, after Emperor Valens
came to power, enjoyed all his support and had a strong influence over him,102
Valens of Mursa and Ursacius of Singidunum forever lost the role they had
played at the imperial court in Constantius’ time.
The sources103 report only one event in which both bishops cooperated
with each other during this period. After the fall of the usurper Procopius in
366, the Anomoean Eunomius was accused of supporting him.104 Therefore, he
was sentenced to exile in Mauretania. In this situation, Eunomius asked bishop
Eudoxius for help. We can imagine that he did so because Eudoxius, as bishop
of Constantinople, had a huge influence on the Emperor, and at the same time
he had been very favourably disposed to the Anomoeans in the past. However,
Eudoxius was not willing to help. Instead, it was Valens of Mursa who exerted
his influence in favour of Eunomius. In fact, this latter stopped in Mursa when
he was on his way into exile. The Illyrian bishop, together with Domninus of
Marcianopolis, where Emperor Valens and Eudoxius were staying during the
ruler’s First Gothic War (367–369),105 interceded on behalf of Eunomius with
the Emperor. Because of their intervention, Eunomius was allowed to return
from exile.
We are almost certain that Eunomius asked Valens of Mursa for help,106
but the reason why is less clear. Is it because the Illyrian prelate was (or at least
had been in the past) in good terms with Eudoxius? This could be an explana-
tion of his suddenly regained influence with the imperial court. Whatever was
the reason, it really seems to illustrate the relations between all these bishops.
While studying the cooperation between bishops Eudoxius, Valens and
Ursacius, we understand that the event is important not only because it proves
that the Illyrian bishops had contacts with Eudoxius after 360, but its signifi-
cance also lies in the fact that it may shed light on the attitude of the three bish-
ops towards the Anomoeans. The sources provide no reliable evidence to sug-
gest that adherents of Aëtius’ doctrine participated in writing the Second Creed
of Sirmium.107 However, for Valens and Ursacius a possibility of contact with
Anomoeans could be shown up later.108 We can assume that, in the circle of
bishops to which Valens and Ursacius belonged, there was an intense discussion
about the correctness of Aëtius’ doctrine in 358 and 359. Eudoxius109 certainly
worked closely with his Illyrian colleagues during these years. Therefore, it is
not impossible that they also cooperated with each other about Anomoeanism.110
For the period before the Council of Sirmium of 358–359, Philostorgius111 leads
us to suppose that not only Eudoxius but also Valens and Ursacius could have
been well disposed to Aëtius’ teachings. 112
Sozomen’s report113 on the situation at the council in 359 leaves no doubt
about the benevolence of Valens and his supporters towards the Anomoeans. He
writes that Valens and his group of bishops were against both the ὁμοούσιος as
well as the ὁμοιούσιος, and preferred Aëtius’ doctrine. Of course, the Fourth
Creed of Sirmium cannot be defined as Anomoean and Sozomen could have
presented such an opinion on the fact that George of Alexandria attended the
council. In any case, the same ecclesiastical historian’s writing seems to con-
firm the assumption according to which the discussion about Aëtius’ ideas was
topical in the circle to which Eudoxius, Valens and Ursacius belonged at this
time.114
In the group of the so-called Eusebians115 and their collaborators, these
three bishops were not the only ones with such an opinion. Philostorgius reports
ὅμοιος κατὰ πάντα was certainly unacceptable to Anomoeans, the explanation that the Son
is ὅμοιος to the Father did not completely rule out the Anomoean understanding. See Th. A.
Kopecek, A History of Neo-Arianism, Cambridge 1979, 170.
109 Thanks to Patrophilus (of Scythopolis) and Narcissus’ (of Neronias/Eirenopolis)
intervention with Constantius, Eudoxius returned from exile (Philost. h.e. 4.10.1). Then he,
together with Ursacius, Valens, Germinius, Acacius of Caesarea and Patrophilus of Scythop-
olis, persuaded the Emperor to organise the final session for the Council of Sirmium (Ath.
Alex., syn. 1.3–4).
110 That Aëtius’ teaching could have been one of the more pressing issues at that time
can also be inferred from the possibility that he most probably published his work Syntagma-
tion in 359. For the date see R. P. C. Hanson, The Search of the Christian Doctrine of God.
The Arian Controversy, 318–381, Edinburgh 1988, 350.
111 Philost. h.e. 4.9–10.1. This passage suggests that Macedonius of Constantinople
first favoured the Anomoeans and only later became a supporter of the Homoiousians. We
can also understand from it that Patrophilus of Scythopolis and Narcissus of Neronias/Eire-
nopolis intervened in favour of the condemned with the Emperor before Nicomedia was hit
by the earthquake on the 28th of August 358.
112 Thomas A. Kopecek (A History of Neo-Arianism, Cambridge 1979, 181) thinks
that George of Alexandria cultivated an alliance with Valens, Ursacius, Eudoxius, Aëtius and
Eunimius at the Council of Sirmium in 359.
113 Soz., h.e. 4.16.20–21.
114 Apart from Valens and Ursacius, the synod was also attended by Germinius of Sir-
mium, Marcus of Arethusa, George of Alexandria, Basilius of Ancyra, Hypatian of Heraclea
and Pancratius of Pelusium.
115 Athanasius usually defines the following bishops as Eusebians: Eusebius of Nico-
media, Asterius “the Sophist”, Diognitus/Theogni(tu)s of Nicaea, Athanasius of Anazarbus,
Maris of Chalcedon, Patrophilus of Scythopolis, Theodorus of Heraclea, Narcissus of Nero-
nias/Eirenopolis, Ursacius of Singidunum, Valens of Mursa and George of Laodicea. See D.
M. Gwynn, The Eusebians. The Polemic of Athanasius of Alexandria and the Construction of
the ‘Arian Controversy’, Oxford 2007, 115. Among these, Maris of Chalcedon, Patrophilus
470 Alenka Cedilnik, Dominic Moreau
125 Philostorgius (h.e. 5.3) reports that Eunomius accepted his ordination as a bishop
of Cyzicus on the condition that Eudoxius and Maris achieve that Aëtius be recalled from
exile and his deposition be cancelled. Cf. also Philost., h.e. 6.1; 7.5. As for Socrates (h.e. 4.7,
5.24.1) and Sozomen (h.e. 6.8.7), they report that only Eudoxius appointed Eunomius bishop
of Cyzicus.
126 Philost., h.e. 6.3, 7.6, 8.2, 9.4; Socr., h.e. 4.13.1–2, 5.24.1; Soz., h.e. 6.26.5–7;
Thdt., h.e. 2.29. Cf. also B. Bleckmann, M. Stein, (ed. & transl.), Philostorgios, Kirchenge-
schichte, vol. 2, Paderborn 2015, 418; Th. A. Kopecek, A History of Neo-Arianism, Cambrid-
ge 1979, 392–422.
127 Among the bishops whom Athanasius usually defines as Eusebians, the following
were probably still alive between 358 and 360: Athanasius of Anazarbus, Maris of Chal-
cedon, Patrophilus of Scythopolis, Narcissus of Neronias/Eirenopolis (may have been dead
in 359; H. C. Brennecke, Studien zur Geschichte der Homöer. Der Osten bis zum Ende der
homöischen Reichskirche, Tübingen 1988, 197), Ursacius of Singidunum, Valens of Mursa,
and George of Laodicea. As mentioned above, there is a possibility that Maris, Patrophilus
and Narcissus could have been favourably disposed towards Aëtius and his followers. If we
take into account that Athanasius of Anazarbus was Aëtius’ teacher (Philost., h.e. 3.15.5),
then George of Laodicea is the only one in this group for whom there is no doubt that he had
been against Aëtius throughout that period. See Socr., h.e. 2.39.17; Soz., h.e. 4.13.1–3. So-
zomen (h.e. 4.12.3–7) reports that Eudoxius became bishop of Antioch against the interests
of the bishop of Laodicea and Mark of Arethusa. Moreover, it was the same George who, in
358, wrote a letter to Basilius of Ancyra and to the bishops this latter invited to his city (Mac-
edonius of Constantinople, Cecropius of Nicomedia and Eugenius of Nicaea), warning them
about Aëtius’ doctrines which were – as he wrote – likely to dominate over Antioch. See Soz.,
h.e. 4.13.1–3. Although, the head of the Church of Laodicea was not present at the Synod of
Ancyra in 358, he signed the statement issued by this meeting afterwards. After this event,
the details about his faith are not entirely clear. Nevertheless, there is long-standing historio-
graphical view about George’s following actions, according to which he later deserted Basil-
ius’ party and joined the Homoeans, in order to avoid his own deposition in 360. See R. P. C.
Hanson, The Search of the Christian Doctrine of God. The Arian Controversy, 318–381, Ed-
inburgh 1988, 350, 614; Th. A. Kopecek, A History of Neo-Arianism, Cambridge 1979, 406.
Cf. also M. DelCogliano, The Death of George of Laodicea, Journal of Theological Studies
60/1 (2009), 181–190 (which proposes that George was not condemned at the Synod of Con-
stantinople, because he had died shortly after the Council of Seleucia in 359). On Athanasius
of Anazarbus, see R. P. C. Hanson, The Search of the Christian Doctrine of God. The Arian
Controversy, 318–381, Edinburgh 1988, 41–43; H. C. Brennecke, Studien zur Geschichte der
Homöer. Der Osten bis zum Ende der homöischen Reichskirche, Tübingen 1988, 196–197.
472 Alenka Cedilnik, Dominic Moreau
Conclusion
It can be deduced from Athanasius’ writing that the beginnings of
Eudoxius’ career are based on his collaboration with the so-called Eusebians.
Despite assumptions128 that this party is a construct by the bishop of Alexandria,
which served, overall, his desire to reduce the credibility of his opponents, a re-
view of the contacts among the prelates that he places in this group shows a dif-
ferent picture. Thus, the contacts between Eudoxius and the pro-Arian Illyrian
bishops dealt with in this paper clearly show that Eudoxius had close ties with
Valens of Mursa and Ursacius of Singidunum, who were, at that time, not only
the most important pro-Arian bishops of Illyricum, but also prominent members
of the group of the Eusebians. By 341, when Eudoxius is first mentioned in the
sources as a bishop, it seems that the three bishops had already participated in
some actions in the background of which stood Eusebius of Nicomedia. The
activities of the then bishop of Constantinople and his followers had then three
basic purposes: 1- to justify the condemnation of Athanasius in the East (letter
sent by Eusebius and the members of the Mareotis commission to Bishop Julius
of Rome), 2- to compose a creed which would present its authors’ views in a
way that would be acceptable not only in the East but in the West as well (the
final result being the Fourth Creed of Antioch), and 3- to extend the influence of
Constantinople in the politico-ecclesiastical sphere through the decisive role of
its bishop (which ultimately led to the creation of the Patriarchate).
Eusebius of Nicomedia died in 341, but his ideas seem to have continued
to live on in the efforts of his former associates. Relying on the analysis of the
cooperation between Eudoxius, Valens and Ursacius, we can claim that after
Eusebius’ death they still followed Eusebius’ guidelines. However, their efforts
to exclude Athanasius of Alexandria and to compose a creed that would be valid
throughout the Empire are not the only activities that would give them a special
place among the “Eastern” bishops of that time. What is really special, and
therefore also most important, in determining the legitimacy of “Eusebians”
label for Eudoxius, Valens and Ursacius is the fact that they cooperated very
closely with each other in their efforts to achieve the stated goals at least until
360. So, by the time they had mostly achieved what they wanted – with the sup-
port of Emperor Constantius: 1- Athanasius was condemned and deposed, 2- the
Homoean creed was compulsory throughout the Empire, and 3- Eudoxius had
become bishop of Constantinople. These are achievements that are certainly not
accidental and could not be achieved by an individual without the strong sup-
port of co-workers: the Eusebians.
The endeavour of the three bishops had not yet been fully completed
when, after Constantius’ death, their cooperation was hampered by a different
political situation. As head of the Church of Constantinople, Eudoxius proved
to be a worthy successor to Eusebius. Thrace, Asia and Pontus were already
parts of the area of authority of the Arian Church of the imperial capital from
the time of this latter.129 Eudoxius continued his mentor’s work, by being the
128 D. M. Gwynn, The Eusebians. The Polemic of Athanasius of Alexandria and the
Construction of the ‘Arian Controversy’, Oxford 2007, vii.
129 D. Moreau, La partitio imperii et la géographie des Balkans: entre géopolitique et
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 473
first bishop of Constantinople to try to extend its influence to the “true East”,
by directly interfering in the episcopal elections in Antioch, through the ordina-
tion of Meletius.130 If there remained then only twenty-one years of Homean
supremacy over the ecclesiastical organisation in the Eastern part of the Empire,
the politico-religious consequence of the action of Eudoxus and his colleagues
was lasting, because the see of Constantinople was from now on placed in front
of Alexandria and Antioch, a situation which the Niceans/Homoousians decided
not to abrogate, but to officialise in 381.
Primary Sources
Chronicon Paschale
Dindorf, L. (ed.), Πασχάλιον seu Chronicon Paschale, a mundo condito ad Heraclii
imp. annum XX. Opus hactenus fastorum siculorum nomine laudatum, deinde chronicae
temporum epitomes, ac denique Chronici Alexandrini lemmate vulgatum; post Caroli du
Fresnii-Du Cangii curas ad exemplar Vaticanum recensuit Ludovicus Dindorfius (Bonnae
MDCCCXXXII, 8o). Accedunt Georgii Pisidae opera quae reperiri potuerunt omnia. (PG
92), Paris 1860, 70–1023.
Epiphanius of Salamis
Holl, K. & Dummer, J. (ed.), Epiphanius 3. Panarion haer. 65–80 (GCS 37), Berlin
1985.
Јелена Дабић**
(студент докторских студија)
78 P. Walker, Jerusalem in the Early Christian Centuries, Jerusalem Past and Present
in the Purposes of God, ed. P.W.L. Walker, Cambridge 1992, 89.
