Barthes’ Semiology has had a profound influence on the fields of literary theory, cultural
studies, and media studies.
1- Barthes established the foundations of semiology which was
previously postulated by Saussure. Explain?
Roland Barthes was a French literary theorist and philosopher who
contributed significantly to the field of Semiotics (or Semiology), which
is the study of signs and symbols and their use and interpretation.
Barthes's work was heavily influenced by the ideas of Ferdinand de
Saussure, a Swiss linguist who is often credited with founding modern
linguistics.
Saussure's theory of language centered around the idea that language is a
system of signs, which are arbitrary symbols that are used to convey
meaning. He argued that there is no inherent connection between the
signifier (the word or symbol) and the signified (the concept or object
that it represents). Rather, the relationship between the signifier and
signified is determined by the conventions of the language system and
the context in which the sign is used.
Barthes expanded on Saussure's ideas by applying them to a wide range
of cultural phenomena, including literature, fashion, advertising, and
popular culture. He argued that all of these forms of cultural expression
use signs and symbols to communicate meaning, and that the
interpretation of these signs is not fixed or objective but rather depends
on the cultural context and the individual experience of the reader or
viewer.
Barthes also introduced the concept of "myth" as a way of
understanding the way that cultural symbols and narratives function in
society. He argued that myths are not simply false beliefs, but rather
systems of meaning that are constructed and reinforced by cultural
institutions and practices. For example, the idea of the "American
dream" is a myth that is perpetuated through literature, film, and other
cultural forms, and it shapes the way that people think about the
possibilities and limitations of American society.
Overall, Barthes built on Saussure's ideas about the arbitrary nature of
signs and the importance of context in interpreting meaning, and he
applied these ideas to a broad range of cultural phenomena. His work
2- Barthes extends Saussure’s signification by adding a second and
third level of signification. Explain?
Ferdinand de Saussure's theory of signification, which is the foundation
of modern linguistics, posits that a sign is composed of a signifier (the
sound-image or written form of a word) and a signified (the concept or
meaning associated with that word). Roland Barthes expanded on this
theory by introducing two additional levels of signification in his book
"Elements of Semiology."
Barthes' first extension of Saussure's signification is the notion of
connotation, which he defines as the cultural and personal associations
that are attached to a sign beyond its literal or denotative meaning.
Connotation is the second level of signification that Barthes identifies.
For example, the word "rose" can be seen as denoting a type of flower,
but it can also connote love, passion, or even death depending on the
cultural context in which it is used.
The third level of signification that Barthes identifies is myth, which he
describes as the process by which connotation becomes naturalized or
taken for granted as a part of everyday reality. In other words, myth
transforms cultural and historical meanings into natural or universal
ones, obscuring the social and ideological constructs that underpin them.
For example, the myth of the "American Dream" might suggest that
anyone can achieve success through hard work, but this overlooks the
structural inequalities and systemic barriers that make it difficult for
some people to succeed.
In summary, Barthes expands Saussure's theory of signification by
adding connotation and myth as two additional levels of meaning that
contribute to our understanding of how signs function in language and
culture.
3- Explain and illustrate Barthes’ three levels of representation
Roland Barthes developed the idea of the three levels of representation
or levels of meaning. According to him, all texts have three different
levels of meaning or representation: the linguistic level, the connotative
level, and the cultural level.

a. Denotative (Linguistic) level: This level refers to the literal or
denotative meaning of a text. It is the basic level of meaning that is
conveyed by the words and sentences of a text. For example, the
sentence "The cat sat on the mat" has a literal meaning that is
understood by everyone who speaks the language in which the sentence
is written.
b. Connotative level: This level refers to the meanings that are suggested
or implied by the text. It includes the emotional, subjective, and cultural
associations that are connected with the words and phrases in the text.
For example, the word "home" has different connotations for different
people. It might suggest warmth, security, and comfort for one person,
while for another person it might evoke feelings of confinement,
boredom, or anxiety.
c. Myth: This level refers to the broader cultural context in which the
text is situated. It includes the historical, social, and ideological factors
that influence the meaning and interpretation of the text. For example,
the phrase "the American Dream" has different cultural meanings
depending on the time period and the social context in which it is used.
An example that illustrates the three levels of representation could be
the American flag. On the linguistic level, the American flag is a piece
of cloth with stars and stripes. On the connotative level, it may represent
different ideas and emotions such as patriotism, freedom, bravery, and
sacrifice. On the cultural level, the flag may represent the history,
values, and identity of the United States, as well as the political and
social conflicts and debates that are associated with it.
In summary, Barthes's three levels of representation provide a
framework for understanding the complex ways in which texts convey
meaning and how different layers of meaning interact with each other.
The Notion of Myth in Barthes’ Analysis of Paris Match
Cover
Roland Barthes’ analysis of the Paris Match cover highlights the notion
of myth and how it operates in society. He argues that myths are systems
of signs that are already formed by previous systems, including
language, and have a double function of pointing out and notifying,
making us understand and imposing on us.
In the case of the Paris Match cover, the image of a black soldier
saluting is already a signifier that is formed by the signs of language.
Barthes argues that the meaning of the picture is a purposeful mixture of
Frenchness and militariness, which signifies that France is a great
empire where all her sons, without any discrimination, faithfully serve
under her flag. The presence of the signified through the signifier creates
a myth, where the image is not just a representation but is also imbued
with a deeper meaning.
Barthes highlights that myths have a specific intention that goes beyond
their literal sense. In the case of the Paris Match cover, the intention is to
establish French imperiality and to make it appear natural and without
contradictions. The myth transforms history into nature, and in doing so,
it purifies the historical and contingent qualities of colonialism, giving
them an eternal and natural justification.
Barthes argues that myths organize a world that is without
contradictions and does away with all dialectics, making things appear
to mean something by themselves. In the case of the Paris Match cover,
the image of the black soldier saluting gives the impression that all is
well in the French empire, and that there is no discrimination or
oppression. However, the myth conceals the complex reality of
colonialism and the historical context of the image.
Overall, Barthes’ analysis of the Paris Match cover demonstrates how
myths operate in society by transforming history into nature, purifying
complex realities, and establishing a specific intention. The notion of
myth highlights the importance of critical thinking and questioning the
assumptions and ideologies that underlie our social and cultural norms.