Final Exam Review

Corporate Governance (Chapter 26)/ External Responsibilities of a

Corporation (Chapter 27)

1) Directors/Officers/Shareholders/ Stakeholders

➢ Director term / role / duties

○ “CBCA s.102 – director’s role set out – however, majority of power comes from
General Meeting of the shareholders”规定了董事的职责--但大部分权力来自股东
大会
○ Act conveys general powers and specific powers:法案授予一般权力和特定权力
■ 1) Power to issue shares 发行股票的权力
■ 2) Power to declare dividends 宣布股息的权力
■ 3) Power to adopt by – laws 通过公司法的权力
■ 4) Power to call meetings of the shareholders 召集股东大会的权力
○ CBCA requires a corporation to have 1 or more directors; and for a publicly held
corporation minimum of 3 directors CBCA 要求公司有 1 名或多名董事；对于公众
持股公司，至少有 3 名董事
○ Shareholders cannot direct directors 股东不能指示董事
○ Initial directors are appointed by Articles of Incorporation, but must hold General
Meeting of Shareholders within 18 months of incorporation 最初的董事由公司章程
任命，但必须在公司成立后 18 个月内召开股东大会
○ Subsequent directors are elected by SH 随后的董事由股东大会选举产生
○ Director can sit for 3 years before the need to be re-elected, but can be removed
earlier by a Special Meeting of the SH 董事可任职 3 年，然后才需要重新选举，但
可由股东大会特别会议提前罢免

➢ Duties: 职责
○ CBCA s 122:
○ (1) every director and officer of a corporation in exercising his powers and
discharging his duties shall: 公司的每位董事和高级职员在行使其权力和履行其职
责时应
■ A) Act honestly and in good faith with a view to the best interests of the
corporation; and 诚实和善意地行事，以公司的最佳利益为重
■ B) Exercise the care, diligence and skill that a reasonably prudent person
would exercise in comparable circumstances 行使一个合理审慎的人在类
似情况下会行使的谨慎、勤勉和技能
○ (2) Every director and officer of a corporation shall comply with this Act, the
regulations, articles, by-laws and any unanimous shareholder agreement 公司的每
位董事和高级职员均应遵守本法案、法规、公司章程、公司细则和任何股东一
致同意的协议
2) Shareholder Rights

➢ Ordinary vs. Special resolutions

➢ ROI
○ SH purchases shares in corporation as an investment SH 购买公司股票作为投资
○ Can realize on that investment in 2 ways:
■ 1) By way of dividends paid 通过支付股息
■ 2) By capital growth 通过资本增长

➢ Who issues shares / how?

○ Power lies with the board 权力在董事会

○ Majority SH could lose majority position with a new issue 大股东 SH 可能因发行新
股而失去多数地位
■ In USA – concept of “pre-emptive rights” 在美国--"优先购买权 "的概念
■ In Canada – no such right, but directors can only issue for purpose of raising
capital 在加拿大--没有这种权利，但董事只能为筹集资本的目的发行股
票
■ If purpose is to affect voting rights of majority, then the issue may be
declared void 如果目的是影响多数股东的表决权，则可宣布发行无效

➢ Protection of Minority Shareholders (Oppression /Derivative / Appraisal /Winding

Up)
○ Where there is a majority shareholder, often minority shareholders are “frozen out”
of the decision making process 在有大股东的情况下，小股东往往被 "冻结 "在决
策过程之外
○ Often they can’t dispose of their shares, so they are “locked-in” 他们往往无法处置
自己的股份，因此被 "锁定"
○ CBCA s. 190 - allows a minority SH who dissents on changes to the corporation to
have the corporation buy back his/her shares 允许对公司变更持异议的小股东要
求公司回购其股份
○ Where a price cannot be decided, then the court will set a price 如果无法确定价格，
则由法院确定价格
 ■ This is called the Appraisal Remedy 这就是所谓的 "评估补救"

○ 1) Appraisal Remedy:
■ The right to have one’s shares bought by the corporation at a fair price 有权
要求公司以公平的价格购买自己的股份
■ Restricted to only certain types of actions 仅限于某些类型的诉讼
■ In order to take advantage, the SH must abide by all requirements in the act
- can be quite cumbersome 要想利用该补救措施，SH 必须遵守该法的所
有要求 - 可能相当麻烦
■ Really only useful in closely held corporations 实际上只对紧密控股公司有
用

○ 2) Winding Up 清盘
■ Dissolution for liquidation of a corporation 解散公司进行清算
■ Under the CBCA, where it is “just and equitable to do so” 根据 CBCA，如果
"这样做是公正和公平的
■ Courts are often reluctant to do this if the corporation is viable and of a
reasonable size re: other stakeholder interests 如果公司有生命力且规模合
理，考虑到其他利益相关者的利益，法院通常不愿意这样做

○ 3) Oppression Remedy 压迫补救

■ Statutory procedure allowing individual shareholders to seek a personal
remedy if they have been unfairly treated 允许个人股东在受到不公平待遇
时寻求个人救济的法定程序
■ Most popular remedy in Canada 在加拿大最受欢迎的救济
■ Remedy has been granted wider scope by allowing judges to make
alternative orders 允许法官下达替代命令，从而扩大了补救范围
■ To justify the remedy, plaintiff must show that the action complained of: 为
了证明补救措施的合理性，原告必须证明被投诉的行为
● A) Has been oppressive or unfairly prejudicial; or 具有压迫性或不
公平的损害性；或
● B) Unfairly disregards the interests of the complainant 不公平地无
视原告的利益
■ Remedy is usually to have corporation buy back the complainant’ s shares at
fair market value 补救措施通常是要求公司按公平市价回购原告的股份
■ Must look at the reasonable expectation of the parties 必须考虑当事人的
合理期望

○ 4) Derivative Action 派生诉讼

■ Proceedings brought by one or more shareholders in the name of the
corporation in respect of a wrong done to the corporation 由一名或多名股
东以公司的名义就公司所犯的错误提起的诉讼
■ SH must make application to court to obtain leave to bring the action and
show: SH 必须向法院提出申请，以获得提起诉讼的许可，并表明
● A) The directors are unwilling to bring the action; 董事不愿意提起
 诉讼
● B) That he is acting in good faith; and 他是善意行事的
● C) It appears to be in the interest of the corporation or the
shareholders that the action be brought 提起诉讼似乎符合公司或
股东的利益
■ Court can order the corporation to pay the costs of the shareholders in
bringing the action 法院可命令公司支付股东提起诉讼的费用
■ Should defendant lose, court may order any amount awarded be paid
directly to the shareholders, rather than the corporation 如果被告败诉，法
院可命令将判决的任何金额直接支付给股东，而不是公司