79 J. W. Drijvers, нав. дело, 109.
80 Ambrosius, De Obitu Teodosii, 43-49 (Sancti Ambrosii Mediolanensis Episcopi Op-
era Omnia, T. II, ed. J. P. Migne, P.L. 16, Paris 1845, 1463-1466); Paulinus Nolanus, Epistula
31,1 (ed. G. de Hartel, 267-268); Sulpicius Severo, Chronica II 33-34 (ed. C. Halm, 87-88).
81 J. W. Drijvers, нав. дело, 123.
82 Света Меланија Старија, потицала је из веома богате и угледне породице,
отац јој је био конзул. Била је веома важна личност у хришћанском монашком покре-
ту; савременица Св. Макарија Египатског, Бл. Јеронима, Бл. Августина, Руфина Акви-
лејског, Павлина из Ноле који јој је био рођак. Више од деценију провела је у Јеруса-
лиму на Маслинској гори, где је живела строгим монашким животом и где је, заједно
са Руфином Аквилејским основала два манастира, мушки и женски. Током боравка у
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 491
Jelena Dabić
(PhD student)
PILGRIMAGE OF HELENA AUGUSTA AND DISCOVERY OF THE HOLY CROSS
Based on the sources from the 4th and 5th century, we can come to a conclusion that
the Holy Cross was found in Jerusalem during the reign of Emperor Constantine, shortly
after the Council of Nicaea, and that Empress Helen played a role in it. Most sources from
the fourth and fifth century mention Empress Helen as the one who found the Cross, while
a smaller number of sources speak of the discovery of the Holy Cross without mentioning
the participants in this event. Scholars who hold the opinion that Empress Helen did not find
the Cross consider this non-mention a strong enough argument for their position, according
to which the discovery of the Holy Cross happened at another time, or with other, unknown
actors. If we accept their opinion, it would mean that an event of the greatest importance for
the Christian world, the discovery of the most important Christian relic - the Holy Cross,
went unnoticed by church historians, theologians and preachers, since there is no source that
offers a different version from the one we were talking about. Some differences that exist in
the sources in the description of this event can in no way be the reason to reject its historicity.
Like any other historical event, this one is described in different ways that do not exclude,
but complement each other. Some writers in these events certainly give the greatest credit to
Emperor Constantine, while others attribute that credit to Empress Helen, but it could be said
that their roles are intertwined here as well, and that she was an assistant and co-ruler to her
son in this endeavor as well.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 493
Марко Дабић1
(студент докторских студија)
допуштено да зна“. Свој став поткрепљује речима Светог писма: „Дух дише где хоће,
и глас његов чујеш, а не знаш откуда долази и куда иде.“ (Јн. 3:8) Управо је одсуство
апофатичког начина богословствовања било узрок настанка главних јереси 4. века.
Аријанство и његов млађи брат Духоборство покушали су да логиком и философијом
(пре свега Аристотеловом) рационализују и објасне најдубље тајне хришћанске вере.
Резултат таквих покушаја био је настанак Аријевог учења, као и настанак многобројних
групација изниклих из аријанства, међу којима и Македонијеваца.
13 Исто, 2,17 (ур. Поповић, 137).
14 Исто, 3,31 (ур. Поповић, 157).
15 Исто, 3,26 (ур. Поповић, 155).
16 Исто, 3,12 (ур. Поповић, 149).
17 A.E. Burn, Niceta of Remesiana: His Life and Works, Cambridge 1905, LXIV.
18 Св. Никита, нав. дело, 2,4 (ур. Поповић,131).
19 Исто, 2,5 (ур. Поповић, 133).
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 497
суде Отац и Син, тако суди и Дух Свети, и у садашњем времену и на крају
света, када се буде судило Антихристу и сваком човеку. Исто тако, као
што су Отац и Син благи, благ је и Дух Свети. Он надахњује пророке,
бира и шаље апостоле. Назива се Утешитељем, као и Отац и Син. Са друге
стране, иако је благ и Утешитељ, Дух Свети кажњава сагрешења, а хула на
њега се не опрашта. То показује догађај са Ананијом и његовом супругом
који су кажњени због лагања Духу Светоме, као и Христове речи „Сваки
грех и хула опростиће се људима: а ко рече на Духа Светога, неће му се
опростити ни на овом свету ни на оном.“ (Mт 12:32)
Посебна тема пневматологије Св. Никите јесте истицање и тумачење
доксологије, односно једнаког прослављања Духа Светога са Оцем и
Сином. При крштењу исповедамо Оца и Сина и Светога Духа. На литургији
изговарамо „Један је Свети (свакако Дух), Један Господ Исус Христос, у
слави Бога Оца. Амин.“41 На основу тога ремезијански епископ закључује
„Прослављаћу Оца, прослављаћу Сина, прослављаћу Светог Духа, једним
и истим поштовањем.“42 Овај доксолошки антимакедонијевски аргумент
има јасне паралеле са богословљем Св. Василија Великог, по којем једнако
прослављање (ομοτιμία) сва три лица Свете Тројице подразумева и њихову
једну и једнаку природу.43
Своје богословље о Светом Духу Св. Никита сажима у једној
реченици, као неку врсту закључка: „Ако Дух Свети исходи од Оца, ако
ослобађа, ако освећује, ако је Господ, како рече апостол, ако ствара са
Оцем и Сином, ако оживотворује, ако има моћ провиђања, ако открива
(тајне), ако је свудаприсутан, испуњава свет, живи у изабранима, ако је
окривио свет, ако суди, ако је добар и праведан, ако се о њему узвикује:
Ово говори Дух Свети, ако је надахнуо пророке, послао апостоле, ако је
Утешитељ, ако пере и оправдава, ако је убио оне који су га кушали, ако
онај који на њега хули нема опроштај грехова ни у овом веку ни у будућем
(што је свакако Богу својствено), штавише да је истина, зашто се од мене
тражи да говорим шта је Дух Свети, када сам себе открива кроз величину
својих дела.“44
Ова реченица Св. Никите сажима у себи суштину учења Цркве о
Трећем лицу Свете Тројице - Духу Светоме. Настала у смутним временима
позног 4. века, препуног различитих неправославних доктрина, његова
пневматологија, као и целокупно богословље, стоји као пример јасне и
једноставне речи о вери. Поуке Св. Никите о Светом Духу су јединствени
литерарни споменик ранохришћанског Илирика, који осветљава наше, још
увек недовољно јасне, увиде у рану богословску мисао ових простора.
Закључак
Време у којем је живео Св. Никита Ремезијански, друга половина
IV и почетак V века, представља један од најбурнијих периода у историји
Цркве и богословске мисли. Тек што је аријанство почела да нестаје, ново
хетеродоксно учење - Духоборство, ступа на историјску сцену. Духоборци
су порицали божанство Светог Духа и тврдили да је он творевина Божија.
Ова доктрина изазвала је снажну реакцију црквених Отаца и готово да
нема већег богослова тог времена који се није бавио одбраном православне
вере у Духа Светога, међу којима је и Свети Никита Ремезијански. Не мали
део катихеза, главног богословског дела Св. Никите, посвећен је одбрани
божанства Светог Духа. То су, пре свега, 2. поука треће књиге његових
катихеза, званa О Светом Духу, као и 5. књига, која се бави тумачењем
Символа вере. Пневматологија Светог Никете из Ремезијане једно је од
најранијих богословских дела о Духу Светом на латинском језику. Садржи
основне елементе православне пневматологије: исходиште Духа од Оца,
једнако божанство Оца, Сина и Светог Духа, заједничку активност сва
три лица Свете Тројице, као и њихово заједничко прослављање. Метод
који Св. Никита користи у свом пневматолошком богословљу био је
општеприхваћени начин богословствовања о Духу Светоме православних
Отаца друге половине IV века, примењен по први пут од стране Св.
Атанасија Великог, у његовом пневматолошком делу Четири писма
Серапиону Тмуитском.
Постоје извесне паралеле у пневматолошким делима кападокијских
Отаца и Св. Амвросија Миланског са једне, и Св. Никите Ремезијанског
са друге стране. Ипак, не може се са сигурношћу рећи да је у питању
директан богословски утицај, у ком год правцу он ишао. На основу Светог
писма Никита доказује следеће: Дух Свети, заједно са Оцем и Сином,
ствара свет. Он оживотворава и обнавља свет и човека. Он провиђа будуће
ствари, открива Божанске тајне; Он је свуда присутан и све испуњава;
живи у вернима и верни у Њему; као што суде Отац и Син, тако суди и
Дух Свети, и у садашњем времену и на крају света, када се буде судило
Антихристу и сваком човеку. Исто тако, као што су Отац и Син благи,
благ је и Дух Свети. Он надахњује пророке, бира и шаље апостоле.
Назива се Утешитељем, као и Отац и Син. Са друге стране, иако је благ и
Утешитељ, Дух Свети кажњава сагрешења, а хула на њега се не опрашта.
Никитина пневматологија представља пример јасне и једноставне речи о
вери. Поуке Светог Никите о Духу Светоме једини су књижевни споменик
ранохришћанског Илирика, који осветљава наше, још увек недовољно
јасне увиде у рану богословску мисао овог подручја.
502 Марко Дабић
Marko Dabić
(PhD student)
PNEUMATOLOGY OF SAINT NICETAS OF REMESIANA
The time in which Saint Nicetas of Remesiana lived, the second half of the 4th and
the beginning of the 5th century, was one of the most turbulent periods in the history of
the Church and theological thought. As soon as Arianism began to disappear, a new het-
erodox teaching - Pneumatomachianism, or Macedonianism, entered the historical scene.
Pneumatomachians denied the deity of the Holy Spirit and claimed that he was a creation of
God. This doctrine provoked a strong reaction from the Church Fathers, and there is almost
no major theologian of that time who did not deal with the defense of the Orthodox faith
in the Holy Spirit, among whom is Saint Nicetas of Remesiana. Not a small part of Libelli
Instructionis, the main theological work of St. Nicetas, is dedicated to the defense of the de-
ity of the Holy Spirit. First of all, that is the 2nd chapter of the third book of his catechisms,
called De Spiritu Sancto, as well as the 5th book, called De Symbolo. The pneumatology
of Saint Nicetas of Remesiana is one of the earliest theological works on the Holy Spirit in
Latin. It contains the basic elements of Orthodox pneumatology: the proceeding of the Spirit
from the Father, the equal deity of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, the joint activity
of all three persons of the Holy Trinity, as well as their joint celebration. The method that St.
Nicetas uses in his pneumatological theology was a common method of theology about the
Holy Spirit of the Orthodox Fathers of the second half of the 4th century, applied for the first
time by St. Athanasius the Great, in his pneumatological work Four Letters to Serapion of
Thmuis. Athanasius’ method is based on three principles.
There are certain parallels in the pneumatological works of the Cappadocian Fathers
and St. Ambrose of Milan on the one hand, and St. Nicetas of Remesiana on the other hand.
However, it cannot be said with certainty that it is a metter of direct theological influence, in
whichever direction it went. Based on the Holy Scripture, Nicetas proves the following: the
Holy Spirit, together with the Father and the Son, creates the world. He transforms and heals
our broken world and humanity. He foresees future things, reveals the Divine mysteries. He
is present everywhere and fulfills everything. He lives in the faithfuls and the faithfuls live in
Him. As the Father and the Son judge, so does the Holy Spirit, both in the present time and
at the end of the world, when the Antichrist and every man will be judged. In the same way,
as the Father and the Son are gentle, so is the Holy Spirit. He inspires the prophets, chooses
and sends the apostles. He is called the Comforter, as are the Father and the Son. On the other
hand, although He is gentle and Comforter, the Holy Spirit punishes sins, and blasphemy
against the Spirit is not forgiven. Niceta’s pneumatology is an example of a clear and simple
word about faith. The teachings of Saint Nicetas about the Holy Spirit are the only literary
monument of the early Christian Illyricum, which illuminates our, still insufficiently clear
insights into the early theological thought of this area.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 503
Милош Павловић
(Докторанд, Филозофски факултет Ниш)
(Приштина-Лепосавић 2016), 77-99; Види такође нешто ширу студију истог аутора:
Исти, Стефан Драгутин - верска политика и култ, Лепосавић 2020.
15 М. Ал. Пурковић, Авињонске папе и српске земље. Светитељски култови у
старој српској држави, Горњи Милановац 20022, 10-17.
16 Ђ. Даничић, Животи краљева и архиепископа српских, написао Архиепископ
Данило и други, Загреб 1866, 110; Данило II, Животи краљева и архиепископа српских.
Службе, приредили Г. М. Данијел и Дамњан Петровић, Београд 1988, 114: Овај
Палеолог одлучивши се од хришћанске вере, узе веру латинску.
17 Додатно је карактеристично то што у свом делу архиепископ Данило II није
ниједном назвао цара Михаила по имену, већ је он за њега само „Палеолог“, уопште га
не помиње по имену, док на пример, његовог наследника и Милутиновог таста, цара
Андроника II Палеолога редовно помиње по имену, в. Исто, 104, 126, 135, 138-140,
149. Сматрамо да то ради намерно не желећи да помиње по имену владара који је због
страшног греха уније умро анатемисан, види: Р. Радић, Страх у позној Византији I
1180-1453, Београд 2000, 51-52. Уп. слична запажања: Л. Мавроматис, О идеји монар-
хије у средњовековној Србији, Архиепископ Данило II и његово доба, ур. В. Ј. Ђурић,
(Београд 1991) 69-74.
18 М. Пурковић, Авињонске папе, 21-23; Историја српског народа I, Београд
2000, 473-474 (Сима Ћирковић); М. Антоновић, Црквена политика краља Милутина у
северној Албанији у светлу западноевропских извора, Манастир Бањска и доба краља
Милутина, (Ниш-Косовска Митровица 2007), 26-29.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 507
обновивши га свег вером православља, удостоји га да прими пресвето тело и часну крв
Господа Бога и Спаса нашега Исуса Христа, види: Теодосије, Превод, 217-218.
23 Теодосије, Изворни текст, 159, (Теодосије, Превод, 218).
