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Cognitive Approach Notes
Cognitive Approach Notes
Cognitive Approach Notes
1. Cognitive Processing:
- Models of Memory
- Schema Theory
- Thinking and Decision making
2. Reliability of cognitive processes:
- Reconstructive memory
- Biases in thinking/ decision making
3. Emotion and Cognition:
- Influence of emotion on cognitive processes (Flashbulb memory)
→ Cognitive- the mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought,
experience, and the senses. Cognition= the mind, it is rather abstract. It explains fallacies in
gaps in our memory
- Attention
- Perception or schema-processing
- Problem-solving
- Language
- Memory - what do we remember and how do we remember?
→ Cognitive psychology concerns itself with the structure and functions of the mind. Cognitive
psychologists are involved in finding out how the human mind comes to know things about the
world and how it uses this knowledge.
→ Cognitive psychologists argued that scientific psychology should include research on mental
processes and how humans process information and create meaning. According to cognitive
psychologists, the mind can be conceptualized as a set of mental processes that are carried out
by the brain. These mental processes include perception, thinking, decision making,
problem-solving, memory, language and attention. The concept of cognition refers to such
processes.
→ Foundational Belief #1
1. Mental processes can and should be studied scientifically.
Eg: Critics of Freud and his followers:
- Not scientific
- Can't test or prove his theories
- Case studies only
- Leads to a new school of thought: Behaviourism
→ Behaviourists:
- Believed should only look at outside behaviour
- Can’t measure the mind, the mind is considered the black box…
- Key behaviourists:
→ John Watson
→ Ivan Pavlov
→ BF Skinner
- Key observations especially about LEARNING…
- Behaviourists thought that we primarily responded to our environment. Even if there was
more at work, if it wasn’t observable, it couldn’t be studied.
- Mental processes can be studied scientifically. Even though you can’t see the mental
processes, you can create models or theories of how they work.
- You can manipulate variables to see how observable outcomes change (scientifically- IV,
DV, Hypothesis, Observation, etc)
- This means that many tightly controlled lab experiments in the Cognitive Approach.
- This is demonstrated in theories and models of cognitive processes that are continuously
tested both in laboratories and in naturalistic settings. As our understanding of cognition
has increased, models have been changed. Early models of cognition were overly
simplistic, but they helped researchers to propose hypotheses and test different aspects
of cognitive processes.
→ Foundational Belief #2
2. Humans are active information processors
→ The mind is like a computer
- Humans are an information processor, the brain is the hardware; the mind is the
software or programs it runs.
- We are not passive responders to the environment but actively organize and manipulate
information that we receive. In between taking in and responding to information a
number of processes are at work.
- Information can be transformed, reduced, elaborated, filtered, manipulated, selected,
organized, stored and retrieved.
→ Foundational Belief #3
3. We are cognitive misers
- We often make the choice not to actively process information because we want to save
time and effort- cognitive misers.
→ I don’t know, I don’t care, I don’t have time.
→ Foundational Belief #4
4. Our cognitive processes can influence our behaviour.
- The way that we process and organize our information determines how we behave.
- We process new information through the filter of past experience and understanding.
- This then determines how we attend to, perceive and remember new information.
Childhood amnesia- kicks in at the age of 8. We tend to forget episodic memories. Some parts
haven’t completed developing, eg: the hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex.
Semantic memory is factual knowledge. Procedural memory is about doing or carrying out
tasks.
→ Types of memory:
a) Declarative memory (“knowing what”) is the memory of facts and events and refers to
those memories that can be consciously recalled. There are two subsets of declarative
memory:
- Semantic memory: Factual knowledge that you have. This is what many people
think about when they think about “memory”.
- Episodic memory: These are your autobiographical memories- that is-
memories of events or experiences; for example, graduation day, your first kiss,
memories of happy childhood events or personal tragedy.
b) Procedural memory: Memories of how to do something- also habits that we have are
procedural memory.
→ Facial recognition: the ability to recall and recognize faces. The disability which is a result of
damage to the fusiform gyrus is called prosopagnosia.