➢ Shareholder Agreements

○ An agreement between two or more shareholders that is distinct from the

corporation’s charter and by-laws 两名或多名股东之间达成的协议，有别于公司
章程和细则
○ Shareholder agreements can only apply to the parties in their capacity as
shareholders - it cannot fetter the discretion of a director 股东协议只能适用于作为
股东的各方--不能束缚董事的自由裁量权
○ Shareholder agreements may include such terms as: 股东协议可包括以下条款
■ Right to employment 雇佣权
■ Right to participate in management of the business 参与企业管理的权利
■ Right to a fair price for a share interest 股份权益获得公平价格的权利

3) Protecting Stakeholders:

➢ Creditors – Maintenance Test

○ No minimum investment required to start a corporation beyond the cost of
incorporating. 除注册成本外，开办公司不需要最低投资额
○ Lack of capital = inability to pay creditors particularly debts arising from tort or
breach of K 缺乏资本 = 无力偿还债权人的债务，特别是因侵权或违反《公司
法》而产生的债务
○ CBCA covers protection of creditors CBCA 涉及对债权人的保护
■ Share capital cannot be repaid by way of dividends or redemption of shares
if the transaction would render the corporation insolvent. 如果交易会导致
公司破产，则不能通过分红或赎回股份的方式偿还股本
■ Insolvency: Having liabilities in excess of the realizable value of one’s assets
or being unable to pay one’s dets as they fall due. 破产： 负债超过资产的
可变现价值或无力支付到期债务
● Where a payment of dividends or redemption of dividends is made
and causes an insolvency, then directors may be held personally
liable for the shortfall caused. 如果支付股息或赎回股息导致破产，
那么董事可能要对造成的亏空承担个人责任
○ Maintenance Test (CBCA s.42): Corporations cannot declare a dividend where: "维持
测试"（《公司法》第 42 条）： 在下列情况下，公司不得宣布股息
 ■ A) The corporation is, or would after the payment be, unable to pay the
liabilities as they become due; and 公司无力支付到期债务，或在支付后
无力支付到期债务；以及
■ B) If the realizable value of the corporation’s assets would thereby be less
than the aggregate of its liabilities AND its started capital of all classes. 如果
公司资产的可变现价值低于其负债和各类已启动资本的总和

➢ Investors – Securities Act

○ Securities Legislation: Securities Act, 证券立法： 证券法
■ Governed by Ontario Securities Commission 由安大略省证券委员会管理
○ Two Broad Goals:两大目标
■ Prevent and punish frauds; and;预防和惩罚欺诈行为；以及
■ Require full disclosure of financial information to prospective buyers of
shares and bonds.要求向股票和债券的潜在买家全面披露财务信息

➢ Environment – Environmental Protection Act – liability of directors

○ Environmental Offence: Environmental Protection Act, R.S.O. 1990 c. E.19 –
presumption of negligence that can be refuted. 可反驳的过失推定
■ Regulatory, not criminal, offence. 法规，而非刑事犯罪
○ Liability for Environmental Offences 环境犯罪的责任
■ Corporations must demonstrate:公司必须证明
■ Effective system to prevent offences is in place; 已建立防止违法行为的有
效系统
■ Regular monitoring of that system;定期监测该系统
■ Implement improvements wherever identified; and 对发现的问题进行改进
■ Keep up to date on technological and scientific advancements. 跟上科技进
步的步伐
○ Standard of care of Directors and Officers: 董事和高级职员的注意标准
■ Need for expertise when engaged in hazardous activities 从事危险活动时需
要专门知识
■ Held to the higher standard of the specialized skill and knowledge in the
area; or 遵守该领域专业技能和知识的较高标准；或
■ If no skill and knowledge - then failed to employ the necessary expertise. 如
果没有技能和知识，则未能采用必要的专业知识
○ Who should be held responsible 责任人
■ The actor who caused the environmental damage can be held personally
responsible; 造成环境损害的行为人可能要承担个人责任
■ The directors/officers can also be held personally liable if they acquiesced to
the hazard in questions 如果董事/官员默许有关危害，他们也应承担个人
责任

4) Pre-incorporation Contracts
➢ 14 (1) Subject to this section, a person who enters into, or purports to enter into, a written
contract in the name of or on behalf of a corporation before it comes into existence is
 personally bound by the contract and is entitled to its benefits.在不违反本条规定的情况下，
在公司成立之前以其名义或代表其签订书面合同的人，其本人受该合同的约束，并有
权享受该合同的利益

5) Criminal Liability
➢ Corporate Identity Doctrine
➢ Sentencing Principles

○ Denounce the wrongdoing;谴责不法行为

○ Protect the public;保护公众
○ Rehabilitate the offender (specific deterrence);使罪犯改过自新（特定威慑）
○ Deter others from committing the defence (general deterrence); 阻止他人实施辩护
行为（一般威慑）
○ Repair the harm done; and 弥补所造成的伤害
○ Promote public confidence.提高公众信心

世上安得两全法
不负如来不负卿

山无棱 天地合
乃敢与君绝
Employment Law (Chapter 18 – excluding collective bargaining / labour
disputes / trade unions).

1) Employee vs. Independent Contractor

Employment: Independent Contractor:
Degree of supervision & control over worker - Ownership of tools
- Duration of the K - Duration of the K
- Nature of the K - Nature of the K
- Intention at the time of K formation - Intention at the time of K formation

- Method of payment - Method of payment

 Benefits  Exclusivity

- Integration in the workplace - Risk in profit/loss

- Use of time & delivery of result

2) Torts of Employer:

➢ Vicarious Liability: Employer jointly liable for actions of employee. 连带责任: 雇主

对雇员的行为承担连带责任
➢ Negligent Hiring: Claim by customer/employee for negligently hiring someone else
(e.x. sexual harasser) 疏忽雇佣： 客户/雇员因疏忽雇用他人（如性骚扰者）而索
赔
○ Advantageous over vicarious liability 优于替代责任
➢ Wrongful Referral: negligently referring someone to a professional who is not
qualified. 错误介绍: 因疏忽而将某人介绍给不合格的专业人员
➢ Contract liability: Vicarious Performance 替代履行

3) Employee Duties:

➢ Duty to obey (insubordination)服从的义务（不服从命令）

➢ Duty to exercise skill and care 行使技能和谨慎的义务
➢ Duty of good faith and fidelity (while employed)诚信和忠实的义务（受雇期间）

4) Employer’s Duty:

➢ Duty to pay 付款义务

5) Termination of Employee: Notice / Lieu / For Cause, Reasonable Notice Period,

When/how can you dismiss for cause?