24 Доментијан, Живот Светога Саве и Живот Светога Симеона, приредила
Р. Маринковић, Београд 1988, 355 (= Доментијан, Превод). Види: И. Шпадијер, Хро-
нолошки оквири, 12; D. Marjanović, Emergence of the Serbian church in relation to Byzan-
tium and Rome, Ниш и Византија XVI, (Ниш 2018), 48-49; Ђ. Ђекић, Зашто Стефан
Првовенчани, 280; Једини изузетак је: М. Кашанин, нав дело,.
25 (Доментијан, Превод, 165); Ђ. Даничић, Живот Светога Симеуна и Свето-
га Саве, написао Доментијан, Београд 1865, 256, (= Доментијан, Изворни текст). На
ове Доментијанове метафоре указује и Д. Марјановић, иако правилно закључује да је
краљев прелазак у Православље био предуслов за учешће у Светим Тајнама, ипак не
сматра да је Доментијан први аутор приче о конверзији угарског краља, као што ми
желимо да покажемо, види: D. Marjanović, Emergence of the Serbian church, 48.
26 Исти догађај описао је и Стефан Првовенчани, али он Сави приписује само
улогу саветника и свог посланика ка краљу Андрији, који је од непријатеља постао
пријатељ. Не помиње прелазак краља Андрије II у Православље нити било шта слично,
в. С. Првовенчани, Сабрани списи, 99-100. Такође, Теодосије у Служби Светоме Сави
описује овај догађај, али не помиње прелазак угарског владара у Православље, види:
Теодосије, Службе, канони и Похвала, стр 87.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 509
43 Зна се поуздано да је грађански рат почео најкасније 1301. године, али у но-
вијим истраживањима је та граница померена у претходну годину. Влада Станковић на
основу поузданих вести Георгија Пахимера, сматра да су браћа већ 1300. године била у
рату, в. В. Станковић, Краљ Милутин, Београд 2012, 117, напомена 117.
44 Д. Јањић, Преподобни Петар Коришки, 162. Ово Житије написано је негде
око 1310. године, в. Д. Богдановић, Историја, 172. Нема разлога да је дело о Светоме
Сави писано деценијама раније.
45 Б. Бојовић, Краљевство и светост у средњовековној Србији, Београд 1999, 150.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 513
Miloš Pavlović
(PhD student, Faculty оf Philosophy Niš)
ORTHODOXY AND LATIN HERESY IN THE STATE-POLITICAL
IDEOLOGY OF THEODOSIUS OF HILANDAR
Miklós Halmágyi*
(National Archives of Hungary, Békés County Archives)
∗ Dr. Miklós Halmágyi, PhD, National Archives of Hungary, Békés County Archives,
miklos8012@gmail.com
1 This work is based on my book titled M. Halmágyi, Mi és ők. Azonosság és ide-
genség az első évezred fordulóján, Szeged 2014. (Title of the book in English: We and they:
Identity and Otherness at the turn of the first millennium). Further in German: M. Halmágyi,
Westliche Quellen über die christliche Geschichte der Kijewer Rus: Bruno von Querfurt
(†1009) und Thietmar von Merseburg (975–1018) über den Hof des Hl. Vladimirs, Naukovi
Zapysky Bogoslovsko-Istorychnogo Naukovo-Doslidnogo Centru Imeni Archimandrita Va-
silija (Pronija) 6, ed. J. Danilec, (Mukachevo 2019), 39–53.
516 Miklós Halmágyi
‘May God open paradise for you just as you have opened the way to the
pagans for us!’2 These passionate words were told by a young messenger of
faith – Bruno of Querfurt – to the Duke of the Russians. The German monk
wanted to get to the Pechenegs, to convert them to the Christian religion. Bruno
was not only an avid, enthusiastic person of the first millennium: he was an
author as well, who wrote about Hungarians, Petchenegs, Poles and about the
Duke of the Russians, who can be identical with St. Vladimir.
What we know about Bruno of Querfurt, we mostly know from his own
works. He was born in Saxony, in Querfurt, around 974/978. He studied in the
Magdeburg cathedral school, then he became court chaplain of Otto III. When
Otto moved to Italy 998, Bruno was also in his company. The bishop of Prague,
Adalbert was killed 997 as a Christian missionary on the land of Prussians. This
event could make effect on Bruno. In Rome he entered the monastery of St.
Alexius and Boniface. Boniface was a martyr too, so Bruno-Boniface said about
himself: his name is Boniface, he also must become a martyr of Christ.3 The
monastery of St. Alexius and Boniface was found in 970s by Sergius, Bishop of
Damascus, who was expelled from his diocese. The founder gave the monastery
a Greek character, but later the monks followed the rules of St. Benedict.4 Later,
Bruno left Rome, and became a member of a hermit community that lived near
Ravenna, in the swampy region of the Po River.5
The leader of this community was St. Romuald. Some hermits wanted
to go to the land of the Slavs to christianize them. An elderly hermit, Benedict
warned Bruno to start the mission only with papal permission, and to learn
the language of the Slavs. Two monks, Benedict and John set out, and went
2 Letter of Bruno of Querfurt to King Henry II. On His Alliance with the Pagans,
Translated by W. L. North, https://d31kydh6n6r5j5.cloudfront.net/uploads/sites/83/2019/06/
Bruno_of_Querfurt_Letter_to_Henry_II_for_MARS_website.pdf
(2020. 14. okt.) p. 3. „Aperiat tibi Deus paradisum, sicut nobis aperuisti viam ad pa-
ganos!” ; Bonifatius (Bruno Querfurtiensis) Henrico II. regi litteras mittit, Diplomata Hunga-
riae Antiquissima I. (1000–1131), editor Gy. Györffy, Budapest 1992, 44−48, 45.
3 ’Et ego Bonifatius vocor; cur ergo etiam ipse Christi martir esse non debeo?’
Petrus Damiani, Vita sancti Romualdi, editor G. Waitz, MGH, SS IV, editor. G. Pertz, (Han-
nover 1841), 846–854, 850.; D. Baronas, St. Bruno of Querfurt: The Missionary vocation,
Lithanian Historical Studies 14, ed. S. C. Rowell, (Vilnius 2009), 41–52. 43, 44.; G. Mako,
My Cherished Enemy: The Construction of Identity and Otherness in Russia, Dissertation,
Cambridge 2018, 51.
4 P. Engelbert, Prágai Szent Adalbert. Püspökideál, politika és szerzetesség, Mons
Sacer I., ed:. I. Takács 1996, 27–32 . (The St. Adalbert of Prague. Bishop ideal, politics and
monasticism.); Mako 2018, 57.
5 Petrus Damiani, Vita sancti Romualdi, editor G. Waitz, MGH, SS IV, editor. G.
Pertz, (Hannover 1841), 846–854, 850.; Bruno, Vita quinque fratrum = Life of the Five
Brethren by Bruno of Querfurt, Preface and translation by Marina Miladinov. Vitae Sanc-
torum Aetatis Conversionis Europae Centralis (Saec. X–XI) – Saints of the Christianization
Age of Central Europe (Tenth–Eleventh Centuries), editor G. Klaniczay, Budapest – New
York 2012, 183–313. 212–213.; H. G: Voigt: Brun von Querfurt. Mönch, Eremit, Erzbischof
der Heiden und Märtyrer, Stuttgart 1907, 34, 380–383, 386–387. (Voigt transalted Bruno’s
works into German. I used the German translations of Voigt during my study.); W. H.. Fritze,
Brun von Querfurt, Theologische Realenzyklopädie 7. Berlin – New York 1981, 233–236.
233; Baronas 2009, 48; Halmágyi, 2014, 55;
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 517
to Poland. Bruno, however, went to Rome, and got the permission of Pope
Silvester II. Then he wanted to reach Poland himself to join his companions,
Benedict and John. However, between the German and Polish rulers – Henry II.
and Bolesław Chrobry – a war broke out in 1003. The chronology of Bruno’s
further travels is controversial. He has been in Hungary at least once – or twice
– and tried to christianize the Black Hungarians, but with little success. In 1004
he was in Germany, and was consecrated a bishop in Merseburg. In Germany, he
wrote a longer biography about his role model, Bishop Adalbert. From Hungary
he went in the direction of the Kievan Rus. 6
Bruno calls the Duke of the Russians ’senior Ruzorum’. He refers with
the same title – senior – to Henry II, the German king and to Bolesław Chrobry,
the Polish Duke, and the ruler of Sweden. The Hungarian prince – most likely
Géza – was mentioned in the work of Bruno with the title senior magnus. Not
only earthly rulers have this title in the works of Bruno: according to his confes-
sion St. Peter is his ‘senior’. Therefore, Bruno was acting not in the service of
a secular ruler, but as a messenger of St. Peter, and as an envoy of the Pope. 7
He characterizes the Duke of the Russians sympathetically: ‘a man great
in his reign and wealth’.8 The Duke worried about him, as a messenger of faith:
he wanted to hold back him from the dangerous journey to the Petchegens. But
Bruno wanted to set himself on the way, and addressed to the Duke: ‘May God
open Paradise for you just as you have opened the way to the pagans for us!’9
Bruno and his companions walked for two days through an uninhabited
land. On the third day they were attacked by the Pechenegs, but they were saved
by a certain sign. Unfortunately, Bruno does not explain, what this sign actually
was. However, in the legends of saints we often meet the phrase that the pagan
invaders are tamed and honored man of God. When Bruno and his companions
arrived in the camp of the Pechenegs, they were scourged, but at last they got
6 Bruno, Vita quinque fratrum = Life of the Five Brethren, op. cit, 211–225. 242–
245.; Voigt 1907, 78, 848–392, 401; Thietmari Merseburgensis episcopi, Chronicon, Thiet-
mar von Merseburg, Chronik. Neu übertragen und erleuchtert von W. Trillmich, (Darmstadt
1974/ 2011). VI. cap. 94. p. 342–343. (I used the German translation of Trillmich during my
work.); Bonifatius (Bruno Querfurtiensis) Henrico II. regi litteras mittit, op, cit, 45.; Voigt
1907, 82. 85. 96–97. 10—104.; Fritze 1981 234; See also: B. Kürbis, Purpurae passionis
aureus finis. Querfurti Brúnó és az öt vértanú testvér, Európa közepe Európa közepe 1000
körül, ed. A. Wieczorek – H-M. Hinz, Stuttgart 2000, 317–321. 318.; Halmágyi 2014, 56–58.
Mako 2018, 50–69.
7 Bonifatius (Bruno Querfurtiensis) Henrico II. regi litteras mittit, op, cit, 45. 46–
47.; Voigt 1907, 61. 437. 438. 439.; Bruno, Vita Adalberti 23. cap., shorter redaction, Sw.
Wojciecha biskupa i męczennika żiwot drugi / napisany przez Brunona z Kwerfurtu; wydała.
wstępem i objaśnieniami opatrzyła Jadwiga Karwasińska, Warszawa: Państwowe Wyd. Nau-
kowe, 1970, p. 61.; J. Fried, Otto III. und Boleslaw Chrobry. Das Widmungsbild des Aache-
ner Evangeliars, der „Akt von Gnesen” und das frühe polnische und ungarische Königtum,
Stuttgart 1989. 77, 78.; Vita quinque fratri, Preface and trans. Miladinov, Marina: (Life of the
five Brethren by Bruno of Querfurt), Vitae Sanctorum Aetatis Conversionis europae Centralis
(saec. X–XI), op.cit, 224/225.
8 ’magnus regno et divitiis’, Bonifatius (Bruno Querfurtiensis) Henrico II. regi litte-
ras mittit, op. cit. 45; Letter of Bruno, op.cit, 2.
9 Bonifatius (Bruno Querfurtiensis) Henrico II. regi litteras mittit, op. cit. 45; Letter
of Bruno, op.cit, 3. p.
518 Miklós Halmágyi
the permission to proclaim the Christian faith. They baptized thirty people, and
Bruno succeeded in making peace between the Pechenegs and the Russians.
The Duke of the Russians gave the Pechenegs his son as a hostage, and Bruno
consecrated a bishop to the people of the steppe. 10
After his missionary trip Bruno came to Poland. He wrote here his letter
to the German king, Henry II., in which he reported about his above-mentioned
missionary journey. He could not see again his old companions – Benedict and
John. The two hermits and their Polish companions were attacked and killed by
robbers in 1003. Bruno wrote the story of their life and sufferings: it is another
important source of this epoch. He wrote a shorter text about the life of his
hero, St. Adalbert. After his stay Poland, he embarked on his last journey. He
was killed as a martyr on the land of the Baltic tribes 1009, March 18. 11 When
Bruno wrote, his heart and his pen were led by the interests of his missionary
work. He has little to say about Western Europe, he reports primarily on the peo-
ple of Central and Eastern Europe. Vladimir supported his mission, so Bruno
sympathized with the Duke. Bruno opposed the politics of Otto II, because he
was at war with Christians.12 The bishop disapproved of the behaviour of Otto
III also, because he had left Germany and had moved to Italy.13 In his letter to
Henry II, he reproached the king himself, as Henry joined the Pagan Liutizs
(Lutizen), and waged war against the Christian Bolesław. He wrote kind words
about Duke Bolesław Chrobry, because he supported the missionary plans of
Bruno.14 He mentioned the Duke of the Hungarians and his wife in the follow-
ing context: Adalbert sent ‘to the Grand Lord of Hungarians or rather to his
wife. This held the whole land in her hands and ruled over her husband and even
over the things that were masculine matters. In Hungary Christianity had started
under her leadership, but, - a stained religion - , was mingled with paganism and
became worse than barbarism, a casual and powerless Christianity.’15 The Grand
Duke, whom he does not name, is certainly identical with Duke Géza. He was
the father of St. Stephen, and he appears in the Hungarian sources as Geycha,
10 Bonifatius (Bruno Querfurtiensis) Henrico II. regi litteras mittit, op. cit. 45-46;
Letter of Bruno, op.cit, 3-4.; Voigt 1907, 438-439.; According to Simon Franklin und Marta
Font there are two different Dukes in Bruno’s letter: „…. ille senior Ruzorum fide titubaverit”
; „perveni ad seniorem Ruzorum”. ’… if that lord of the Rus’ wavers in his faith. …. I came
to the lord of the Rus ‘. Letter of Bruno, op.cit, 3; Voigt 439) F. Márta, Querfurti Brúnó kijevi
útja: kérdések és feltevések a historiográfia tükrében. (The journy of Brun of Querfurt to
Kiev: questions and hypothesis in the mirror of the historiography), Belvedere Meridionale
24, ed. G. F. Kiss, M. Halmágyi, (Szeged 2012) 67–75. 70.