4. Cognitive Psychology Doing so, however, does not allow Latent, mental
us to understand a number of representation, model,
complex behaviours. The black box computer metaphor,
is an important component and conscious, rational.
should be returned to the realm of
psychology. However, it should be
studied objectively. This can be
done by using models. We make
predictions based on models, fit the
predictions with observed data and
choose the best-fitting model. The
overarching model for cognitive
psychology is the computer
metaphor.
- This model is based on previous research by others about memory. They put it into a
unified model.
- Memory is a process of encoding, storing and retrieving. Encoding can be visual
(picture), acoustic (sound), semantic (meaning).
- Any of the steps in the process can be influenced.
- 3 separate types of memory: sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory.
- The process is sequential and linear.
- Control processes manage the flow of information from store to store (attention and
rehearsal).
- Each store in the model has its own duration and capacity.
Duration: How LONG something can last in the store.
Capacity: How MUCH can fit in the store.
- The model is based on a number of assumptions. First, the model argues that memory
consists of a number of separate locations in which information is stored. Second, those
memory processes are sequential. Third, that each memory store operates in a single,
uniform way. In this model, short-term memory (STM) serves as a gateway by which
information can gain access to long-term memory. The various memory stores are seen
as components that operate in conjunction with the permanent memory store (LTM)
through processes such as attention, coding and rehearsal. You need to pay attention to
something in order to remember information. According to this model, rehearsal is vital to
keeping material active in STM by repeating it until it can be stored in LTM.
- The model suggests that sensory information from the world enters sensory memory,
which is modality specific - that is, related to different senses, such as hearing and
vision. The most important stores in the model are the visual store (iconic memory) and
the auditory store (echoic memory). Information in the sensory store stays here for a few
seconds and only a very small amount of the information will continue into the short-term
memory (STM) store.
- The capacity of STM has traditionally been assumed to be limited to around seven items
(7+/-2) and its duration is normally about 6–12 seconds. Information in STM is quickly
lost if not rehearsed. Information may also be displaced from STM by new information.
For example, when you are rehearsing that phone number for ordering the pizza and
then someone calls out your name. When your attention is taken away from the
information in your STM, it is then displaced and no longer available. Rehearsal of
material in STM plays a key role in determining what is stored in long-term memory in
the multi-store model of memory.
Today the multi-store model is considered to be too simplistic. It reflects the knowledge available
in the 1960s but it is an important model all the same because it has influenced our
understanding of memory. First of all, it presents a good account of the basic mechanisms in
memory processes (encoding, storage and retrieval). Secondly, several experiments support the
assumption of multiple memory stores. There is also supporting evidence from case studies of
patients with brain damage, such as HM suffering from amnesia, who have impaired long-term
memory but intact short-term memory. This clearly points towards multiple memory stores.
The assumption that STM is simply a gateway to LTM has been challenged by Logie (1999). He
argues that information in STM is not simply passed into LTM through rehearsal. Instead, there
must be an interaction between STM and LTM in which the information is interpreted with
regard to previously stored knowledge and past experience. Short-term memory is therefore not
part of a sequential system but rather a 'workstation' that handles and computes information
coming from the sensory store together with knowledge already stored in LTM. This also is what
schema theory would predict.
- There is significant research to support the theory of separate memory stores - both in
cognitive research and in biological case studies of patients with brain damage.
- The model is of historical importance. It gave psychologists a way to talk about memory
and much of the research which followed was based on this model.
- The working memory model can be seen as a development of the multi-store model of
memory. Short term memory in the original model has been changed to a more
sophisticated version in the working memory model. This is an example of how theories
and models develop over time as science produces new findings.
- Baddeley and Hitch (1974) were among the first to challenge the STM that is a single
store. Their working memory model suggests that STM consists of a number of different
stores. Baddeley and Hitch observed in lab experiments that if participants perform two
tasks simultaneously that both involve listening, they perform them less well than if they
did them separately. They had also noticed that if participants performed two tasks
simultaneously that involved listening and vision, there was no problem. The procedure
where participants carry out two tasks at once is known as a dual-task technique.