➢ By way of notice: 提前通知

○ Statutory and common law notice periods based on position and length of
employment (must be reasonable) 根据职位和雇用时间长短确定法定和
 普通法通知期限（必须合理）
○ Can provide payment in lieu of notice.可提供代通知金
○ NOTICE = TIME = $$
➢ How much notice is required? 需要多少通知？
○ Employment Standards Act, S.O. 2000 c. 41 – minimum requirements
○ Trade Practices – often suggest longer than the minimum as normal within
an industry 行业惯例 - 通常建议比最低要求更长的时间，这在行业内是
正常的
○ At common law - Reasonable notice 普通法 - 合理通知
➢ Factors for Determining Reasonable Notice Period 确定合理通知期的因素
○ Trade practice 行业惯例
○ Duration of employment 雇佣期限
○ Intention at time of K formation 公司成立时的意图
○ Frequency of pay 支付工资的频率
○ Level of position 职位级别

➢ Dismissal for Cause 因故解雇

○ No Notice Required for Dismissal for Cause 因故解雇无需通知
○ Dismissal for Cause: Dismissal without notice or further obligation by the
employer when the employee’s conduct amounts to a breach of the
contract 因故解雇： 当雇员的行为构成违约时，雇主无需通知或承担进
一步义务即可解雇雇员
○ When can you dismiss for cause? 什么情况下可以因故解雇
■ Misconduct: Crimes/Bad Behaviour 不当行为： 犯罪/不良行为
● Does not necessarily need to cause economic loss 不一定造
成经济损失
● Where reputation of employer is affected 影响雇主声誉
○ Other employees are affected 其他员工受到影响
○ Causes direct financial loss 造成直接经济损失
● Insubordination: Wilfully disobeying a reasonable and lawful
request from your superiors. 不服从命令 故意不服从上级
合理合法的要求

➢ When can you dismiss for cause? 什么情况下可以因故解雇？

○ Incompetence: 不称职
■ Is there an implied or express term? 有默示条款还是明示条款
■ Express: Resume or application or interview, where you say you
possess certain skills; 明示:简历或申请表或面试，你说你拥有某
些技能
■ Implied: Applying for a job that requires certain skills when you
don’t have them. 默示:在你不具备某些技能的情况下申请需要某
些技能的工作
○ Doctrine of Condonation (similar to estoppel): Condoning incompetence
makes claim for dismissal for incompetence difficult. 宽恕原则（类似于禁
止反言）： 纵容不称职行为会使因不称职而被解雇的索赔变得困难。
 ➢ How can you dismiss for cause? 如何因故解雇？
○ Employer should:雇主应：
■ (1) Need for warnings to employee – providing the opportunity for
the employee to improve their behavior 需要警告员工--为员工提
供改善其行为的机会
■ (2) Need to provide adequate training and assistance 需要提供适当
的培训和帮助
■ (3) Need to document activities of both employer and employee 需
要记录雇主和雇员的活动

6) Wrongful Dismissal

➢ Constructive Dismissal = wrongful dismissal 推定解雇=错误解雇

○ Wrongful Dismissal (Cause of Action): Where an employee claims they have
been wrongfully dismissed. 不正当解雇（诉讼原因）： 雇员声称自己被
错误解雇
○ Employer’s Defences: 雇主的抗辩
○ (1) Dismissed for cause; or 因故解雇；或
○ (2) Dismissed and adequate notice (or payment in lieu of) provided.
被解雇并提供了足够的通知（或代替通知的付款）
○ Even if cause is discovered after dismissal, this can be used as
defence.即使在解雇后才发现原因，也可作为抗辩理由
➢ Mitigation
○ Contract law requirement to act reasonably to reduce losses 合同法要求采
取合理行动减少损失
○ Must try to obtain reasonably comparable employment 必须努力获得合理
的可比工作
○ Court will reduce damages award if there is a failure to mitigate 如果未能减
轻损失，法院将减少损害赔偿
○ If a plaintiff (employee) successfully mitigates, they receive the difference
between Notice requirement and actual income paid during the notice
period as damages, and any costs associated with mitigation.如果原告（雇
员）成功减轻损失，他们将获得通知要求与通知期间实际收入之间的差
额作为损害赔偿，以及与减轻损失相关的任何费用

➢ Punitive damages / mental anguish

○ Courts generally do not consider hurt feelings 法院一般不考虑感情伤害
○ Recognition over time that while employment contracts are economic in
nature, there is decidedly a human element as well 随着时间的推移，人们
逐渐认识到，虽然雇佣合同在本质上是经济性的，但其中也有明显的人
文因素
○ Problems of trying to assess intangibles such as “pain and suffering” and
“humiliation”试图评估 "疼痛和痛苦 "以及 "羞辱 "等无形资产的问题
 ➢ Reinstatement

Agency & Franchising (Chapter 17)

1) Creating an Agency Relationship: Two contracts
➢ Agency
○ Agent: a Person acting for another person in forming contractual relations
with third parties 代理人：代表另一个人与第三方形成合同关系的人
○ e.g. life insurance agent is the agent between individual and the insurance
company, hockey agent, travel agent, real estate agent is not a agent
○ Terminology: The agent acts on behalf of the principal to bring third parties
into a contractual relationship with the principal 术语:代理人代表委托人行
事，使第三方与委托人建立合同关系

➢ Agency Agreement 代理协议

○ Agency Agreement: The K between principal and agent whereby the agent
undertakes to act on behalf of the principal 代理协议： 委托人和代理人之
间的协议，代理人据此承诺代表委托人行事
■ Normal rules of contract formation apply 适用正常的合同订立规则
■ Statute of Frauds: If greater than 1-year, then must be in writing to
comply with Statute of Frauds 欺诈法： 如果超过 1 年，则必须以
书面形式，以符合《反欺诈法》的规定
■ Should set out limits of agent’s authority. 应规定代理人的权力限
制

2) Apparent / Ostensible Authority 表面上的权力

➢ Authority that is not real, but is acquired from a past manner of transacting business
or from trade custom 权力不是真实的，而是从过去的交易方式或贸易习惯中获
得的
➢ Test for Apparent Authority:表象权力的测试
○ Should the 3rd Party have been aware of the agent’s lack of authority or at
least been suspicious? Or is it reasonable to assume from the type of
business that the agent is engaged in, that the agent had the authority in
question? 第三方应该知道代理人缺乏权力，或者至少是怀疑？或者从
代理人所从事的业务类型来看，是否可以合理地认为代理人拥有相关的
权力？
➢ If the Agent had apparent or ostensible authority, then the principal is bound by the
contract even if the agent exceeded his/her authority or did not have authority.
如果代理人有明显的或表面的权力，那么即使代理人超越了他/她的权力或没有
权力，委托人也受合同约束
○ Otherwise you would always need to do due diligence on an agent’s
authority before entering a business transaction with them.
否则，在与代理人进行商业交易之前，你总是需要对代理人的权力进行
尽职调查
➢ Ratification： process of confirming the terms of the contract.
批准： 确认合同条款的过程
○ Where an agent exceeds his/her authority, and principle of apparent
authority does not apply, then principal may still ratify the contract 如果代
 理人超越了他/她的权限，并且表面上的权限原则不适用，那么委托人
仍然可以批准合同
○ Subsequent adoption by the proposed principal of a K made by an agent
acting without authority 拟委托人随后采用无权行事的代理人所做的 K
■ Must be timely 必须是及时的
■ Must be of entire K 必须是整个 K 的内容
■ Can be by conduct 可以是通过行为
■ Principal must have been capable of entering K at time of formation
形成时，委托人必须有能力签订 K 合同
■ Principal must be ascertainable at time of K formation
在形成 K 的时候，委托人必须是可以确定的