11 About circumstances of Bruno’s last journey see: D. Baronas, The year 1009: St
Bruno of Querfurt between Poland and Rus, Journal of Medieval History 34, ed. C.M. Wool-
gar, (Amsterdam 2008), 1−22.
12 Voigt 1907, 341.
13 „Peccatum regis hoc fuit. Terram suae nativitatis delectabilem Germaniam iam
nec videre voluit” Bruno, Vita quinque fratrum 7. cap. 226/227. Voigt 393.;
14 Bonifatius (Bruno Querfurtiensis) Henrico II. regi litteras mittit, op. cit. 47; Letter
of Bruno, op.cit, 4–8.
15 Voigt 1907, 362.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 519
raphy of St. Adalbert we read that Adalbert once visited St. Nil. Nil was a Greek
hermit, who lived in Italy. He suggested Adalbert to join the Latin monks. One
should therefore follow the rite and customs of his own. Here we can remember
the Admonitions of King Stephen: ‘Which Greek ruled the Latins according to
Greek customs, and which Latin ruled the Greeks according to Latin customs?
None of them.’ 23
It’s an interesting question whether Bruno was on the side of the violent
or non-violent mission. He regarded the blinding of pagan Black Hungarians as
a sin. He himself went to the Hungarians as well as to the Pechenegs without
arms. He was wounded among the Hungarians, beaten by the Pechenegs, and
sacrificed his life to his faith among the Baltic tribes. The question arises: if
Bruno was a follower of the peaceful mission, why did he write in his letter to
Henry II that the Liutizs must be forced into the church? The Black Hungarians,
Pechenegs and Prussians were then still pagans. Under the Elbe Slavs, how-
ever, the Christian mission began during the rule of Henry I (919-936) and
Otto I (936-973). Many of the Elbe Slavs were baptized, dioceses were founded
between the Elbe and Oder: Brandenburg and Havelberg in 948. These bish-
oprics were swept away by the uprising of the Elbe Slavs. The Liutizs were
regarded as apostates, who rose against Christianity. According to Bruno’s
opinion, they were allowed to use violence against them. Those areas that were
once in Christian hands were counted among the Christian lands, even when
the inhabitants became apostates. 24 In connection with the Christianization of
the Prussians the possibility of the violent proselytization arises. Bruno men-
tions in his letter to Henry II that Bolesław was ready to play a role in the
Christianization of Prussia, but the war between him and King Henry II did not
make it possible. Bruno probably thought that the Christian rulers should defeat
the pagans who obstruct the activity of missionaries. Since the Prussians killed
St. Adalbert, it might have been found necessary to use the violence against the
Prussians. 25
‘In this great city, the capital of the empire, there are more than 400
churches and 8 markets.’’26 Thietmar of Merseburg characterizes Kiev with the
sentence quoted above. Who was Thietmar, what is his chronicle, and what does
he write about Kievan Rus?
23 „Ast, inquit, homo ego sum Grecus; melius conueniunt cum quibus hęc agas mo-
nachi Latini.” Brun, Vita Adalberti, cap. 13, longer redaction, p. 15.; Voigt 348.; ’Quis gra-
ecus regeret latinos graecis moribus, aut quis latinus regeret graecos latinis moribus? Nullus.’
Sancti Stephani regis primi Hungariae: Libellus de institutione Morum. Cap. VIII. Szent
István. Intelmek I. Ed. and Translated into Hungarian: L. Havas, Debrecen, ΑΓΑΘΑ 2004,
44; Szent István király intelmei Imre herceghez. Translated into Hungarian by Á. Kurcz.
Árpád-kori legendák és intelmek. Szentek a magyar középkorból. I. Budapest 1999, 47-55.
54. (I followed the translation of Kurcz.)
24 H-D. Kahl, Zum Geist der deutschen Slavenmission des Hochmittelalter, Heiden-
mission und Kreuzzugsgedanke in der Deutschen Ostpolitik des Mittelalters, Ed. H. Beu-
mann, Helmut, Darmstadt 1973, 156–176. 177 – 274. 189. 220.; Baronas 2009, 46–47.
25 Kahl 1973, 187, 199.
26 Thietmar VIII. cap. 32. p. 474–475.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 521
27 Thietmar VII. cap. 72. 73. 74. p. 432–437; The Russian Primary Chronicle, op.cit,
94.; A. Poppe, Vladimír als Christ, Österreichische Osthefte. 35/1993. 553–575, 559–560.
28 A. Poppe, The political background to the baptism of Rus, Byzantin-Russian rela-
tions between 986-989, The rise of Christian Russia. London 1982, 230. Anm. 114. .; Poppe
1993, 557. Anm. 14.
29 Thietmar VII. cap. 72. p. 432–435.
30 The Russian Primary Chronicle, op.cit, 96–117
31 Thietmar VII. cap. 74. p. 436–437.„Et quie de lucerna ardente a predicatoribus
suis rex prefatus audivit, peccati maculam peracti assidua elemosinarum largitate detersit.”
Poppe 1993, 559–560.
522 Miklós Halmágyi
his wife; their sarcophagi stand free in the middle of the church.’ 32 The mention
of the church of Pope Clement in Kiev is a good example of the contact of the
western and eastern parts of the Church in this era.
Thietmar calls Vladimir king (rex). Even the ruler of the Hungarians - the
son of Deuvix, most likely King Stephen - was designated by Thietmar as king
(rex),33 but the rulers of Poland and Bohemia are mentioned as Dukes (dux, du-
ces). Thietmar expresses with these words, that Russians and Hungarians were
independent from the German Empire.
After Vladimir’s death, Poland’s Duke, Bolesław Chrobry, support-
ed Vladimir’s stepson, Swentepolk, against Vladimir’s son Jaroslaw. When
Bolesław moved against Kiev in 1018, he was accompanied by 300 German, 500
Hungarian and 1000 Pecheneg warriors. This is what the Chronicle of Thietmar
tells us. The army of Bolesław conquered Kiev on August 14, 1018., and so
German warriors – who fought at his side – could get to to know the important
city, and this information could later reach Thietmar. Kiev is called Cuiewa and
Kitava by him. Bolesław and Swentepolk were received by the ‘Archbishop of
the city in the Monastery of St. Sophia’. Thietmar even knows that that mon-
astery was ‘burned down the previous year.’ The Bishop of Merseburg tells in
his chronicle about the huge dimensions of Kiev. ‘In this great city, the capital
of the empire, there are more than 400 churches and 8 markets; the number of
inhabitants is unknown. As in the whole country, they are composed of strong,
fleeting servants, who come together from everywhere, but especially from
fighting Danes who have so far asserted themselves against the frequent ha-
rassment of the Pechenegs and also defeated other enemies’34 When Thietmar
talks about Danes here, he certainly means Wareger. The chronicler knew about
the Scandinavian origin of the Russians. He does not say that the Russians are
Slavs, 35 although he interprets the name of Vladimir from Slavic.
In assessing the individual peoples, religion, custom, and the relationship
of the particular people to the German Empire played a major role for Thietmar.
He wrote with sympathy about the English who paid taxes to the pope, he paint-
ed a dark picture of the Danes who conquered England. The Liutizs (Liutizen)
- a pagan tribal federation at the Elbe - were characterized negatively. As he
writes about the cruel customs of the Poles, he paints a mischievous picture
about them. However, when the Poles bravely asserted themselves in a city
against the pagan Liutizs (Liutizen) with firm faith, the Christian Poles are pre-
sented with a better color. So, the bond of religion is more important to the
Saxon bishop than political interest. When writing about Lorraine, he mentions
that there, in the west, not only the sun goes down, but ‘all justice, obedience
and mutual love.’36 In the chronicle many other peoples were mentioned, e. g.
Saracens, Jews, Italians, Greeks.
Above, I mentioned that Thietmar translated the name of Vladimir from
Slavic. Thietmar was able to understand Slavic. In the diocese of Merseburg
Slavs lived also, and Thietmar had to speak and understand Slavic in order to
fulfill his duty as a pastor. In his chronicle he translates Slavic words, he even
writes and translates a Slavic sentence. 37
It is worth mentioning that the German king, Otto I could also speak
Slavic. The Saxon author, Widukind of Corvey tells us about it. In the chronicle
of Thietmar, we read that a son of the king, named William, was born of a noble,
captive Slav woman. 38 She was definitely a prisoner of war from the land of the
Elbe Slavs. Maybe Otto learned from her Slavic or could practice her language
skills with her. Her son, Wilhelm became a bishop of Mainz.
There is a German source where we can find a mention of the Russians
from this era in connection with the Hungarian ruling family. In the Hildesheim
Yearbooks we read in the year 1031: „Et Heinricus, Stephani regis filius, dux
Ruizorum, in venatione ab apro discissus, periit flebiliter mortuus.” 39 ’Henry,
King Stephen’s son, the Duke of Ruizen, was ripped open by a boar and died
a miserable death.’ 40 According to György Györffy, Prince Emerich (Imre),
Stephen’s son, was the leader of the royal bodyguards, and this bodyguard con-
sisted of Russian warriors. According to the theory of Gyula Kristó Russians
lived on the Hungarian-German border area, and Duke Emerich could be the
leader of them. 41 There are also other examples from this period of contacts
between Russians and Hungarians: when Duke Vladimir died in 1015 and
his stepson Swentepolk wanted to kill Vladimir’s son Svjatoslav, who fled to
Hungary. Svjatopolk, (Swentepolk) however, sent murderers to the Hungarian
Миклош Халмађи
(Национални архив Мађарске, Бекеш државни архиви)
ЗАПАДНИ ИЗВОРИ О ХРИШЋАНСКОЈ ИСТОРИЈИ КИЈЕВСКЕ РУСИЈЕ:
БРУНО КУЕРФУРТСКИ (†1009) И ТИТМАР МЕРСБУРШКИ (975–1018)
О ДВОРУ СВЕТОГ ВЛАДИМИРА
42 The Russian Primary Chronicle, 130.; Régmúlt idők elbeszélése. A Kijevi Rusz
első krónikája. Translate I. Ferincz, notes L. Balogh et alt, Budapest, 2015. 108.
43 I. Ferincz, Magyar Mózes és Efrém – Az ortodox egyház szentjei, Az ortodoxia
története Magyarországon a XVIII. századig, Ed. I. H. Tóth, Szeged 1995. 37–44. (Efrem and
Moses the Hungarian - Saints of Orthodoxy. In: The history of Orthodoxy in Hungary until
the 18th century.)
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 525
Горан М. Јанићијевић
(Православни центар за младе Свети Петар Сарајевски,
Република Српска)
Увод
Повезивање појма истине са феноменом уметности у данашњим
тумачењима дела ликовних уметности инхибира примарна асоцијација
на контекстуално фокусирање ка животном реалитету као и гносеолошки
учинак на основу научних експеримената. Под-разумевајућа синтеза два
појма у шире схваћеном традиционалном стваралаштву, из тог разлога,
представља анахронизам у тој мери да се истина иманентна уметности
изједначава са иконичким постулирањем истинитости на самој слици1 и
1 „Ово „construire“ претпоставља, како је то формулисао Ханс Роберт Џевс
526 Горан М. Јанићијевић
Сл. 2. Париски псалтир, The Byzantin Сл. 3. Париски псалтир, The Byzantin
legacy https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/ legacy https://www.thebyzantinelegacy.com/
Појам истине појављује се као персонификован и у делима ликовне
уметности. Кључ за разумевање приказа свакако се налази у делу Иконологија
Чезара Рипе (Cesare Ripa 1560-1622.). Из тог разлога, холандски историчар
уметности Роелоф ван Стратен (Roelof van Straten, рођ. 1952.) у спису о
иконолошком методу публиковао је дрворез Кристофела Јегера (Christoffel
Jegher 1596-1653.) где је приказана персонификација истине. Ово дело
преузето је из холандске редакције Рипиног приручника, објављене
1644.14 (сл. 1) Приказана је млада жена готово нагог тела, изузев драперије
обмотане око бедара, левом ногом ослоњена на тле док је десну овлаш
положила на глобус. У левој испруженој руци као да држи или придржава
антропоморфну персонификацију Сунца док јој у десној истовремено
почивају отворена и исписана књига и палмова грана. Девојка на темену
главе носи капицу као део тадиционалне холандске ношње често „виђен“
на Вермеровим сликама, међутим, испод ње, већи део светле косе ове
младе жене распуштен је. Познаваоцима Рипиних тековина јасно је да
ни један детаљ не може бити схваћен као случајност. То што се десном
страном тела „развија путања“ од Сунца ка Земљи значило би да се истина
открива и долази „свише“(одозго), укључујући и неоплатоничарске идеје
са монотеистичким претпоставкама тј. Плотинов акме о Једном, које се
упоређује са Сунцем: „А како ствар стоји, све то је вечно, зато што начело
тога остаје увек исто и не дели се у томе већ остаје цело. Управо зато
и све то траје, као што и светлост траје док је ту Сунце“.15 У карактеру
неоплатонства налази се принцип наглашавања повезаности мноштва са
Једним (узроком).
Исписана књига такође је повезана са појмом истинитости на једном
апстрактном нивоу епифаније садржаја кроз речи, тако да истина, на неки
14 R. van Straten, Uvod u ikonografiju; teoretske i praktične upute, Zagreb 2003, 34.
15 Plotin, Eneade VI, Beograd 1984, 244.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 529
16 Исто,33.
17 С. Радојчић, Старо српско сликарство, Нови Сад 2010, 99.
18 И. Ђорђевић, Стари и Нови завет на улазу у Богородицу Љевишку, Зборник
за ликовне уметности Матице српске, (Нови Сад 1973),13-26.
