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Chapter 4

Velocity analysis

Introduction

 The objective of velocity analysis is to determine the seismic velocities of layers in

the subsurface.

 Seismic velocities are used in many processing and interpretation stages such as:

 Spherical divergence correction

 NMO correction and stacking

 Interval velocity determination

 Migration

 Time to depth conversion.

 There are different types of seismic velocities such as: the NMO, stacking, RMS,

average, interval (Dix), phase, group, and migration velocities.

 The velocities that can be derived reliably from T-X data are the NMO, RMS, and

stacking velocities.

T-X-derived velocities

 The T-X curve of a single homogeneous horizontal layer is a perfect hyperbola given

by:

T2(X) = T2(0) + X2/V2, (4.1)

where T(X) is the two-way traveltime at offset X, T(0) is the two-way traveltime at

zero offset, and V is the layer velocity.

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 In a series of plane horizontal homogeneous layers, the exact offset (X) and two-way

traveltime (TN) to the bottom of the Nth layer are given by two parametric equations:

N N
pVi H i Hi
X  2 and TN  2 ,
i 1 1  ( pVi ) 2
i 1 Vi 1  ( pVi ) 2

where Vi, and Hi are the interval velocity and thickness of the ith layer; and p is the

parameter of the ray received at X with T = TN.

 However, we can express the exact TN in terms of X in a Maclaurin series as (Taner

and Kohler, 1969):


TN2(X) ≈ C
k 0
k X 2 k = C0 + C1 X2 + C2 X4 +.... (4.2)

 The series (4.2) converges to the exact T-X curve of the Nth reflector if:

(1) Ck X2k → 0 as k → ∞ (i.e., Ck X2k < 1 for k > 0; see Figure 4-A1).

(2) Infinite number of terms is used in the series (i.e., k → ∞).

 If infinite number of terms are used in equation (4.2), then (Taner and Kohler, 1969):

2 2
 N 2Hi   N 
T ( X  0)  C0  
2
N    ti   TN (0) ,
2
(4.3)
 i 1 Vi   i 1 

 N 
  t i 
C1   Ni 1   1 / VRMS N 2 , (4.4)
 V 2 t 
 
i 1
i i 

2
(∑𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 3
𝑖=1 𝑉𝑖∗𝐻𝑖 ) −(∑𝑖=1 𝐻𝑖/𝑉𝑖 )∗(∑𝑖=1 𝑉𝑖 ∗𝐻𝑖 )
𝐶2 = 4 . (4.4a)
16∗(∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑉𝑖∗𝐻𝑖 )

where ti = 2Hi/Vi is the interval zero-offset two-way traveltime across the ith layer

and VRMSN is the RMS velocity to the bottom of the Nth layer.
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 Equation (4.4) shows that the RMS velocity (VRMSN) can be defined in terms of the

true T-X curve as the square root of the reciprocal of the coefficient of the X2 term in

an infinite series expansion of the exact T2-X2 curve of multiple layers:

1
VRMSN  . (4.5)
C1

 Equation (4.4) shows also that the RMS velocity (VRMSN) to the Nth reflector can be

defined in terms of the properties of subsurface layers as:

1/ 2
 N 2 
  Vi t i 
VRMSN   i 1N  (4.6)
 
  t i 
 i 1 

where Vi is the interval velocity and ti is the interval zero-offset two-way traveltime

of the ith layer, and N is the number of layers.

 The stacking velocity (VSN) to the Nth reflector is found from the exact T-X curve by

fitting a best-fit hyperbola:

TN2(X)  C0 + C1 X2, (4.7)

where C0≈ TN2(0) and C1≈ 1/VSN2 and the approximation is due to fitting only 2-terms

of the polynomial in equation (4.2).

 Figure 4.1 shows how the best-fit Vs is found in practice.

 Figure 4.2 shows the relation between VS and VRMS relative to the true T-X curve.

 See the companion Excel Sheet named (RMS-VEL(3L).xls) for the effects of

truncation and offset on VRMS calculation.

 Exercise (1): Repeat the same analysis for layer 2.

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 The normal moveout (NMO) is the time difference between traveltime at a given

offset and zero offset. At small offsets, the NMO is approximated by:

TNMO(X)  X2/[2VNMO2 T(0)]. (4.8)

 The NMO velocity (VNMON) to the Nth reflector is found from the true T-X curve by

searching for the velocity that will flatten the true T-X curve from the Nth reflector

using equation (4.8). Figure 4.3 shows how the best VNMO is found in practice.