- This suggests that there are different stores for visual and auditory processing.
Baddeley and Hitch suggested that working memory should be seen as a kind of mental
workspace, which provides a temporary platform that holds relevant information for use
in any cognitive task. Once the task is completed, the information can quickly disappear
and make space for a new round of information processing. Baddeley and Hitch have
continued to work on the model since it was devised in 1974 and they have added new
features to the model in response to criticism and new findings.
→ Baddeley suggests that the most important job of the central executive is attention control.
This happens in two ways:
❏ The automatic level is based on habits that rely on schemas in long-term memory and
controlled more or less automatically by stimuli from the environment. This includes
routine actions such as cycling to school and places only limited demand on attention.
❏ The supervisory attention level deals with planning and decision making. It creates
new strategies when the old ones are no longer sufficient. It is also active in emergency
situations- for example, when a car is suddenly coming at you when you are cycling. The
system is also involved in situations that require self-regulation such as trying to avoid
eating that lovely chocolate dessert when you are trying to eat a more healthy diet. The
supervisory attentional system is capable of considering alternative plans of action and
choosing the most favourable.
Working memory has proved quite fruitful as it has generated a lot of research and discussion
concerning the different parts of the model is ongoing. Neuroimaging studies have also been
used to test the possible neurobiological correlates of working memory. Generally, the Working
Memory Model provides a much more satisfactory explanation of storage and processing than
the Multi-Store Model. The Working Memory Model can explain why people are able to perform
different cognitive tasks at the same time. At least if the task is not drawing on the same
component of STM.
However, there are some limitations to the model. First of all, the model is oversimplified as it
does not address how other sensory information is processed, and spatial memory within the
model is not fully developed. Second, it has been difficult to identify the nature of the
processes associated with the central executive. Finally, the interaction among the four
components is not well explained in the model, so much more research is needed in this
area. For example, it is not really clear how the episodic buffer actually integrates
information from the other components with long-term memory. At this point, the model
just presents a possible role for the episodic buffer but it is not fully developed.
→ The Schema theory suggests that what we already know will influence the outcome of
information processing. Basically, schemas affect how we perceive the world and how we
remember it. Humans are active processors of information—we are always trying to make sense
of what we take in, even if we don’t realize it. We will integrate new information with existing,
stored information
→ Taken together, this mental representation helps you process the concept of ‘dog’.
→ Bartlett (1932)
- Memory is an active ‘reconstructive process’ not a passive ‘reproductive process’.
- Changes happened (distortions)
a) Assimilation: people changed the story to fit their culture
b) Leveling: the story became shorter as people skipped information they thought
was unimportant.
c) Sharpening: Changed the order to make coherent or make more sense to
themselves, added detail/ emotions.
Strengths and Limitations of Bartlett (1932):
→ Strengths:
- Showed that memory could be studied ‘scientifically’
- Key study on memory- shapes the ideas of memory for the future
→ Limitations:
- Lacks ecological validity as it was carried out in a laboratory setting
- Methodology of experimental design is sketchy- No control or standardized instructions.
→ RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORIES
- Bartlett’s theory is that memories are not exact copies of experiences but rather,
reconstructions of those experiences.
→ RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY
What does it mean that memories are reconstructive?
● Remember schema theory? The cool thing about our memory is that it economizes. We
don't need to remember every object that we see in order to function.
● So, when we reconstruct memory, we are activating schemas that are relevant to an
event. In this process, we may distort memories. When I remember a day at school, I am
activating several schemas: the schema of my classroom, my students, a schema about
test-taking, of group discussions, of my boss... And putting those schemas together, I
have an "impression" of what happened today. Not a photograph.
● Bartlett refers to efforts after meaning, i.e. trying to make the past more logical, more
coherent, and generally more ‘sensible’, which involves making inferences or deduction
about what could or should have happened. Rather than human memory being
computer-like, with the output matching the input, Bartlett believed that we process
information in an active attempt to understand it. Memory is ‘an imaginative
reconstruction’ of experience.