530 Горан М. Јанићијевић
48 Исто.
49 „Тај је захтјев проистјецао из жеље за пуним познавањем повијесних процеса,
које ваља предочавати у разним дисциплинама и разим методама.“, J. Bialostocki, нав.
дело, 99.
50 H-G.Gadamer, нав. дело, 38-64.
51 Исто, 69-78.
52 Исто,145.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 537
на загонетан начин. Колико год одаје, толико задржава тајну. Јер у гести
бљеска битак смисла, а не знање о смислу.“56 За такво, рекло би се – лаичко
тумачење уметничких дела на коме је инсистирао и Ервин Панофски57,
неопходан је спој у хуманистичком духу образованог посматрача и његове
емпиријске транспарентности.
У наведеном Гадамеровом излагању, коначно – уочавају се и основе,
на којима се херменеутички метод доводи у исту раван са иконолошким
тумачењима уметничких тековина; знање је премиса тумачења „сваке
уметности“ и сваког дела у којима се открива извесно (архетипско) значење
али током аналитичко-синтетизујућег процеса неопходно је да буде
потиснуто (у подсвест) како би несметано и спонтано делало – искуство.
Горан М. Јанићијевић
(Православни центар за младе Свети Петар Сарајевски, Република Српска)
IMPLICATIONS OF TRUTH AND ITS IMANNITY IN ARTWORKS AS A FOCUS OF
ICONOLOGICAL AND HERMENEUTIC INTERPRETATIONS
Based on the view that traditional fine arts represent a certain „praise of truth“, the
research is based on methodological procedures of discovering and interpreting the con-
cept of truth in works of art. First within the framework of the iconological method, depic-
tions of personifications of truth are analyzed, strating with examples from the Dutch edition
of Cesare Ripa’s Iconology, as well as on the bassis of other samples from medieval and
Renaissance art. Based on the analysis of Titian’s painting Holy and Profane Love, made
by Erwin Panofsky, it can be seen that bodily nudity in the humanistic context represented a
model of symbolizing the notion of truth. This is how we came to the phenomenon of “naked
truth”- nuda veritas, whose appearance in the further exposition follows the painting of the
same name by Gustav Klimt. Based on that, it was concluded that the identifications of clas-
sical ancient mythological depictions are more reliable with the application of iconological
experiences, which is shown on the example of the two-part statue of Eros and Psyche (?) Or
Hippolytus and Phaedra from Ludovisi from the collection of the Roman National Museum.
The same example was used in the research of the effect of historical-artistic hermeneutics
on the basis of the theory of Hans Georg Gadamer. The hermeneutic understandings of works
of art as unrecognizable sets of recognizable elements as well as the procedures of interpret-
ing images based on the effect of gestures of depicted personalities, animals, plants and even
objects with the potential meaning are also pointed out.
56 Исто, 242-243.
57 „Да бисмо схватили ове принципе нама је потребна једна ментална
способност слична оној коју поседује дијагностичар – способност коју не могу да
означим боље до прилично дискредитованим термином синтетичка интуиција и коју
може боље развити неки талентовани лаик него неки стручњак-ерудита.“, E. Panofski,
Ikonološke studije; humanističke teme u renesansnoj umetnosti, Beograd 1975, 29.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 539
све ће бити преображено и наступиће све ново: нови свет, ново време, нов
човек, нова твар, ново небо, нови Јерусалим (ср. Ис. 65,17; 2Птр. 3,13;
Откр. 21,1-4), Бог ће бити с људима (Откр. 21,3), где бујају потоци живо-
та, Бог ће отрти сузе са свакога лица (Ис. 25,8), и спашени људи ће тада
доживети пуноћу блаженства у Царству Божијем. Дакле, Бог који живи у
векове векова (Откр. 4,9; 7,2), односно Који је надвремен (Откр. 1,4; 4,8),
присутан је у времену, односно Божије време је већ наступило, а пуноћу
Божијег присуства тек очекујемо,14 иако нико од људи, осим Богочовека
Исуса Христа, не зна када ће се то догодити, због чега Христос позива:
Пазите, бдите и молите се (Мк. 13,33). Јасно је, према томе, да је Царство
Божије историјска и есхатолошка стварност.
Знајући да је хришћанска есхатологија Богочовечанског карактера
и оптимистично-радосна, што се види у непоколебивој вери хришћана
победу Лава из Јудина племена (Откр. 5,5) и у Други долазак Христов и
у испуњење Његовог обећања, због чега Му хришћани упућују следећу
молбу: Да, дођи Господе Исусе (Откр. 22,20). Пошто наше живљење није
овде на зељи, него на небесима, одатле ми очекујемо Спаситеља Господа
Исуса Христа (Флп. 3,20), Који је Први и Последњи (Откр. 1,8). Овде је
реч о Богочовечанској пуноћи која „нема ничег заједничког са извесним
философским теоријама о пуноћи, јер су све оне у апстракцијама и мртвим
схемама. Богочовечанска свепуноћа је жива, опитна, доживљајна богочо-
вечанска стварност“.15 Важно је истаћи да се васцела Божија творевина
налази у есхатолошком ишчекивању: Сва твар заједно уздише и тугује
до сада (Рм. 8,22). Управо због тога, по речима Апостола Павла, што је
за мном заборављам, а стремим за оним што је преда мном (Флп. 3,13).
Православни је став да је већ наш сусрет са Христом истински, стварни и
есхатолошки. Прво небо и прва земља прођоше (Откр. 21,1), и наш живот
је обновљен (ср. Рм. 6,4) у Духу Светом (Рм. 7,6) и сакривен са Христом
у Богу (Кол. 3,3). А када наступи пуноћа времена (Гал. 4,4) у Осми Дан
(=бесконачни и незалазни дан), неће доћи до суштинске промене нашег
заједничења са Христом као Главом свега, него је ту реч о пуноћи тог ис-
тинског јединства по науму Божијем од вечности (Еф. 1,9). Реч је о оства-
рењу пуноће времена, да се све састави у Христу, оно што је на небу и
што је на земљи, у Њему (Еф. 1,10). Наша истраживања су нас уверила да
историја и постисторија, то јест испуњење времена, чине једну нераски-
диву целину, и смисао свештене историје се налази управо у њеном ис-
пуњењу, остварењу онога што хришћани очекују и чему се надају (ср. Мт.
24,50; Лк.12,46), завршетку и преображењу. Имајући у виду чињницу да је
Бог узрок и времена и надвечности, Игњатије Богоносац саветује: Времена
испитуј.Чекај Надвременог, Безвременог, Невидивог, но за нас Видивог.16
У поговору бисмо могли рећи следеће: На Самооткривење Тројичног
Бога у свету, односно у Христу, треба гледати као на свештену историју
али још увек није дошло у свој својој сили и слави. Тачније речено,
Царство тек треба да дође, али је Цар већ дошао. Црква је и даље in via, а
хришћани су и даље „путници“ и странци у „овом свету“.27 Тројични Бог
наставља непрестано да делује у свештеној историји и историја спасења
наставља да се и даље одвија све до Другог доласка „Последњег Адама“
– Христа, када ће доћи да суди живим и мртвима, и када ће Бог бити све
у свима. Блажени Августин је мудро рекао да „постоје два стања живота,
с неба проповедана и предата, која су Цркви позната, при чему је једно
стање вере, а друго стање виђења. Једно је стање привременог пребивања
у туђинској земљи, а друго у вечности (небеског) обитовања. Једно је
стање на путу а друго у отаџбини. Једно – у активном делању, а друго – у
богатству созерцања... Прво је стребњи због војевања, а друго у сигурности
победничког мира... Ово прво траје овде до краја овога света, а у свету
који долази оно нема краја“.28 Циљ сваког православног хришћанина је да
уђе у нову заједницу са Тројичним Богом и примањем нетварне благодати
Божије постане нов човек.29 Пошто је човек христолико биће позван од
стране Творца на надвечни живот у заједници са Тројичним Богом, и много
тога подноси „само да не би умро“,30 то значи да „само вера у Христа даје
смисао људском постојању“.31 Стога бесмртност је дар од Тројичног Бога.
На послетку ћемо рећи: Животни пут човеков је: од Бога, ка Богу, са
Богом, у Богу.
The preacher of the Kingdom of God was also the blessed Patriarch Irinej. From Niš
to Belgrade, he testified about the transience of this world, expecting a special court. He was
the bearer of the ethic of Saint Sava and Kosovo as the national covenant of Serbian history
That is why eschatology is the key of the secret of the Church. Jesus Christ is the
leader of the Church. Heaven decided about the departure of the great fathers and teachers of
our time. That is why we dedicate this humble article to them.
Милош Мишковић1
(студент докторских студија)
Увод
Адопционизам, христолошка јерес, појављује се на Иберијском
полуострву у областима које су биле под влашћу Арапа. Елипанд,
архиепископ града Толеда, у току богословског спора са Мигетијусом
који је учио да се Бог сукцесивно откривао у Давиду (као Бог Отац), у
Христу (као Син) и у апостолу Павлу (као свети Дух) износи учење о
двојном синовству Господа Исуса Христа, тј. да је Христос као Бог, Син
Божији по природи, али Христос као човек је Син Божији по усвојењу и
благодати. Учење толедског архиепископа изазвао је шпанске теологе да
се супроставе новој христолошкој јереси , која је за Цркву на Западу било
оживљавање Несторијеве јереси која је осуђена на трећем Васељенском
сабору. Шпански теолози су упознали Франачку и Римску Цркву са
новом јереси која се појавила код њих, па су се најеминентнији теолози
Запада (међу којима је први био Алкуин) ангажовали против те јереси , и
велики број тих теолога је најзначајнији део својих дела написао против
адопционизма. Особина ове христолошке јереси је била у томе да је
она била територијално ограничена на Цркву на Западу, ово учење није
имало на Истоку нити својих присталица нити противника, јер су Цркву
на Истоку потресали иконоборачки спорови. Рад ће бити подељен у три
поглавља: прво поглавље ће приказати развој адопционизма на Западу
до повратка Алкуина из Британије; друго поглавље обрађује Алкуинову
коресподенцију са Феликсом, а треће са Елипандом, који је био оснивач
адопционистичке јереси. Циљ рада је да се анализом њихових писама,
стекне увид у аргументе које су користили Алкуин и његови противници
да би доказали да је њихово учење исправно и да је у складу са учењем
Цркве као и да је оно подржано цитатима који су преузети из Светог писма
и дела Светих Отаца.
4 W. Heil, Der Adoptianismus, Alkuin und Spanien , Karl der Grosse Band II: Das
geistige Leben, (Düsseldorf 1967), 102.
5 E. Ewig, Vijek Karla Velikog (768 - 814), u Velika povijest Crkve III/1, ur. Hubert
Jedin i dr., pr. Josip Ritig, Leo Držić, (Zagreb, 2001), 91.
6 Heil, Der Adoptianismus, 118.
7 Ibidem, 118.
8 Ewig, Vijek Karla Velikog, 92.
9 K.J.v. Hefele, Conciliengeschicte – dritter Band, Freiburg im Breisgau 1877, 643.
550 Милош Мишковић
Закључак
Алкуинова делатност против адопционизма била је важна, јер је
адопционистичка јерес спречавала делатност хришћанских мисионара
у југозападним деловима Франачке државе и Шпанији. Ипак, јерес
је могла бити побеђена само уз помоћ државне власти, и Алкуин је у
писму упућеном архиепископу Арну салцбуршком описао да је са својим
сарадницима успео да врати у православље 20000 хиљада људи, који су
се одрекли адопционистичке јереси и вратили у крило Цркве.49 Алкуин
је преминуо у манастиру Светог Мартина у Туру 804. године, а његови
противници Елипанд и Феликс, 808. односно 818. године.
Хаук је изнео правилну хипотезу да се за шест дана не може
променити оно у што је Феликс сматрао исправним учењем. Феликс
је потписао православно исповедање вере, које је, како ће се касније
испоставити било само декларативно. Након Феликсове смрти пронађени
су његови списи који доказују да се он није одрекао своје јереси и да
је исповест вере дата у Ахену била лаж.50 Агобард из Лиона је открио
Феликсове списе, и будући изазван од Феликсових следбеника упутио је
писмо цару Лудвигу Побожном. Он није читао Алкуинове и Павлинове
списе против Феликса, него напада Феликсово учење као несторијанизам и
њихову погрешну интерпретацију Светог писма. Он побија његово учење,
у коме каже да Бог није распет на крсту него човек кога је он усвојио, као
што је ован жртвован уместо Исака; и одбацује атрибуте којима Феликс
описује Христову човечанску природу. Дело се завршава цитатима из дела
Светих Отаца и потврђује значај сабора за учвршћивање православне
вере. Његов спис против Феликса је био јасан доказ да адопционизам није
у попуности ишчезао са простора Франачке државе.51 Морамо приметити
47 Чаировић, Црква у Енглеској у VIII веку, 285.
48 Lorenz, The Life of Alcuin, 136-137.
49 Epistolae Karolini aevi, n. 208, 345-346.; Чаировић, Црква у Енглеској у VIII
веку, 283- 285.
50 Hauck, Kirchengeschicte Deutschlands, 305.
51 D. Ganz, Theology and the organisation of the thought, The New Cambridge Medi-
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 557
Miloš Mišković
(PhD student)
AN ORTHODOX VIEW ON ADOPTIONISM IN THE ALCUIN´S CORRESPODENCE
WITH FELIX OF URGEL AND ELIPAND OF TOLEDO
eval History, Volume II c.700- c.900, ed. Rosamond McKitterick, (Cambridge 2006), 765-766.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 559
Увод
Девети век је донео целој хришћанској васељени неколико искушења,
која тада нису била превазиђена и која су – нажалост – направила темељ
за велики раскол у Цркви 1054. године. Неколико несмотрених потеза и на
Истоку и на Западу довели су до проблема који ни данас нису решени. У
првој половини 9. века на Истоку је обновљено, а затим и коначно решено,
питање иконоборства, као царске (државне) јереси, док је на Западу од 8.