 The RMS, NMO and stacking velocities are generally not equal because they are

calculated using different methods. However, at small offsets (maximum offset 

reflector depth), the three velocities are approximately equal.

 The stacking and NMO velocities cannot be related directly to the properties of

subsurface layers while VRMS is related to layers properties (equation 4.6).

 The interval (Dix) velocity (VN) of the Nth layer can be calculated from the RMS (or

stacking or NMO) velocities at small offsets as follows:

VRMSN T (0) N  VRMSN 1 T (0) N 1

2 2
(4.9)
VN 
T (0) N  T (0) N 1
where VRMSN-1 and VRMSN are the RMS velocities to the top and bottom of the Nth

layer, and T(0)N-1 and T(0)N are the total zero-offset traveltimes to the top and bottom

of the Nth layer.

 Exercise (2): Derive equation (4.9) from equation (4.6).

Velocity determination in practice

(1) The T2-X2 method

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 If we approximate the true T-X curve by a hyperbola of the form given by equation

(4.7), then a plot of T2 versus X2 will produce a straight line whose slope and

intercept are 1/Vs2 and T2(0), respectively.

 Hence, we can use this equation to find the stacking velocity Vs from the slope of the

best-fit line to the true T2-X2 curve. This is called the T2-X2 method.

 The T2-X2 method is not practical to use for common seismic exploration datasets

because it needs picking of the TWTT of every reflector at every offset on many

CDPs, which has the following problems:

1. It is time consuming if done by humans because of the huge datasets commonly

encountered in seismic exploration. Remember that typical seismic surveys

include:

o 1,000s-1,000,000s of CDPs

o CDP folds between 60 to 480 traces

o About 10 major reflectors to be analyzed for velocity

2. It is prone to errors if done by machine especially in noisy datasets.

 Therefore, it is mainly used with small datasets of relatively high S/N ratio (e. g.,

experimental or synthetic data).

 Figure 4.4 shows an example.

(2) Constant-velocity stacks (CVS)

 This method attempts to find the NMO velocity to each reflector.

 This method consists of the following steps:

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1. A small portion of the line (consisting of 20-25 adjacent CMP gathers) is

repeatedly NMO-corrected and stacked using a range of constant velocity

values.

2. The constant-velocity stacks are displayed beside each other in panels with a

panel for each attempted velocity.

3. Following a certain reflector across the velocity panels, as it is stacked using

different velocities; we choose the velocity that produces the most laterally

continuous stack of the reflector as VNMO of that reflector.

4. Proceeding in this way for the other reflectors of interest in the panel, we can

build up a velocity function that is appropriate for this portion of the line.

5. Choose another portion with different (or overlapping) CMP gathers and

repeat steps 1-4.

6. Interpolate the NMO velocities for portions that were not analyzed.

 The velocities found using this method are often called stacking velocities (Vs)

because a stacked section is used, although the continuity of reflections depended on

the quality of the NMO correction NOT how these reflections fitted a hyperbola.

 Important parameters to consider when using the CVS method are the minimum,

maximum, and increment in the trial NMO velocities.

 The CVS method is especially useful in areas with complex structures (Why?).

 Figure 4.5 shows an example of CVS panels with picks.

 Figure 4.6 shows an example of velocity field along a 2-D line with interpolation

between CDPs.
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(3) The velocity spectrum

 This method attempts to find the stacking velocity to each reflector.

 It maps the T-X data of a single CMP gather onto the velocity-spectrum plane.

 In the velocity-spectrum plane, the vertical axis is T0 and the horizontal axis is Vs.

 The method consists of the following steps:

(1) Select a CMP gather that has a relatively high S/N ratio. The CMP gather should

be sorted in offset. Let M be the fold of this CMP gather.

(2) Determine the minimum (usually = 0) and maximum (usually = record length) T0

that you want to analyze.

(3) Determine the minimum, maximum, and increment of Vs to be attempted.

(4) Determine the gate width, w, around the reference time T0. This is usually equal

to the dominant period of the data. Let N be the number of samples in the gate.

w is set by the dtratio parameter of the suvelan command in SU.

(5) Start with the minimum T0 and Vs.

(6) Compute T ( X )  T0  X 2 / Vs2 , where T0 and Vs are set to the minimum T0 and
2

minimum Vs of step (5) and X is the offset of the traces in that CMP gather.