- Memory is a process: Encoding, Storing, and Retrieving information
- Humans are: Active Processors which means that at any point in that process, memory
can be manipulated or altered.
- Schema can influence memory at both the encoding and the retrieval stage. (It can
influence the making of the memory originally and when you call it back up to use it.)
- Memory is reconstructive: it is not an exact copy but is pieced back together.
● Reliability in Psych=Consistency over time which also affects accuracy.
● Loftus supports Bartlett’s idea of memory as reconstructive. Loftus claims that the nature
of questions asked by police or in a courtroom can influence witnesses’ memory.
Leading questions - that is, questions that are suggestive in some way - and post-event
information facilitate schema processing which may influence the accuracy of recall. This
is called the misinformation effect.
When discussing thinking and decision making, it is difficult to really talk about "reliability."
Instead, we could talk about how effectively we can actually make decisions. Remember from
the beginning of this chapter that Fiske and Taylor argue that we are "cognitive misers." We
take short-cuts because thinking takes a lot of energy. Often we choose to take the less difficult
road because we don't have the energy or resources to make a more complex, informed
decision. In addition, like with memory, we are influenced by social and cultural factors. We
also have biases that influence our decision making. This chapter will examine how these
cognitive biases influence the way we make decisions.
→ KEY STUDIES FOR RECONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY:
- Loftus and Palmer (1974)- Leading questions (after the fact) can alter memory
- Loftus (1979)- Attention/ anxiety can alter memory
- Loftus and Pickrell (1995)- False memories are easy to recreate and easy to believe
- Yuille and Cutshall- Facial recognition in relation to anxiety
- Brown and Kulik (1977) defined flashbulb memory as a highly detailed, exceptionally
vivid ‘snapshot’ of the moment when a surprising and emotionally arousing event
happened.
- They postulated the special-mechanism hypothesis, which argues for the existence of
a special biological memory mechanism that, when triggered by an event exceeding
critical levels of surprise, creates a permanent record of the details and circumstances
surrounding the experience. This implies that flashbulb memories have different
characteristics than “ordinary memories”. They also argued that the memories are
resistant to forgetting.
- Today the most commonly accepted model of flashbulb memory is called the
importance-driven model.This model emphasizes that personal consequences
determine intensity of emotional reactions.
EMOTIONS:
- A response that involves 3 components:
a) A physiological change (unconscious, arousal). Ex: increased heart rate
b) A cognitive experience (thoughts and feelings). Ex: sense of fear
c) Associated behaviour. Ex: walking faster, running away
Flashbulb memory- A vivid and detailed memory of a highly emotional, surprising, and
consequential event. (Recorded/ imprinted in your mind like a flash-camera photo)
IMPORTANT POINTS:
- A person’s FBM is not about the events themselves but is about the reception of the
news of the event.
- People tend to remember 5 pieces of information:
a) Where they were
b) What they were doing
c) Who they were with/ who told them
d) What they felt about it
e) What happened immediately afterwards
HW
As a homework assignment, ask an adult about what they remember on that day. Get answers
to the following questions:
Event: House caught fire (2009)- (Personal record)
Where were you when you heard about the event?
- In the house
Who was with you when you heard about the event?
- Dad and mum were together in the house
What were you doing when you heard about the event?
- In the prayer room, while dad was on a call
How did you find out about the event?
- You saw smoke coming out from the room
How did you feel when you heard about the event?
- Fear, traumatized, scared
How important was this event in your life?
- Very sad event, important as they lost everything
How often have you talked about this event?
- Multiple times with friends and family
On a scale of 1 - 10, how confident are you that your memories are accurate?
- 10
- Many Psychologists today focus on more than just surprise (construct validity). Instead
they use the Importance-Driven Model. The amount of personal relevance will influence
the intensity of the emotion and therefore the formation of FBM.