века у политичком контексту дошло до великог заокрета, те је франачка
надолазећа империјална власт постала гарант сигурности епископу Рима
да – својим приматом, који је функционисао у складу са франачком влашћу
– канонски, дисциплинска, а затим и догматски решава проблеме на целом
европском Западу. И на Истоку и на Западу дошло је тада до покретања
560 Ђакон Ивица Чаировић
Адопционизам
Како би каролиншка богословска мисао могла да докаже да је кадра
да се суочи са различитим проблемима, првенствено јересима, а онда и
канонско-јурисдикционим нејасноћама, одабран је адопционизам на
Западу. На ово већ познато јеретичко учење, које је покренуло низ спорова
на Западу, одоворио је Алкуин.2
Адопционизам је идентификован у богословској мисли крајем 2.
века, а ово учење је неколико пута у историји Цркве проглашавано за јерес,
најексплицитније на Првом васељенском сабору у Никеји, на којем је
одбрањено исправно учење о божанској природи у Христу. Пре Никејског
сабора, треба напоменути да је Св. Иринеј Лионски говорио о Богородици
потврђујући анти-адопционистичко начело да Христос није човек кога је
усвојио Бог Отац, већ је Он оваплоћени Богочовек.3
Услед покушаја да ахенски двор реши јерес, Карло Велики је позвао
Алкуина из Енглеске 792. године да, као најкомплетнији богослов тог
времена на франачким просторима, штити православље од адопционизма.
Већ следеће године, Алкуин покреће расправу против адопциониста, учећи
да је Син Божји оваполоћењем постао и Син Човечији, тако да Свето писмо
и Оци признају само божанску личност Исуса Христа у две природе, што
је основа свих његових доказа против адопциониста. Адопционизам је
постао важан кључ за потврду филиоквистичког учења на Западу: ако Син
дели све са Оцем, Он мора да учествује и у исхођењу Светог Духа, те је
филиоквистичко учење ушло у нове хришћанске догмате, првенствено на
франачком Западу.4 Још један важан догађај био је и Сабор у Франкфурту,
794. године, на коме је председавао Карло Велики, а циљ је био да се
2 J.C. Cavadini, The Last Christology of the West: Adoptionism in Spain and Gaul,
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993, 23.
3 M.C. Steenberg, The Role of Mary as Co-Recapitulator in St Irenaeus of Lyons,
Vigiliae Christianae 58, no. 2 (2004), 118.
4 A.E. Sicienski, The Filioque – History of a Doctrinal Controversy, Oxford 2010,
92-95.
562 Ђакон Ивица Чаировић
тој јереси) даје двојакост исхођења. Ако се Дух раздваја од Оца са више
особености неголи Син, онда ће Син бити ближе Очевој суштини, и пошто
дупле особености одвајају Духа (од Оца), онда једном од њих равночасни
Дух богохулно ће се сматрати да је нижи од Сина у односу на сродство
заједничке природе (Сина) са Оцем, чиме се омаловажава равночасни Дух;
и овим се опет – како каже Св. Фотије – појављује Македонијева јерес
против Духа Светога.21 Дакле, Св. Фотије јеретички уметак filioque сматра
новим духоборством, које је осуђено на Другом васељенском сабору (381).
Постављањем питања, Свети Отац подрива темељ франачког уметка и
то на овај начин: да ли Дух исходи од Сина на исти начин или супротно
исхођењу од Оца? Ако ли је то на исти начин, како онда не са-заједничаре
лична својства, по којима Тројица јесте и карактерише се и обожава као
Тројица? Ако ли је супротно, тај богохулни израз подсећа на манихејство
и маркионитство?22
Јасно мимоилажење франачких мисионара и римских епископа
акцентује и Св. Фотије, који наводи да су папа Јован VIII (872-882) и
Адријан III (884-885) послали саборно писмо у коме су навели да Дух Свети
исходи само од Оца.23 У Слову о мистагогији јасно је исказана православна
пневматологија и тријадологија источних отаца, али и римских епископа,
што потврђује непрекинуто Предање светоотачког учења о Духу Светоме
од Првог васељенског сабора па све до 9. века, када је франачки владар
одлучио да установи догматски систем са новинама који би указали на
оригиналност франачке теологије тог времена.
У исповедању вере Св. Фотија које се налази у Писму папи Николи
(860)24 потврђује се осуда свих јеретика са васељенских сабора, а излаже
се проширена православна христологија, која је сазревала на овим
саборима. Фотије тако овим писмом не показује своју заокупљеност
пневматологијом 860. године, већ говори о својој православној вери у Св.
Тројицу. Када говори о Шестом васељенском сабору и осуди Сергија и
Макарија, ову двојицу зове новотарима и неразумницима, што указује
на то да предањски схваћена догматика не дозвољава било какве уметке
услед политичких притисака, јер се на Западу Европе тог доба појављују
новотарије у пневматологији. Последњу јерес иконоборство коју спомиње
Фотије дефинише као христоборство, а та јерес је такође потврђена као
новина франачке теолошке мисли још од краја 8. века и Франкфуртског
сабора.
Поред Св. Фотија, сингел Михаил је у Јерусалиму учествовао у
спору око увођења уметка filioque у Символ вере од стране франачких
монаха. Поводом овог питања он је изабран да предводи посланство
које је 814. године кренуло за Рим. Међутим, у Константинопољу је,
као иконопоштовалац са двојицом ученика, Теодором и Теофаном
Начертанима, утамничен у току другог периода иконоборства цара Лава
21 Патрологија 3, 478.
22 Патрологија 3, 479.
23 Патрологија 3, 500.
24 Патрологија 3, 504-506.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 567
pool 1989, 511-512. Списи које су донели папски легати представљају предложак са
којег је сачињен латински превод; који је натерао Франке да напишу Libri Carolini и
супроставе се одлукама VII Васељенског сабора. Превод предлошка је изгубљен али
фрагменте налазимо у Libri Carolini и писму папе Адријана упућеном Карлу Великом,
а нови превод предлошка на латински језик урадио је Анастасије Библиотекар за време
понтификата папе Јована VIII. D. Raymond, The Lives of Eight Century Popes, Liverpool
2007, 165.
35 Папа Адријан од 781. године акте у папској администрацији почиње да датује
према годинама Карлове владавине, уместо владавине византијских царева. Папа је од
Карла добио Capitulare contra synodum (792), против аката Другог Никејског сабора.
Карло је наредио архиепископу Теодулфу из Орлеана да напише Libri Carolini, а папа
Адријан је бранио православно схватање иконопоштовања. Сабор у Франкфурту 794.
године није прихватио Libri.
36 Opus Caroli regis contra synodum (Libri Carolini), MGH Concilia, Tomus II Sup-
plementum I, ed. Ann Freeman, Impensis bibliopolii Hahniani, Hannoverae 1998.
37 T. Shahan,. Caroline Books (Libri Carolini), The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3,
Robert Appleton Company, New York 1908. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03371b.htm
(приступљено 24. 8. 2020 . г.).
38 Freeman, Ann. Theodulf of Orleans and the Libri Carolini, Speculum Vol. 32, No.
4 (1957), 663-705.
39 I. Garipzanov, H. The Symbolic Language of Royal Authority in the Carolingian
570 Ђакон Ивица Чаировић
Закључак
Упоредо са победом над адопционистима у Шпанији, формиран је и
одговор ахенског двора на Други Никејски сабор (787) и иконопоштовање,
као други важан теолошки проблем у том периоду, а уметак filioque је узет
After methodological questions, this paper should provide answers to three - perhaps
the most important theological-historical phenomena in the Christian Church in the 9th cen-
tury – also, in the East and West: iconoclasm and adoptionism, and a special chapter will
be dedicated to the filioque as dogmatical phenomenon in the West, with the answer of St.
Photius of Constantinople. in the Epistle (867) and his Creed. The analysis of the theological-
historical relations of the Fathers of the Church in Constantinople and the Frankish Fathers in
the 9th century will be based on a review of the achievements of the Carolingian Renaissance
and the usage of religion in the Frankish Church in the second half of the 9th century. This
review will diagnose the problems that caused later theological differences and dogmatic
problems between the hierarchy in the Christian Church in the East and the West.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 573
Славиша Тубин
(Епархија зворничко-тузланска)
Увод
Од кризе у сеоби народа преко ере Ираклија1 па до IX века
Ромејска царевина је била упућена на борбу за преживљавање окружена
непријатељима. На Западу су то били германски народи, на Илирику
словенски, али главна борба против непријатеља је лежала на Истоку, на
арабљанском фронту.2 Више од двеста година теме Мале Азије биле су
1 О идејама светог рата Ираклија против неверника за повратак Крст погледати
Nikephoros Patriarch of Constantinople Short History, (tr. Syril Mango), Washington D.C.
1990, 64-67; The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, (tr. Syril Mango and Roger Scott),
Oxford-New Jork 1997, 455 -459.
2 Борба против Арабљана је посматрана као борба Крста против Божијих
непријатеља, а ромејски ратници су били „Христови војници“, Constantine Porphyro-
genitus Three Treatises on Imperial Military Expeditions, (tr. John F. Haldon), Wien 1990,
574 Славиша Тубин
125. Код Арабљана је Крст био противни симбол: Buharijina zbirka hadisa, (kom.
Abdullatif ez-Zubejdi), Sarajevo 2004, 123. О наступању Никифора Фоке под ратним
знамењима Крста погледати Leo the Deacon, The History, Byzantine Military Expansion in
the Tenth Century, (tr. Alice Mary Talbot and Denis F. Sullivan), Washington D.C. 2005, 61.
3 C.W. Chadwick Oman, The Byzantine Empire, New Jork 1902, 183-187; Г.
Острогорски, Историја Византије, Београд 1998, 272-278; Фјодор Успенски, Историја
Византијског царства, Период Македонске династије 867-1057, Београд 2000, 312-394.
4 Никифор Фока исказује овакве ставове у ауторском делу О пограничном
ратовању“. Видети: Nikephoros Phokas „On Skirmishing“, Three Byzantine Military Trea-
tises, (tr. George T. Dennis), Washington D.C. 1985, 239.
5 Борбу против „Исмаилићана“ и „Агарјана потомака робиње“ Фока је
посматрао као свету борбу Leo the Deacon, History 2005, 65. Та борба је по Никифору
не само по вољи Богу већ је он води лично: „Христос наш истински Бог, увелико је
пресекао моћ и снагу порода Исмаиловог и одбио је њихове покоље“ Phokas, On Skir-
mishing 1985, 147. Борбу заједно са византијском војском против непријатеља вере
воде Богородица и светитељи Leo the Deacon, History 2005, 197-198; Никифор II Фока,
Стратегика, (пр. А. К. Нефедкин), Санкт-Петербург 2005, 35.
6 Сабор не треба посматрати у смислу окупљања свих помесних епископа
Константинопољског патријархата, већ пре као саборовање поширеног синода
сачињеног од стране митрополита на челу са патријархом Полиевктом.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 575
7 Skylitzes John, A Sinopsis of Byzantine History 810 – 1057, (trans. by John Wort-
ley), Cambridge 2010, 263.
8 М. Властар, Синтагма, (пр.Татјана Суботин – Голубовић), Београд 2013, 377.
9 Свештени канони Цркве, (пр. Атанасије Јевтић), Београд 2005, 262.
10 M. Whittow, The Making of Byzantium, 600-1025, Los Angeles 1996, 352.
11 Meredith Riedel „Nikephoros Phokas and Ortodox Military Martyrs“, Journal of
Medieval Religious Cultures, Vol. 41, No. 2, Penn State (2015), 124, 129.
12 О генеративним моментима тематике свештеног рата у химнографији
богослужења: В. Василик, Тема рата у византијској химнографији, Каленић, (ур.
Никола Миловић), Крагујевац 2/2013, 16-20.
576 Славиша Тубин
Породични фактор?
Зашто је Никифор толико инсистирао на канонизацији уморених
у заробљеништву скупа са онима који су пали у бици протов неверника,
треба тражити и у личним доживљајима Фока. Никифору Фоки је веома
био болан детаљ насилне смрти његовог брата Константина Фоке у
сиријанском заробљеништву. Поред брата у заробљеништво су пали
Никифоров зет и његов син.22 Могуће да је овај лични печат Никифоровог
болног породичног доживљаја оставио дубоке корене, односно основни
темељ зашто је инстистирао да сви који су уморени у заробљеништву буду
канонизовани. Истина је пак, да је његов брат ван граница Никифорова
захтева имао главни елемент да буде канонизован. Док је Никифор
тражио да сви уморени у тамници буду проглашени за светитеље, дотле је
званични обичај Цркве био и остао да канонизује страдале Христа ради,
од којих је тражено да се одрекну своје вере, односно Господа Христа.
Судећи по ромејским изворима то је управо тражено од Константина
Фоке. Хамданиди су уложили велики труд да га придобију за ислам, и
18 Свети Теофило Нови је стратилат у време царице регенткиње Ирине и
престолонаследника Константина. Заробљен је био четри године у Арабљанској
тамници, и на концу је тражено од њега да прими ислам. Одбивши да се одрекне
православља, уморен је мачем 784. године: Велимировић, Пролог 2008, 78.
19 Житије Аморејских мученика: Јустин Поповић, Житија Светих за март,
Манастир Ћелије 1975, 119-130.
20 Р. Радић, Ромејски свет: Кратка историја свакодневног живота у Византији,
Београд 2012, 150-151.
21 Истина наведени примери укључују то да су Сарацени тражили од светих
да се одрекну од Христа, док је Никифор тражио да сви пали у моментима боја са
неверницима буду канонизовани. Дакле, јасна је дестинкција примера, али то опет не
искључује реалност да су ромејски војници падали у биткама носећи у срцу Христа
и Цркву, умирући са крстом и мачем, и двоструко се борећи за Господа завршавали
су свој овоземљски живот. Све ово сведочи комплексност Фокине идеје. Оно што је
можда Никифор на концу уз помоћ патријарха и отаца схватио, а што је нама данас
јасно, то је светописамска истина да се све своди на оне речи јеванђеља да: „Дух дише
где хоће“, (Јн. 3, 8), тј. Бог сам бира људе као достојне за светитељство и просијава у
историји Цркве све њих на појединачне и уникатне начине.