(7) The amplitudes in a gate of width w centered about T(X) calculated from step (6)

are selected from all the traces in the gather. Let Aij be the amplitude of a time

sample within this gate, where 1≤i≤N and 1≤j≤M.

(8) The sum of the amplitudes corresponding to the first time sample of the gate on

2
M 
all traces in the gather is computed and squared   A1 j  .
 j 1 

(9) Step (8) is repeated for all the time samples in the gate w.
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2
NM 
(10) The squared sums are added together to give the stack energy E S     Aij  .
i 1  j 1 

A
2
(11) Now, sum up the squared amplitudes of the first sample on every trace 1j .
j 1

(12) Repeat step (11) for all the other samples in the gate.

(13) The sums of the squares are added together to give the prestack energy

N M
Eu   Aij .
2

i 1 j 1

(14) Calculate the semblance NE = (1/M)(Es/Eu). Note that: 0 ≤ NE ≤ 1, and that it is

larger if the amplitudes in the gate are aligned following a hyperbola whose T0

and Vs are equal to those of the hyperbola you are currently fitting.

(15) Now you have one point on the velocity-spectrum plane, namely (minimum T0,

minimum Vs, NE).

(16) While fixing T0, increment Vs and repeat steps (6)-(14) until you reach the

maximum Vs.

(17) Increment T0 by L = N/2 samples and repeat steps (5)-(16) until you reach the

maximum T0. L is set by the nsmooth parameter of the suvelan command in SU

(18) For a reflection that has a zero-offset TWTT=T0, its correct Vs is the one that is

associated with the maximum semblance occurring at that T0.

(19) Select another CMP gather and repeat steps (5)-(17).

 You should end up with a set of picks (T0, Vs) for every selected CMP.

 To find the (T0, Vs) sets for the other, unprocessed CMPs, we interpolate them.
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 Es, Eu, and NE are measures of coherency (similarity) of the signal along a

hyperbolic curve. Other measures of signal coherency include the stacked

amplitude and crosscorrelation.

 The coherency measure is usually displayed as contour plot (Figure 4.7).

 Important parameters to consider when using the velocity spectrum method are the

minimum, maximum, and increment Vs.

 The velocities used in this method are often called the semblance velocities (Why?).

 The velocity spectrum method is more suited for noise-contaminated datasets.

 Figure 4.9 shows an example of velocity spectrum with picks and NMO-corrected

CMP gather.

 Figure 4.10 shows more figures.

Factors affecting velocity estimates

 Velocity estimation from the velocity spectrum can be limited in accuracy and

resolution for the following reasons:

 Spread length: Adequate resolution in the velocity spectrum can only be attained

with spreads that span both near and far offsets because:

 Using only near offsets degrades the coherency peaks for deep reflections due

to the low NMO associated with deep reflections at low offsets.

 Using only far offsets degrades the peaks for shallow reflections due to the

high NMO associated with shallow reflections at far offsets.

 CMP fold: Using very low CMP fold significantly shifts the coherency peaks in

the spectrum due to the loss of hyperbolic character of reflections.

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 S/N ratio: The accuracy of the velocity spectrum is limited when the S/N ratio is

poor due to the many erroneous peaks generated by aligning random noise.

 Muting: It decreases the energy magnitude because of the muted (zeroed)

amplitudes. If muting is used, the energy calculation has to compensate for the

effect of muting.

 T0 gate length (N/2): Smaller T0 gates increase the computational costs, while

coarse ones reduce the temporal (vertical) resolution of the spectrum (i.e.,

distinguishing velocities of closely-spaced reflections).

 Attempted stacking velocities (VSmin, VSmax, VS): The minimum and maximum

attempted stacking velocities should be chosen to span all expected stacking

velocities of primary reflections across the area (i.e., in time and space). The

velocity increment should be chosen fine enough to give the required resolution of

the spectrum.

 Departures from hyperbolic moveout: The moveout can depart from a hyperbola

due to anisotropy or lateral heterogeneities in the overburden. Using three-term

(quartic) series fitting might help in picking the velocities. SU uses the following

quartic equation:

X2 A1 X 4
T (X )  T  2 
2 2
, (4.10)
1  A2 X 2
0
V

where A1 and A2 are small anisotropic parameters to be attempted (A1 = A2 = 0 in

the case of isotropy).