3) Duties of Agent to Principal Duty of Care / Good Faith

➢ Duty of Care: to show the duty of care of a reasonable agent in similar circumstance
谨慎的责任: 表明一个合理的代理人在类似情况下的谨慎责任
➢ Good Faith: a fiduciary duty to act in best interest of the principal.
善意: 为委托人的最佳利益行事的信托责任

4) Duties of Principal to Agent: Duty to comply with K / Pay

➢ Remuneration:报酬

○ Obligation to pay as per K or as per reasonable fees of industry 有义务按照

K 线或行业的合理费用进行支付
○ Often paid on a commission basis – when the agent has brought the
prospective client who is “ready, willing and able” to close the deal; or;通常
以佣金方式支付--当代理人带来了 "准备好、愿意并能够 "完成交易的潜
在客户；或者
○ Upon closing of the sale 销售结束后

➢ Expenses:
○ Implied term that principal will cover the reasonable expenses of the agent
when acting in his/her real authority 隐含条款：委托人将支付代理人在他
/她的真实权限内行事时的合理费用
○ No obligation to pay for unauthorized acts unless ratified
除非得到批准, 否则没有义务为未经授权的行为付费

➢ XXXXXXXXXXX

5) Rights and Liabilities of Principal and Agent to Third Parties

➢ When is Principal only liable? Agent? Both?

 ○ Agent alone is liable: 代理人单独承担责任：
■ Where agent represents him/herself to be the principal 当代理人代表自己
是委托人时
■ Under these circumstances the principal has no rights or liabilities under the
K 在这种情况下，委托人没有权利或责任
○ Either the Principal or the Agent is liable:
委托人或代理人都要承担责任：
■ Where agent did not disclose status as an agent – third party can sue either
the agent or the principal but not both 如果代理人没有披露其代理人身
份--第三方可以起诉代理人或委托人，但不能同时起诉
■ If agent is sued successfully by 3rd party then principal has no liability 如果
代理人被第三方成功起诉，那么委托人就没有责任
■ If existence of principal becomes apparent during court proceedings, 3rd
party can have the action discontinued against the agent and brought
against principal instead
如果在法庭诉讼过程中，委托人的存在变得明显，第三方可以停止对代
理人的诉讼，而对委托人提起诉讼

➢ Undisclosed Principal

○ Right to enforce the contract against 3rd party where,

在以下情况下，有权对第三方强制执行合同
■ s/he can show that the K was made with his authority
他/她能证明 K 是在他的授权下做出的
■ The authority must be real and not apparent
该授权必须是真实的，而不是表面的
■ EXCEPTION: the undisclosed principal cannot enforce a K that is essentially
personal in nature
例外：未披露的委托人不能执行本质上属于个人性质的 K 线
○ Third party cannot hold undisclosed principal liable in a situation where the agent
acted without real authority;
在代理人没有真正授权的情况下，第三方不能要求未披露的委托人承担责任

➢ Liability for Torts – Joint/Several

○ Principal is jointly and severally liable for torts committed by agent within real or
apparent authority
委托人对代理人在实际或表面授权范围内实施的侵权行为负有连带责任
○ Examples:
Fraudulent Misrepresentation (Deceit) – 3rd party has right to:
欺诈性失实陈述（欺骗）--第三方有权
■ Rescind K 撤销 K
■ Sue both agent and principal for tort of deceit
以欺骗的侵权行为起诉代理人和委托人
 ○ Principal will have right against agent for the deceit
委托人有权就欺骗行为起诉代理人
○ Agent can also be held liable for negligent misrepresentation
代理人也可以为疏忽的虚假陈述负责

6) Breach of Warranty of Authority 违反权力保证的行为

➢ Warranty of Authority: Where a person falsely represents that she has authority to
contract on behalf of the principal. 权力保证： 一个人虚假地表示她有权代表委
托人签订合同
➢ Can be innocent (principal died or lost capacity) or fraudulent 可以是无辜的（委托
人死亡或丧失能力）或欺诈性的
➢ No contact is form and third party can bring an action against agent for breach of
warranty of authority 没有接触的形式，第三方可以对代理人提出违反授权保证
的诉讼
➢ Purpose: put parties back in the position they would have been had the
misrepresentation not occurred 目的：让当事人回到没有发生错误陈述时的状态
➢ Third party has the right to sue for Breach of Warranty of Authority where: 第三方
有权在以下情况下起诉违反授权保证
○ Agent has no real or apparent authority (and no ratification by principal) –
there is no contract 代理人没有实际或表面的权力(也没有得到委托人的
批准)-没有合 yue
➢ Third party will have an action in deceit against a fraudulent agent – there is no
contract 第三方将对欺诈性的代理人提起欺骗诉讼-没有合同
➢ Third party will have an action in negligent misrepresentation where agent
negligently misrepresents his/her authority – there is no contract 第三方将对代理
人因疏忽而歪曲其权力的行为提起诉讼-没有合同
➢ If agent innocently exceeds authority – i.e. contracts without knowing that principal
has died, become insane or bankrupt – there is no contract
如果代理人无辜地超越了权限-即在不知道委托人已经死亡、精神错乱或破产的
情况下签订合同-则没有合同

7) Terminating Agency Relationship 终止代理关系

End of K / Completion of P / Notice / Death / Bankrupt / Impossibility

➢ Agents authority is terminated when:代理权在下列情况下终止

○ At the end of a time specified in the agency K 在代理合同规定的时间结束

时
○ At completion of the particular project 特定项目完成时
○ Upon notice by either party 任何一方通知
○ Upon death or insanity of either principal or agent 委托人或代理人死亡或
精神失常时
○ Upon bankruptcy of principal 委托人破产
 ○ Upon an event that makes performance of the agency agreement impossible
代理协议无法履行时

8) Franchise Law:

➢ Franchisor/Franchisee
○ Franchisor (e.x. McDonalds) and Franchisee (e.x. person who owns
McDonalds franchise and runs the store) 特许人（如：麦当劳）和被特许
人（如：拥有麦当劳特许经营权并经营店铺的个人）
○ Relationship is contractual in nature 合同关系
○ This is not a fiduciary relationship, but there is a duty of good faith between
the parties (i.e. must be open, honest and not misleading). 这不是信托关系，
但双方之间有诚信义务（即必须公开、诚实和不误导）