22 И. Ђурић, Породица Фока, Зборник радова Византолошког инситута XVII,
(Београд 1976), 251.
578 Славиша Тубин
Богослужбени култ
Једна химна из Синајске аколутије (X век) коју ради садржаја можемо
идентификовати као Војну химну својом богослужбеном употребом пружа
синтезу и доказ континуитета по коме је Фокин захтев у ствари развијање
ставова о светости палих ратника код Лава Мудрог.
Химна гласи: „Ходите да се окупимо заједно народе Христов. Да
славимо успомену наше браће која падоше у бици, и за оне који преминуше
у неподношљивом заробљеништву. Хајде да зовемо (молимо, ка Господу),
у њихово име. Они бејаху храбри све до њихова заклања, Твоје слуге
Човекољубче! Они примише немилосрде ударце, упорни (подношећи их,
чак) и у оковима. Нека буде, да ради ових подвига, ови људи достигну
искупљење њихових душа, Човекољубче! Ти Једини који си без греха, узми
њих који су твоје слуге: славне стратеге (генерале), комадујуће таксиархе
(команданте, тусућнике), храбре стратилате, и пресуди им као оним који
су достојни Твога обитавалишта“.44
Химна помиње мартиролошку успомену „наше браће која падоше у
бици, и за оне који преминуше у неподношљивом заробљеништву“. Дакле,
јасан је траг Фокине верске политике, и његове тежње за канонизацијом
палих војника у оба вида, и палих на пољу и у тамницама. Војна химна зове
пале војнике у боју и уморене у оковима заробљеништва мученицима који
су ради Христа Човекољубца храбро страдали, користећи терминологију
пригодну класичним мученичким споменима, када описује муке, односно
и начине страдања.
Култ војника-мученика није био жив само у војсци већ су га креативно
подражавали и светогорци управо на култу Никифора Фоке. Њега је убио
нећак Јован Цимискије, а после смрти овог другог на Светој Гори настаје
богослужбени култ Никифора Фоке као цара-монаха и цара свештено-војног
мученика! Ауторство Службе у част византијског императора Никифора
Фоке, је непознато. У историографији владају мишљења да је писац можда
истоветан са аутором Житија Светог Атанасија, али је јасно да је неко из
круга Атанасијевих ученика и поштовалаца.45 Никифорова служба је била
прожета синтезом X века да је телесни рат подобан духовном када се ради
о непријатељима Христовим, јер није само демон непријатељ Божији, већ
и они који су непријатељи државе Божије – државе Ромеја, тим пре ако су
Закључак
Од времена Ираклија до владавине Никифора II Фоке, Ромеји су
ратове против непријатеља хришћанства сматрали као ратове за Часни Крст.
Огорчене борбе са муслиманима на Истоку су биле попраћене великим
страдањима и пожртвовањима војника. Неки од њих који су били мучени, од
њих је тражено да се одрекну Христа, и такви су били препознати од стране
Цркве као мученици. У X веку када су се одбрамбени ратови претворили
у освајачке, идеја ратног мученишта није престала већ је кулминирала
у свом врхунцу. Високи морал војске која је победоносно напредовала
на Истоку подизала је свест о борби и страдању за веру. Официрски
кадар је подржавао ту идеју, и са Никифором Фоком на престолу, као са
својим изразитим представником, тражио је од Цркве озваничење ратног
мучеништва. По том схватању сви који су пали у бици, или су уморени од
стране непријатеља у тамницама били су свети мученици, које је требало
богослужбено прослављати. Захтев није био псеудо-црквеног порекла јер
је имао своје предањско-агиографско оправдање. Цар је имао присталица
у клиру, и размевања међу светогорцима али већина клира на сабору са
патријархом је одбила ову идеју уз помоћ тринаестог канона Василија
Великог. Црква се служила овим каноном да би спречила учестовање
војног свештенства у борби, али и да спасење не би било изједначено са
учестовањем у рату. Надгробни епитаф цару, и Служба у спомен Никифора
су докази који показују да је војно-мартиролошка идеја делимично живела
и после одбијања захтева на сабору.
У XI веку слабљењем војне моћи државе престају помени светог
рата и војног мучеништва. Црква новим саборским одлукама било какво
проливање крви, па макар и у одбрани, као и у рату сматра убиством, и
канонском препреком како за свештени чин тако и за канононизацију.
Slaviša Tubin
(Eparhy of Zvornik and Tuzla)
SOLDIERS – HOLY MARTYRS: THE BACKGROUND OF THE CLAIM
FOR CANONIZATION AND THE CULT OF FALLEN WARRIORS
IN THE AGE OF NIKEPHOROS II PHOKAS
Centuries old struggle with Islamic Caliphate for survival was considered in
Byzantium as Holy War. In times of Great Conquest of X century this idea did not cease but
had its culmination in Nikephoros Phokas request that the fallen warriors be canonized by
Church. Request was not pseudo-eclestiastical but patriarch and bishops refused the reguest
citing Saint Basil 13 canon. Besides military and emperors family background there was
hagiographical justifications for the demand. The reason for the refusal was that the military
priests can not participate actively in the batlle. Few evidence show that the cult of martyred
soldiers lived worshiphully after the Synod. The Praecepta Militaria tells us that the troops
were preparing prayerfully for martyrdom before the battle. Further evidence we have in
Church Service dedicated to Nikephoros, and emperor grave epigraph written by John bishop
of Melitine. With XI century by the weakening of military power ceases to recording of Holy
War in Byzantium, but his implications remain in canonical works.
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 585
Eirini Artemi1
(Hellenic Open University, Patra)
Introduction
Gregory Palamas was an important Greek prominent theologian priest
who was born in 1296 in Constantinople. His family was noble and belonged
to the court of Emperor Andronicus II. At the age of seven he became orphan
because he lost his father2. Despite his terrible loss he managed to be educated
with imperial scholarship. He studied the works of the Church Fathers of the
previous centuries and the Logic of Aristotle but he didn’t manage to deepen his
knowledge with a serious study to Plato3.
1 Eirini Artemi is Lecturer in the Hellenic Open University and in the Israel Institute
of Biblical Studies, partnered with the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. She has Post- Doc
of ancient Greek and Byzantine Philosophy, PhD & MA of Theology, Bacs of Theology and
Classical Philology. Email: eartemi@theol.uoa.gr
2 E.Cazabonne, “Gregory Palamas (1296-1359): Monk, Theologian and Pastor”,
Cistercian Studies Quarterly 37 (2002): 304.
3 S. J. Denning – Boyle, “Introduction” in Gregory Palamas, Dialogue between an Or-
thodox and a Barlaamite, 1-30, trans. by R. Ferwerda, New York: Global Publications, 1999, 1.
586 Eirini Artemi
In 1326, he had his ordination to the priesthood. During this period that
Palamas lived as a monk, he underlined the inaccuracies of filioque. Also he
supported that the light that monks see during their hesychast prayer is uncre-
ated as the light of the Transfiguration on mount Tabor, and explained the dis-
tinction between God’s essence and attributes4. In 1347, he became archbishop
in Thessaloniki of only Greek Macedonian in the Byzantine Empire. As arch-
bishop he continued to defend the hesychast tradition with passion5. He died in
14 November 13596.
For Palamas, Hesychasts can participate in theophany and theoptia of
God, if they put into practice the presuppositions to be united with the Holy
Spirit. The unity with the Third Person of the Triune God enables man in his
charismatic theosis7. Gregory wrote his work about Moses’ Decalogue8 in or-
der to share his sense of “the immediate experience of God, given to man by
God by virtue of the Incarnation”9. Generally, Gregory Palamas analyzes the
Ten Commandments in order to show that the strict Monotheism of Moses’
Decalogue reveals the Triune God’s attributes10.
Finally, in Palamas’ interpretation of Decalogue we find the teaching of
Isidore of Pelusium: “we should not try to search how God is, but to know
that He exists”11· by this way Gregory explains that the mystical motivation of
Decalogue is the love among the three Persons of God, among people and God,
and between each man with the other.
God is One and at the same time has three Persons, the Father, the Son and the
Holy Spirit. The One and at the same time Triune God is said not once but two
time is the analysis of this Commandment. By this way the Greek Macedonian
bishop shows how important is for him and for all Christians to realize that “This
alone is God and alone is true God, the one Lord in a Trinity of hypostases”13.
Generally, he summarizes the dogmatic teaching of Christianity from the previ-
ous centuries about the common14 and the hypostatic attributes of the divine
Persons, “the unbegotten Father; in the Son, who is begotten eternally, tune-
lessly and impassibly as the Logos, and who, through, Himself anointed that
which He assumed from us and so is called Christ; and in the Holy Spirit, who
also comes forth from the Father, not begotten, but proceeding”15.
Gregory clarifies that the Son of God incarnated in order to unite God
with people. So by this way the latter will have earned the ability of the objec-
tive salvation. Additionally, he rejects filioque because he underlines that the
Holy Spirit comes from the Father (ἐκ τοῦ Πατρός) for His proceeding. Perhaps,
Gregory teaches about the hypostatic attributes of the Persons of God because
he wants to speak about the rejection of filioque with indirect way. The hereti-
cal teaching about filioque was a great problem after the schism among Roman
Catholics and Orthodox Christians.
Gregory continues his analysis to the first commandment and adds the or-
der of God from the book of Deuteronomy: “Him alone shall you love and Him
alone shall you worship with all your mind and with all your heart and with all
your strength16. And His words and His commandments shall be in your heart
so that you carry them out and meditate on them and speak of them both, sitting
and walking, lying down and standing up”17. The use of “Shema” by Gregory
underlines the connection of this Jewish prayer of the Old Testament with the
New Testament and with Christian theology within a clearly visible pedagogi-
cal and theological frame. In this frame, God reveals Himself as the one who
creates the world, then reveals His three Persons in the different stages of the
redemption of the world.
Gregory underlines that we should remember the Lord our God always18.
Why does he say something like that about that in his analysis? Perhaps, the
verb “μνημονεύῃς” “remember” becomes similar to the verb “προσεύχῃς”, be-
cause you remember God when you pray to Him. We can assume that Gregory
indirectly refers to the intense hesychast prayer from which an intellectual fire
is ignited. This fire purified the one who prays with passion to God. Then, “the
result is the boundless love of God inspires the soul, and the (physical) heart
Christ was risen as total man and total God. Christ’s body was glorified at the
moment of his Resurrection, as proved by the new and supernatural properties
it subsequently and permanently enjoys26. Then Christ returned to His Father,
because He is the only One who came from the Father and He can return to the
Father. Christians can worship and venerate only Him as God. Saints are not
God. With this clarification, Gregory expresses the most important teachings
about icons and the relics of saints in a short and clear form. He says that “icons
of Christ and Saints should not be deified, but through them we should vener-
ate Him who originally created us in His own image, and who subsequently
consented in His ineffable compassion to assume the human image and to be
circumscribed by it”27.
Gregory clarifies the Christian teaching of worshiping icons, relics of
saints and the Holy Cross because in his age there was the heresy of Bogomils.
The latter denounced the icons and the cross as idols and the worship of saints
and relics as idolatry28. It is underlined that the Cross became the symbol of
Christ’s victory against Satan and his angels. Also, the reverence and venera-
tion shown to icons, however, is not directed to mere paint, wood, or stones, but
towards the saints depicted. Additionally, the holiness of the Saints, in their soul
and of their bodies, derives from their zealous grace and virtue, bestowing lives
in the body of the Church of Christ, of Theanthropos29. By this way they have
been “friends of God”30.
Here, it is important to be analysed that Gregory teaches that the cross
was permanently presented and saved the human race from destruction and
annihilation and it was prefigured throughout the Old Testament. The sign of
Cross in Jewish History can be found in many parts of the Old Testament, espe-
cially in Exodus 17, 1-16, in Numbers 21, 4-9, in Daniels 3, 23 and 6, 23, and
etc31. Generally, the icons and the symbol of cross bring the heart of Christians
into a new relationship of love.
To sum up Gregory Palamas in the analyses of the first two Commandments
of Decalogue presents with a synoptic way the Christian Triadology, One God
and at the same time Trinity. He speaks about the common and hypostatic ener-
gies of the three Hypostases of God. And he underlines that the Father is the
source of the other two Persons, because the Father gives birth to his son in
eternity, equal to himself and He is the only who proceeds the Holy Spirit in
Eternity. Then Gregory speaks about the incarnation of Logos, who became
total man and remained total God and finally Gregory refers to the dogmatic
teaching for the veneration of icons, the cross and the relics of the Saints.
the coming to the temple of God and attendance the services hold there and with
sincere faith and a clean conscience Christian should take part in Holy Eucharist
and receive the holy body and blood of Christ. By this way, he should make a
beginning of a more perfect life and renew and prepare himself for the reception
of the eternal blessings to come. As it is profane, Gregory agrees with the teach-
ing of other Church Fathers as John Chrysostom, who accepts the attendance of
the Holy Divine Liturgy united with the mystery of Holy Eucharist. So accord-
ing to their theological teaching, “the concrete and fundamental cause of the
sacred, transcendent and tremendous character of the liturgy is not an elevated
idea or a religious feeling, but the gift of the love of God which is visibly laid
down on the altar of the sacrifice”39.
In the Fifth Commandment, “Honour your father and your mother”40,
Gregory puts some presuppositions about the religious life of the parents. If
they believe in Christ and live a life according to His teaching, then they should
be loved and honoured by their children. On the opposite side, if the parents
are heretics, Gregory advices their children to cut off any bond with them. In
this case, people are excused to hate their parents, their spouses, their children
because they are barrels to their salvation.
Gregory expanded the meaning of the word parents and he concludes
not only the natural fathers and mothers but also the spiritual fathers and moth-
ers. The spiritual “parents” have struggled against heretics with their dogmatic
and theological teaching. But Gregory doesn’t mean only Patristic Fathers. He
refers to priests who are spiritual leaders of faithful. They “have brought the
believers from a state of mere existence to a state of virtue and spiritual health;
they have transmitted to the faithful the illumination of knowledge, have taught
them the revelation of the truth, have given them rebirth through the water of
regeneration and have instilled in them the hope of resurrection and immortal-
ity, and of the eternal kingdom and inheritance”41.