➢ Arthur Wishart Act – Disclosure / Fair Dealing / Right to Associate

○ Arthur Wishart Act - governs franchise agreements/relationships 管辖特许
经营协议/关系
○ Right to Disclosure: Franchisor must provide franchisee 信息披露权： 特许
人必须向被特许人提供
○ Fair Dealing: duty of good faith. 公平交易：诚信义务
○ Right to Associate: right to join an association of other franchisees (like a
Union) 结盟权：有权加入其他特许经营者的协会（如工会）
Business Organizations (Chapters 24/25)

1）Sole Proprietorship: Business Names Act

➢ Unincorporated business owned by a single individual 由一个人拥有的非法人企业

➢ Individual is sued in his/her own name 个人以自己的名义被起诉
➢ Income is earned as business income in his/her own name and taxed at the
individual level. 以个人名义赚取商业收入，并按个人水平纳税
➢ Usually operate in the name of the individual 通常以个人名义经营
➢ Can register a business name under the Business Names Act if it’s not the actual
name of the owner. 可以根据《企业名称法》注册企业名称，即使该名称不是所
有人的真实姓名
○ Advantages: simple + no registration 优点：简单 + 无需注册
○ Disadvantages: Taxation + liability 缺点： 税收 + 责任

2）Partnership

➢ How is it created (3 requirements) / Terminated

○ Partnership is automatically created if: two or more people are carrying on a

(1) business (2) in common (3) with a view of profit. 两个或两个以上的人
共同经营 (1) 业务 (2)并以盈利为目的 (3) .
○ However, in more formal business settings, there is usually a partnership
agreement to set out the terms of the partnership. 然而，在更正式的商业
环境中，通常会有一份合伙协议来规定合伙关系的条款

➢ Legal Nature 合伙关系的法律性质

○ Partnership has no independent existence and merely represents the

collective rights and duties of all the partners. 合伙企业没有独立的存在，
仅代表所有合伙人的集体权利和义务
○ Every time a partner dies or a new one is added, then the partnership is
dissolved and a new partnership is created. 每当一个合伙人死亡或新合伙
人加入，合伙关系就会解散，新的合伙关系就会产生
○ Nonetheless, partnerships can own property distinct from the property of
the individual partners. Individual partners just have an interest in the
property. 然而, 合伙企业可以拥有不同于单个合伙人财产的财产。单个
合伙人只是拥有财产的权益

➢ Liability – Contracts / Torts

○ Contractual Liabilities of Partners: Every partner is jointly liable for the

obligations of the partnership. This is based on principles of agency and
privity of contract.合伙人的合同责任： 每个合伙人都对合伙企业的义务
承担连带责任。这是基于代理原则和合同关系原则
 ■ Pre-partner liability: A new partner does not become liable for the
previous actions of the partnership. 合伙人之前的责任： 新合伙人
不对合伙企业以前的行为负责
■ Post-partner liability: A partner who retires from a firm does not
cease to be liable for partnership debts or obligations incurred
before the retirement. 合伙人离职后的责任： 从公司退休的合伙
人并不停止对退休前产生的合伙债务或义务承担责任
■ Apparent partner: Similar to ostensible/apparent authority in
agency – they will be liable as if they were partners of the firm. 表面
合伙人： 与代理中的表面/表面权力类似--他们将像公司合伙人
一样承担责任
■ Applies equally to retired partners whose name still appears on the
firm. 同样适用于名字仍在公司上的退休合伙人

○ Tort liability / Breach of Trust: the firm is liable for “any wrongful act or
omission of any partner acting in the ordinary ourse of the business of the
firm”. 侵权责任/失信行为：公司对 "任何合伙人在公司日常业务中的任
何错误行为或不行为 "负责.
■ Therefore, the firm, including all the partners, are jointly liable for
injuries or damages caused by a partner doing the firm’s business.
因此，公司（包括所有合伙人）对合伙人在从事公司业务时造
成的伤害或损害负有连带责任

➢ Implied Terms of Partnership Agreement

○ A. Partnership Property: The Act provides that all property and rights and
interests in property originally brought into the partnership stock or
acquired…are called partnership property and must be held and applied by
the partners exclusively for the purpose of the partnership. 合伙企业财产：
合伙企业法规定，最初加入合伙企业股份或获得的所有财产、权利和
利益......均称为合伙企业财产，必须由合伙人专门为合伙企业的目的而
持有和使用。
○ B. Financial Arrangements: The Act provides: 财务安排： 该法规定:
■ 1. All partners entitled to share equally in the capital and profits of
the business and must contribute equally towards the losses; 所有
合伙人有权平等分享企业的资本和利润，并必须平等分担损失
■ 2. If a partner incurs expenses or liabilities, the partnership must
indemnify him/her; 如果合伙人承担费用或债务，合伙企业必须
对其进行赔偿
■ 3. A partner is not entitled, before determination of profits, to
interest on the capital. 在确定利润之前，合伙人无权获得资本利
息
■ 4. No partner is entitled to remuneration. 合伙人无权获得报酬
○ C. Conduct of the Business: The Act provides: 业务的开展： 该法规定:
■ 1. Every partner may take part in the management of the
partnership business; 每个合伙人都可以参与合伙企业的管理
 ■ 2. Any difference arising as to ordinary matters connected with the
partnership business may be decided by a majority of the partners;
no change may be made in the nature of the partnership business
without the consent of all partners. 与合伙业务有关的普通事项上
出现的任何分歧均可由多数合伙人决定；未经全体合伙人同意，
不得改变合伙业务的性质
■ 3. Partnership books and records are kept at the place of business of
the partnership. 合伙账簿和记录保存在合伙企业的营业地
○ D. Membership: The Act provides: 成员： 该法规定:
■ 1. Can only introduce a new partner with consent of all existing
partners; 只有在所有现有合伙人同意的情况下才能引入新合伙
人
■ 2. You can’t assign your share in the partnthe ership 不得转让合伙
份额

➢ Fiduciary Duties: Cannot be altered by partnership agreement 受托责任：

合伙协议不得更改

○ A. Information: Partners must render true accounts and full information of

all things affecting the partnership. 信息： 合伙人必须提供影响合伙关系
的所有事项的真实账目和全部信息
○ B. Secret Benefits: Every partner must account to the firm for any benefit
derived by him/her without the consent of the other partners from any
transaction concerning the partnerships 秘密利益： 每位合伙人必须向公
司说明其未经公司同意未经其他合伙人同意从与合伙企业有关的任何交
易中获得的任何利益
○ C. Duty not to compete: Must account for any breach. 不竞争义务： 必须
对任何违反行为负责

➢ General Partnership / LP / LLP

○ Limited Partnerships (LP): Limited Partnership Act 有限合伙企业 (LP)： 有

限合伙企业法
■ General Partner: unlimited personal liability 普通合伙人：无限个
人责任
■ Limited Partners: liability limited to amount invested (like a
shareholder). 有限合伙人：责任仅限于投资金额（类似股东）
● Limited partners cannot take part in the active management
of the partnership. 有限合伙人不能参与合伙企业的积极
管理
○ Limited Liability Partnership (LLP): Individual partners remain liable for
their own negligent actions, but the non-negligent partners are not
personally liable for losses caused by the negligence of another partner.
有限责任合伙企业 (LLP)：单个合伙人仍对自己的过失行为负责，但无
过失的合伙人不对其他合伙人的过失造成的损失承担个人责任
 ■ Nothing changes for other torts or contractual liability.
其他侵权行为或合同责任不变
3) Joint Ventures / Income Trusts 合资企业/收益信托

➢ Joint venture: agreement between two or more parties to collaborate on the

management of a specific project, to share the work and share the profits. 合资企业：
两方或多方之间就合作管理某一具体项目、分担工作和分享利润达成的协议
○ It is contractual in nature
它具有合同性质
○ Equity Joint Venture: corporation formed, and jointly owned, by the parties
to the joint venture for the purpose of carrying on the venture.
股权合资企业：合资企业各方为开展合资企业而成立并共同拥有的公司
➢ Income Trusts: transfer of income-producing assets from an operating company to a
trust. 收益信托：将创收资产从运营公司转移到信托机构
○ Declaration of trust 信托声明
○ Unitholders: beneficiary of the trust. 单位持有人：信托受益人
○ Used to predominantly be used for tax strategies (more difficult now).
过去主要用于税务策略（现在比较困难）

4) Corporation:

➢ A separate legal entity formed by the act of incorporation in accordance to a

prescribed legal procedure (OBCA/CBCA) 根据规定的法律程序 (OBCA/CBCA)成立
的独立法律实体

➢ Unique Attributes
○ Limited liability of shareholders. 股东的有限责任
○ Transfer of Ownership (can sell shares, but often limited) 所有权转让（可
出售股份，但通常有限）
○ Separation of management and control 管理与控制分离
○ No duty of good faith for shareholders 股东无诚信义务
○ Continuity 连续性
○ Taxation 税收

➢ Private vs. Public

○ Private Companies: corporations with a restricted number of shareholders
prohibited from issuing their shares to the general public.
私营公司：股东人数有限，不得向公众发行股票的公司
○ Distributing Corporation: A corporation that issues its securities to the
public; also referred to as an issuing corporation or reporting issuer.
发行公司： 向公众发行证券的公司；也称为发行公司或报告发行人
○ Professional Corporations: Some professions (lawyers/doctors) allow for
professional corporations – don’t have same limited liability.
专业公司：某些职业（律师/医生）允许成立专业公司--没有相同的有限
责任
Secured Transactions (Chapter 28 – less security for bank loans)

1) Bailment
Duty of Care
Contract/No Contract

2) What is a secured transaction: Personal Property vs. Real Property

➢ Definition: Generally, a loan (or credit) whereby the lender acquires a “security”
interest in collateral owned by the borrower and is entitled to foreclose on or
repossess the collateral in the event of the borrower’s default. 一般而言，贷款人
取得借款人所拥有的抵押品的 "担保 "权益，并有权在借款人违约时取消抵押品
的赎回权或收回抵押品的贷款（或信贷)
➢ Personal Property: 个人财产 Pretty much anything that is not “real property” (i.e.
land/homes) 几乎所有非 "不动产"（即土地/房屋）的物品
➢ Real Property: 不动产 land and anything permanently affixed to it (fixtures)

3) Rights of a Secured Creditor: General Creditor vs. Judgment Creditor vs. Secured
Creditor

➢ General creditor has no security, or right to seize, any of the debtor’s assets.
➢ Judgement creditor has obtained a judgment and may obtain an execution order or
writ authorizing seizure and sale of certain assets.
➢ Secured creditor has the right to take possession of and sell specified assets in
satisfaction of a debt

4) Creating a Security Interest

➢ Created by agreement between the parties: 通过当事人之间的协议设定

5) Various Types of Security Contracts: Conditional Sales Contract/Chattel Mortgage/

Floating Charges

➢ Conditional Sales Contracts 有条件销售合同:

○ Sale is agreed to but the transfer is delayed uthe ntil buyer completes
scheduled payment 同意销售，但延迟转让，直至买方完成预定付款
○ Debtor in possession of the good, but ownership remains with the creditor.
债务人占有货物，但所有权仍属于债权人
○ Creditor has right to repossess the goods upon default. 债权人有权在买方
违约时收回货物
○ Creditor has right to sue for the balance outstanding after resale of goods
债权人有权就货物转售后的未清余额提起诉讼
○ Conditional sales contracts often sold or assigned to third parties 有条件销
售合同通常出售或转让给第三方

➢ Chattel Mortgages 动产抵押:

 ○ A mortgage on personal, as opposed to real property 个人而非不动产抵押
○ Parties: Mortgagor (debtor) and Mortgagee (creditor) 当事人： 抵押人
（债务人）和抵押权人（债权人）
○ Arises in two ways:产生方式有两种
● Mortgagor purchases property and vendor “takes back” a
mortgage;or 抵押人购买财产，卖方 "收回 "抵押权；或
● Mortgagor already owns property and gives mortgage against it to
secure a debt. 抵押人已拥有财产，并以该财产为抵押担保债务
○ Example: Equipment in Building: 举例说明： 建筑物中的设备
● Mortgagee can hold 2 mortgages: 抵押人可以持有两个抵押权
■ Traditional mortgage on the land/building and its fixtures;
土地/建筑物及其固定装置的传统抵押
■ Chattel mortgage on the equipment in the building. 建筑物
内设备的动产抵押
○ After-acquired property: (i.e. property that is not in existence at the time the
mortgage is created) 事后获得的财产：即抵押设立时尚未存在的财产
● Often used in inventory in a business (always changing); 通常用于企
业库存（不断变化）
● Does not transfer title to specific goods to the creditor, allowing
purchasers to obtain good title in ordinary course of business. 不将
特定货物的所有权转移给债权人，允许购买者在正常经营过程
中获得良好的所有权
● Creditor holds a suspended priority over other creditors. 债权人拥
有相对于其他债权人的中止优先权

➢ Floating Charges 浮动抵押

○ A form of a mortgage on all of the assets of a corporation other than those
already specifically charged. 除已明确抵押的资产外，公司所有资产的一
种抵押形式。