Then Gregory refers to the mystery of the confession, because with the
help of the priest we can heal the wounds of our sins. Only the priest, the spiri-
tual father has the right to confess any believer because of his ordination in
priesthood. The believer confesses to God in the presence of the Priest. Only
through priest, the believer can heal his soul from any sin and can be forgiven.
The presence of a priest is obligatory in the mystery of the Confession because
the Priest, as the successor of the Apostles, has the responsibility to guard the
Faith, to preserve the integrity of the Church and the souls of Christians. As
Jesus Christ said to the Apostles: “Whosoever sins ye remit they are remit-
ted, and whosoever sins ye retain, they are retained... Whatever sins ye remit
they are remitted in heaven”42. For all these reasons Gregory connects this
Commandment more with the spiritual father that the natural father, “For this
reason be counseled by your spiritual fathers and obey them till the end, so that
you may save your soul and inherit eternal and untarnished blessings”43.
In the sixth Commandment, Gregory underlines the sin of adultery re-
moves man from the body of Christ and condemns him to eternal hell. Gregory
thinks that if a Christian can keep his virginity this will make him similar to
the angels. Otherwise he should be married in order to avoid any other sexual
relations that lead him to the Hell. Here, Gregory finds out the chance to speak
about the birth of Christ from the Holy Virgin Mother in order to underline
the significance of virginity in a christian life and additionally he refers to the
role of the Holy Spirit of the historical birth of Christ. Besides the teaching of
Word’s Incarnation, Gregory says with emphasis that the Holy Spirit “ineffably
proceeds from the Father alone, not by way of generation, but by procession”44.
By this way, he rejects the inaccuracy of the heretic teaching of Filioque.
Gregory speaks about the seventh Commandment “You shall not kill”45
and analyses it not as a simple moral order but he tries to find the real cause of
a murder which is the rage and the anger. For this reason, Gregory advices that
passions as anger, rage, revenge cause a disease of the soul which can lead a
man into a murder. If we respond to someone who reviles us with forgiveness,
we will be forgiven by God Himself. Gregory understands that it is difficult
for some believers to show forgiveness when they are faced with evil way, for
this reason the bishop of Thessaloniki underlines: “But if you are unable to
bridle your temper, censure yourself whenever you lose it, and repent before
God and before anyone to whom you have spoken or have acted evilly. If you
repent at the inception of sin you will not commit the sin itself; but if you feel
no pang in committing minor offences you will through them fall into major
transgressions”46.
In the eight Commandment, “You shall not steal”47, Gregory doesn’t re-
main only to the evil of the theft but he goes one step further and refers to the
charity, the Philanthropy that a Christian should show to other people, by giv-
ing some of his goods in a secret way. His reward will be major in the eternal
life. On this comment for God’s order it is obvious that Gregory has in his mind
the words of Christ “Therefore, when you do a charitable deed, do not sound
a trumpet before you as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the streets,
that they may have glory from men. Assuredly, I say to you, they have their
reward. But when you do a charitable deed, do not let your left hand know what
your right hand is doing, that your charitable deed may be in secret; and your
Father who sees in secret will Himself rewards you openly”48.
Conclusions
Gregory Palamas teaches that the Ten Commandments were declared
in the Old Testament and all of them were reiterated in the New Testament
because collectively, they constitute the law of God. He examines the Ten
Commandments in light of the New Testament. He connects the correct dog-
matic teaching of the Church with the moral life of Christians which has as
center Christ.
Of course, Gregory doesn’t speak about a simple humanism which has
man in the center, but he teaches a man’s moral life that springs from his union
with God. A Christian who has a “moral life”, in fact he tries to unite himself
with God in Church through the holy sacraments. In this work Gregory follows
the teaching of other Church Fathers, supports that man’s issues are not moral in
nature (obeying and doing things because they are right, moral.) but ontological
in nature. The Ten Commandments in the light of the New Testament’s teaching
show than human’s salvation is not a juridical matter, it is utterly ontological. If
we manage to be united with Christ, we will succeed the deification. In this at-
tempt the Commandments are the lights which show us the correct road in order
to earn the mercy and the grace of Christ, to be united with Him for the eternity.
49 Ex. 20,15.
50 Gregory Palamas, Decalogus Christianae Legis, PG 150, 1100CD.
594 Eirini Artemi
Ирини Артеми
(Хеленски отворени Универзитет, Патра)
БОГОСЛОВСКО И ДОГМАТСКО УЧЕЊЕ ГРИГОРИЈА ПАЛАМЕ
О ,,ДЕСЕТ БОЖЈИХ ЗАПОВЕСТИ“
Опис експонатa
Експонат, димензија 140 х 37,5 см, је израђен златовезом на свиленој
тканини подложеној јаким платном. Централно поље, димензија 85х19,5
см је подељено у два неједнака дела. На горњем делу (51,5х19,5 см) су
нашивена три крста у подигнутом златовезу. Мањи доњи део централног
поља (17,5х19,5 см) је одвојен од горњег дела 8,5 см широком траком
у златовезу, уз чију доњу ивицу су нашивене 7 см дугачке ресе, које
делимично прекривају доњи део централног поља. Централно поље
је оивичено 8,5 см широким тракама у златовезу до висине око 102 см.
Поменуте траке су са обе стране оивичене зупцима од око 0,8 см. У горњем
делу експоната, на преласку на предео оковратника, је нашивена још једна
таква трака 8,5 см од ивице рама са обострано нашивеним зупцима. Уз
доњу ивицу експоната су нашивене ресе дуге 7 см. На ресе су додатно
нашивене апликације. Око отвора за главу и око горњег дела експоната је
нашивена ужа златовезом извезена трака (ширине око 3 см).
Полеђина експоната је прекривена волуминозно тканом свиленом
тканином са растером, који имитира растер мрежице са великим окцима
у окер боји. Тканина полеђине је уз доњу ивицу пресавијена на лице у
пределу испод доњих реса.
Између свилене тканине полеђине и лица експоната се налази тканина
од грубо ткане јуте у платненом везу. Сви тежи елементи експоната су
прошивени на ту тканину, која служи као носач.
Централно поље и поље оковратника су испуњени украсним
равним везом2 од глатке и сјајне златне срме3. Бодови пришивања, који
формирају биљни орнамент на поменутим деловима епитрахиља, су од
свиленог конца у боји сирове свиле. На тракама које опкружују централно
2 Украсни равни вез: Равни вез се користи за прекривање већих површина
мотива или подлога. Положене металне нити су густо сабијене у правцу под правим
углом на нити основе носилне тканине. Бодови пришивања се слажу, како би се добила
жељена шара. Шара се добија шивењем опречним свиленим концем на унапред
одређеним местима. У ту сврху је на подлози нужно нацртати цртеж и следити га током
пришивања.
3 Сјајне и наизглед глатке нити добијају се овијањем језгра нити пљоснатом
траком чије су ивице тесно припијене (формира се нека врста глатке и савитљиве цеви).
Ni{ i Vizantija XIX 597
Сл. 10 Епитрахиљ
након третмана
Fig.10 Epitrahelion
after treatment
Затечено стање
Експонат је прљав, прекривен нечистоћама органског и анорганског
порекла (сл. 1). Тканина је у дерутном стању, поготово у пределу око
отвора за пролаз главе и уз ивице експоната (сл.2). Делови, који су се
делимично опарали су грубо прихефтани. Покидани конци слободно
висе са површине. Срма уткана у жакар тканину је кородирана, нити су
поцепане, а извучени делови су расплетени и умршени у грудве (сл. 3 ).
Експонат је подложен свиленом тканином са израженим рељефно
подигнутим везом, на којој се налази стари инвентарни број „Н1“, исписан
текстилном бојом, површине око 3х5 см. Део тканине на полеђини уз десну
вертикалну ивицу и уз доњу ивицу недостаје (сл. 4), што је последица
дејства пацова, чији измет је пронађен између слојева експоната (сл. 5).
Између слојева тканине се налазе остаци земље, каменчићи, измет пацова
и смрвљени делови срме у већим количинама.
600 Марија Цурк, Франц Цурк
Анђела Гавриловић
МАРКО ПОПОВИЋ
др Иван Бугарски
Ni{ i Vizantija XVIII 611
IN MEMORIAM
CYRIL MANGO
(1928 – 2021)
Spanish, an array of languages that any Byzantinist can only dream of. A na-
tive of Istanbul, Mango developed a great knowledge of the city’s churches and
other monuments.
Cyril Mango was educated at the University of St. Andrews, M.A. in 1949,
and earned his doctorate in History from the University of Paris in 1953. He
taught at King’s College London where he held the Chair of Koraes Professor
of Modern Greek and Byzantine History, Language and Literature from 1963 to
1968, and was Bywater and Sotheby Professor of Byzantine and Modern Greek
Language and Literature at the University of Oxford from 1973 to 1995. He
was affiliated with Dumbarton Oaks, the Harvard Center for Byzantine Studies
in Washington, D.C. At Dumbarton Oaks, Cyril Mango was a Junior Fellow
(1951–1953), Fellow (1953–1954), and Research Associate (1954–1955) of
Byzantine Studies, Instructor in Byzantine Archaeology (1955–1958), Lecturer
in Byzantine Archaeology (1958–1962), Associate Professor of Byzantine
Archaeology (1962–1963), Executive Editor of Dumbarton Oaks Publications
(1958–1963), member of the Board of Scholars for Byzantine Studies (1967–
1972), and member of the research staff (1972–1973). His scientific outlook
was key for many research projects undertaken during this period. Cyril joined
Dumbarton Oaks in 1951 and remained there until 1963. It gave him the time,
opportunity and financial means to pursue his studies.
During these years Cyril joined Paul Underwood, the director of fieldwork
at Dumbarton Oaks, in a variety of projects in Istanbul, including Hagia Sophia
and the Kariye Camii (Chora Monastery), one of the finest surviving Byzantine
churches. In particular, he worked with Ernest Hawkins, an outstanding con-
servator who had gone to Istanbul to work for Whittemore, studying the fa-
mous apse mosaic at Hagia Sophia, the Fethiye Camii (St Mary Pammakaristos
church) and the Fenari Isa Camii (monastery of Constantine Lips).
Corpus of Dated Byzantine Inscriptions of Constantinople, Bithynia, and
Eastern Thrace begun by Cyril Mango with Ihor Ševcenko in 1978 is being
completed by Anne McCabe, under the auspices of the Centre for the Study of
Ancient Documents at Oxford and the International Association of Byzantine
Studies, in the framework of the Inscriptiones Graecae Aevi Byzantinae proj-
ect. Cyril Mango was also co-director of the Christian Monuments in Turkish
Mesopotamia Project (1982–1990), and director of the Cathedral of Nisibis
Project (1990–1991). He played a vital role as editor of The Oxford History of
Byzantium (2002).
He was colossal researcher from an early age, showing a inteligent com-
mand of the history, monuments and topography of the Queen of Cities to fa-
mous visitors. When Sir Steven Runciman asked to be shown around the city
by its best guide, he was surprised to be met by a young Cyril Mango who was
already in possession of an encyclopaedic knowledge of the former imperial
capital.
Mango’s talent was noted quite early, leading to study in Paris and at St
Andrews’s, then earning him a Junior Fellowship at Dumbarton Oaks in his
early 20s. He edited Dumbarton Oaks Publications before he became Associate
Professor of Byzantine Archaeology. His first major book, The Brazen House. A
Ni{ i Vizantija XVIII 613
Mango devoted his studies both to the strength of the imperial currency and
the exigencies of the Byzantine world of commerce, and esoteric beliefs about
the Byzantine conception of holy judgement and what they believed about the
nature of animal consciousness. Within the art historical topics, he was devoted
to the classical styles deeply roothed in Byzantium and the uniquely Byzantine
artistic forms.
His books The Art of Byzantine Empire (1972), a handbook of primary
sources in translation and his Byzantine Architecture (1976) were foundation-
al textbooks for more than one generation of Byzantinists. He also published
books for a broader public, such as Hagia Sophia: A Vision for Empires (1997);
Chora: The Scroll of Heaven (2000); The Treasures of Turkey: The earliest
civilizations of Anatolia Byzantium the Islamic Period (1966). Cyril Mango was
greatly admired. In his books he brought to life many forgotten topics: the art,
architecture, and culture of a world that witnessed the growth of Christianity
and left behind a rich cultural legacy. The world that Professor Mango re-
constructed is a world neglected by many recent historians. For this reason,
Mango’s works stand out, as do his insights into a culture which, for many,
remains alien. He formulated the principle of “Byzantinologie totale”, i.e. not
divided by disciplinary partitions and acted as an art historian, archeologist,
epigraphist, archivist. His death is a great loss to the Byzantine Studies and to
the world of the humanities.
ДР БРАНКО ВУЈОВИЋ
(1935–2017)
др Миша Ракоција
Ni{ i Vizantija VI 617
РЕДАКЦИЈА
The authors are responsible for the contents and furnish of their respec-
tive papers along with the exploitation right. The authors are responsible for all
financial and moral loss in the case of copy rights abuse. The work papers are
not to be returned nor paid out.
REDACTION
Ni{ i Vizantija VI 619
Уредник
др МИША РАКОЦИЈА
Издавач
ГРАД НИШ
УНИВЕРЗИТЕТ У НИШУ
ПРАВОСЛАВНА ЕПАРХИЈА НИШКА
НИШКИ КУЛТУРНИ ЦЕНТАР
За издаваче
ДРАГАНА СОТИРОВСКИ, градоначелник
Проф. др ДРАГАН АНТИЋ, ректор
ГОСПОДИН АРСЕНИЈЕ (ГЛАВЧИЋ), епископ нишки
СРЂАН САВИЋ, директор
Превод са енглеског
др ЈАСМИНА ЋИРИЋ
Технички уредник
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др ФРАНЦ ЦУРК
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