6) PPSA: Creation / Attachment / Perfection/ 2 Ways to perfect

➢ Creation of security Interest: Agreement between the parties；

设定担保权益： 当事人之间达成协议
➢ Attachment of a Security Interest: The moment in time when a debtor’s property
becomes subject to a security interest;
担保权益的附加： 债务人的财产成为担保权益标的物的时刻
➢ Perfection of the Security Interest: The moment in time when a cresitor’s security
interest becomes protected.
担保权益的完善： 债权人的担保权益受到保护的时刻
○ Perfection can occur in two ways:完善可通过两种方式发生
○ a) Where the secured party takes possession of the assets (e.g. bailment;
pledge); or 有担保方占有资产（如保释、质押）; 或
○ b) Once registration under the PPSA is complete. 根据《私人物品保护法》
完成登记

7) Priority/Competing Interests: Time of Perfection / Effects on third parties

➢ Timing of Perfection: First to register/perfect gains priority; 完善的时间： 先登记/

完善者获得优先权
 ○ Special priority for Purchase Money Security Interest (PMSI): the interest
that arises when assets purchased by a debtor are charged as security for a
loan to enable acquisition of those specific assets. It is given special priority
above other perfected security interests.
购货款担保权益（PMSI）的特别优先权：债务人购买的资产作为贷款
担保而产生的权益，以便能够购买这些特定资产。它被赋予高于其他完
善担保权益的特殊优先权

○ Is required to get around “after acquired property” or floating charge

security interests that may stall a business from being able to finance new
purchases.
需要用它来规避 "购置后财产 "或浮动抵押担保权益，这些担保权益可
能会阻 碍企业为新购置的资产提供融资

➢ Effects on third-parties:

○ There is a separation of possession and ownership, which may mislead

third-party and subsequent purchasers: Therefore, PPSA requires all security
interests in goods left in the possession of a debtor to be perfected by
registration – so you can look it up before you purchase it to see if there is a
charge on the asset. 占有权和所有权是分离的，这可能会误导第三方和
后续购买者： 因此，PPSA 规定，债务人占有的货物上的所有担保权益
都必须通过登记来完善--这样你就可以在购买之前进行查询，看看资产
上是否有押记。

○ Effect of registration: A properly registered security interest can give priority

against innocent third-parties, since they have now been deemed to have
notice of the charge.
登记的效力： 正确登记的担保权益可优先于无辜的第三方，因为他们
现在已被视为已收到押记通知。

○ Exceptions for Good Faith Purchasers: 善意购买者的例外情况

■ Some provinces exempt good faith purchases of small value goods
(e.x. <$1000); 一些省份对善意购买小价值货物（如小于 1000 美
元）的行为予以豁免
■ Goods sold or leases in the normal course of business. 在正常经营
过程中出售或租赁的货物
Contracts – Privity and the Assignment of contractual rights, discharge of
contract and remedies for Breach (Chapters 11, 12 & 13) Note: implications of
breach pages 275 – 281 not covered

1) Interpretation of contracts Liberal vs Plain meaning approach / Parole

evidence rule/ Implied terms / Assignment of contractual rights
➢ Plain Meaning vs. Liberal Approach
○ Sattva is now the leading case in Canada.
○ Court begins with normal meaning of words. 法院从词语的正常含义开始
○ Court will then consider “trade usages” and local customs.然后，法院将考
虑 "贸易惯例 "和当地习俗
○ Courts consider the “factual matrix” or surrounding circumstances.法院考虑
"事实矩阵 "或周围情况
➢ Parole Evidence rule (now almost non-existent after Sattva) 假设证据规则
○ Courts will make every effort to enforce the contract.

➢ Assignment of Contractual Rights

○ A person outside the contract, who did not agree to its items, should not
have rights or duties under it.
○ Assignment: Transfer by a party of its rights under a contract to a third
party. 转让： 一方当事人将其在合同下的权利转让给第三方
○ The right to enforce a contract has an independent value from the price of
the contract itself. 执行合同的权利具有独立于合同本身价格的价值
○ This intangible right to “enforce the contract” is what is transferred when
the contract is assigned, and it is known as a chose in action 这种 "执行合同
"的无形权利在合同转让时被转让，它被称为诉讼选择权
○ In comparison to a chose in action, tangible goods are referred to as choses
in possession. 与诉讼选择相比，有形商品被称为占有物
○ Only rights or benefits can be assigned not contractual obligations or
liabilities. 只有权利或利益可以转让，而不是合同义务或责任
○

2) Discharge of a Contract
➢ Discharge a contract is cancel or end the obligation of a contract: make an
agreement or contract inoperative
➢ Agreement
○ Parties may discharge their contract by agreeing between themselves not to
perform.
○ If neither party has fully performed when they agree to call of the bargain,
there is automatically consideration for the waiver of each party.
○ Each still has rights and obligations outstanding, and a promise by one party
to waive its rights is sufficient consideration for it being released from its
obligations to the other
 ➢ Performance
○ Their contract ends after they have both performed all their respective
obligations satisfactorily.
○ For a contract to be filly discharges bt performance, both parties must fulfill
all their promises,
➢ Frustration
○ Courts excuse or discharge parties for failure to perfor their contracts, when
the contracts is silent, if unforeseeable circumstances beyond the control of
the parties make performance impossible, pointless, or radically different
from that intended by the parties.
○ Self-induced frustration: a party willfully disables itself from performing a
contract i order to claim that the contract has been frustrated
○
➢ Operation of the law
○ Assignments by Operation of Law 通过法律运作进行的转让
○ Examples: Death Bankruptcy
➢ Breach

3) Remedies
➢ Damages / Equitable Remedies Quantum Meruit
○ Equitable Remedies: reasons for the intervention fo equity, the inadequacy
of the common law damages led to the development fo special equitable
remedies, such as specific performance.
○ Quantum Meruit: the fair amount a person deserves to be paid for benefit
conferred, may also be claimed when a serious breach occurs, and the non-
breach party has partially performed his obligations.

➢ Mitigation / Betterment
○ Contract law requirement to act reasonably to reduce losses 合同法要求采
取合理行动减少损失
○ Must try to obtain reasonably comparable employment 必须努力获得合理
的可比工作
○ Court will reduce damages award if there is a failure to mitigate 如果未能减
轻损失，法院将减少损害赔偿
○ If a plaintiff (employee) successfully mitigates, they receive the difference
between Notice requirement and actual income paid during the notice
period as damages, and any costs associated with mitigation.如果原告（雇
员）成功减轻损失，他们将获得通知要求与通知期间实际收入之间的差
额作为损害赔偿，以及与减轻损失相关的任何费用
➢ Cost of Performance vs. Economic Loss
○ Difficulty in deciding on the appreciate standards for measuring damages in
circumstances that fall outside traditional categories of economic loss.
4) Enforcing a Judgment
Steps to take to enforce a judgment
Execution / Garnishment / Examination
E-Commerce (Chapter 31)

1) Web-Wrap Agreements

➢ A website document setting out contractual terms, the acceptance of which is

indicated by “clicking” on the appropriate icon. 网站文件列出合同条款, 点击 "相
应图标即表示接受

2) Contract Issues: Proper law of the contract / Statute of Frauds still Applies

➢ Jurisdiction:
○ Timing of acceptance - where does acceptance occur?

○ Proper law of the contract.

○ Can address these issues with a web-wrap agreement.

➢ Formal Requirements:
○ Statute of Frauds still applies

○ Electronic signatures are sufficient (even e-mail signatures may be

sufficient)
○ Electronic document meets “writing” requirement

3) Tort Issues: Negligence/Defamation/IP

➢ Unique negligence issues: 独特的疏忽问题

○ Malfunctions in computers, servers, or software can be the result of
negligence and can cause huge effects.
➢ Defamation:诽谤
○ Publishing something online is considered “in writing” so would be libel if it
were false.
➢ Intellectual Property Issues:知识产权问题
○ Copyright vs. Patents vs. Trademark

4) Intellectual Property: Copyright vs. Trademark vs. Patent

➢ Copyright: Right to “copy” a literary or artistic work (includes software)

 版权： "复制 "文学或艺术作品（包括软件）的权利
○ Lasts for the life of the author + 50 years 有效期为作者有生之年+50 年
○ Publishing work on the internet does not make the work “public domain”在
互联网上发表作品不会使作品成为 "公有领域 "作品
○ “Fair Dealing” defence – reproduction for the purpose of criticism or private
study, but need to cite author. 公平交易 "辩护--为批评或私人研究目的复
制，但需注明作者
○ Is automatically created when the works are created.作品创作时自动产生
○ Trademark: a word (or words), a design, or a combination of these, used to
identify the goods or services or brand of a person or organization.商标：用
于识别个人或组织的商品或服务或品牌的文字（或词语）、图案或其组
合
○ Must register trademark: Good for 15 years and renewable every 15 years.
必须注册商标： 有效期 15 年，每 15 年可续展一次
○ “Passing Off”: The tort for breaching trademark – can become an issue
online. "假冒"： 违反商标的侵权行为--在网上可能成为问题
○ Domain names: Cybersquatting. 域名:域名抢注

➢ Trademark: a word (or words), a design, or a combination of these, used to identify

the goods or services or brand of a person or organization.商标：用于识别个人或
组织的商品或服务或品牌的文字（或词语）、图案或其组合
○ Must register trademark: Good for 15 years and renewable every 15 years.
必须注册商标： 有效期 15 年，每 15 年可续展一次
○ “Passing Off”: The tort for breaching trademark – can become an issue
online. "假冒"： 违反商标的侵权行为--在网上可能成为问题
○ Domain names: Cybersquatting. 域名:域名抢注

➢ Patents: Exclusive right to invention for 20 years; 专利：20 年的发明专有权

○ Inventor must make the invention available to the public, by filing a
description so that it can be duplicated once the patent expires.发明人必须
通过提交说明向公众提供发明，以便专利到期后可以复制
○ Must “file the patent” – they are approved as long as requirements are met,
then people can challenge them as unenforceable. 必须 "申请专利" - 只要
符合要求就能获得批准，然后人们可以质疑其不可执行
○ Business methods are palatable 商业方法可申请专利

○ Patents can’t be on “ideas”, they must be novel, useful, ingenious. Must have
sufficient proof at priority date.专利不能是 "想法"，必须新颖、有用、巧
妙。在优先权日必须有充分的证据

5) Proper Law of the Contract: Conflict of laws analysis – surrounding circumstances /

system of law that is most closely connected.

➢ Law is slow to change: accordingly, we generally apply old laws to the new systems
and try to make them fit – making small changes to ensure it still makes sense.法律
的变化是缓慢的：因此，我们通常将旧的法律应用到新的系统中，并努力使其
与之相适应 - 做一些小的改动，以确保其仍然有意义
 ➢ Contract law raises unique issues – how do you make an offer on-line? When, where
and how is the offer accepted? Can an on-line offer be revoked? 合同法提出了一些
独特的问题--如何在线发价？何时、何地以及如何接受要 约？在线要约可以
撤销吗？

6) Jurisdiction: Traditional factors / “Real and Substantial Connection” test / Forum

Non-Conveniens

➢ Courts will take jurisdiction over a matter if: 在以下情况下，法院将对某一事项行

使管辖权
○ (1) Traditional Factors: Defendant’s presence in the jurisdiction or consent
to submit to the court’s jurisdiction. 传统因素： 被告在司法管辖区内或同
意接受法院管辖
○ (2) There is a “Real and Substantial Connection” to the Jurisdiction: 与司法
管辖区有 "真实和实质性联系"
○ Presumptive connecting factors:
● The Defendant is domiciled or resident in the province; 被告在该省
有住所或居住
● The defendant carries on business in the province; 被告在该省经营
业务
● The tort was committed in the province; or 侵权行为发生在本省；
或
● A contract connected with the dispute was made in the province. 与
争议有关的合同是在该省签订的

○ (3) Forum Non-Conveniens: Even if the court has jurisdiction over the
matter, it can decline to exercise its jurisdiction if another jurisdiction would
be clearly more convenient or appropriate. 不方便法院：即使法院对案件
有管辖权，但如果另一司法管辖区显然更方便或更合适，法院也可以拒
绝行使其管辖权。

7) Privacy / Anti-SPAM: When can you collect / store / use private information? When
can you send an advertising e-mail under CASL?

➢ Privacy: Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act, S.C. 2000 c.
5 隐私权： 个人信息保护和电子文件法
➢ Canadian Anti-Spam Legislation (“CASL”): CASL was created in 2014 to reinforce
best practices in email marketing and combat spam and related issues. 加拿大反垃
圾邮件法（"CASL"）： CASL 于 2014 年制定，旨在加强电子邮件营销的最佳实
践，打击垃圾邮件及相关问题
➢ CASL Consent: Implied Consent will usually be due to an “existing business
relationship”, which includes:
CASL 同意： 默示同意通常是由于 "现有业务关系"，其中包括:
○ The purchase or lease of a product, good or service within the two-year
period immediately before the day on which the message is sent. 在发送信
息之日前两年内购买或租赁产品、商品或服务
○ Acceptance of a business, investment or gaming opportunity within the time
frame of (1), above. 在上述第（1）项的时间范围内接受商业、投资或游
戏机会
○ Bartering of anything mentioned in (1); 第（1）项中提及的任何交易
○ Written contract entered between the parties that is currently in existence
 or expired during the time period in (1) 在第(1)条规定的时限内，当事人
之间签订的书面合同目前有效或已经过期
○ Inquiry or application within six-month period immediately before the day
on which the message is sent. 在信息发送之日前六个月内提出的询问或
申请