→ Sharot et al (2007)
9/11 Research—FMRI, recalling memories, amygdala activity. Correlation—the closer people
were to downtown NY, the more amygdala activation, and the more they reported Flash Bulb
Memories of the event (special brain mechanism??).
→ Part 1: Group of people, 12 slides and 2 different stories (half get neutral, half get emotional
details)
- 2 weeks later, the emotional details group remembers more. But why? Must test for role
of adrenaline and amygdala
→ Part 2: What effect does adrenaline have?
- 2 groups, same emotional story, 1 group gets a drug that blocks the release of
adrenaline, the other gets nothing
Result: Group 1 has less memory for emotional details—suggests adrenaline and the
amygdala do play a role in forming emotional memories (like Brown and Kulik thought).
→ Conway et al (1994) researched UK and non-UK citizens about the resignation of Margaret
Thatcher. 86% of UK citizens had FBM but only 29% from other countries. Supports the idea
that FBM must be personally relevant (like Brown and Kulik thought).
b) 2.5 years later→ When I first heard about the explosion I was sitting in my freshman
dorm room with my roommate and we were watching TV. It came on a news flash and
we were both totally shocked. I was really upset and I went upstairs to talk to a friend of
mine and then I called my parents.
- But—when asked how confident they were that their memories were accurate—most
people were Very Confident.
- Then, they were shown their original survey responses—stunned by their results.
CONCLUSION:
1. FBM are not ‘special’—they are just like other memories—open to distortion and
reconstruction
2. FBM are remembered with a higher degree of confidence
→ Limits
1. Empirical evidence also shows that FBM degrade and distort like normal memories
2. Biological evidence is not clear—vague and correlational
3. Confidence and accuracy is not always correct
4. Emotion might play a role in rehearsal and social sharing, more than during
encoding
THINKING AND DECISION MAKING
→ Thinking is the process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret the
world, and make predictions about the world in general.
→ Decision making which is defined as the process of identifying and choosing alternatives
based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker.
→ WHAT IS SYSTEM 1?
- Automatic, Intuitive, Effortless
- Fast thinking for efficient processing
- Usually uses shortcuts (heuristics)
- Creates a ‘feeling of being correct’ so you can get on with things
- Often we might use system 1 when we our cognitive load is high—lots of things to think
about at once or to make a decision quickly
- Also linked to creativity, humor, aesthetic judgement, empathy.
- Problem with System 1? Prone to errors and mistakes
EXPLANATION
- Only 10-20% get it right
- Most commit the “matching bias”—they are overly influenced by the wording (context)
and pick cards that ’match’. In this case—the words ‘even number’ and ‘blue’ affect their
choice.
- When asked why they made the decisions they did, most could not explain but were
certain in their choice. This is a product of System 1 thinking.
- In reality, it is better to try to falsify the rule rather than prove it—but this rational
approach requires System 2. Because System 1 gives us a sense of certainty and an
efficient answer, most of us don’t get around to using system 2 to solve the problem.
- This is still evidence of system 1 thinking —but because it isn’t abstract it is less prone to
errors and bias.
Remember: System 1 is prone to errors but isn’t always wrong. Oftentimes it is right.
→ Limits:
1. Very reductionist--doesn’t explain HOW or the role of other things (like emotion)
2. Can’t say for sure all fast processing is ‘system 1”. System 2 can also be fast due to
experience.
COGNITIVE BIASES:
→ WHAT IS A HEURISTIC?
- They are simple, efficient rules or mental shortcuts that allow people to quickly make
decisions and solve problems but may not always lead to the best outcome. (made by
system 1 thinking).
- Another way to problem solve is with an algorithm—a methodical, logical procedure that
guarantees to solve a particular problem.
For Example: Let’s say at the grocery store you want to find Nutella. You could either search
every row one by one (an algorithm) or you could go to the sandwich spread aisle (a heuristic).
The heuristic approach is faster and maybe more efficient but the algorithm will guarantee that
you won’t miss it.
- One type of problem--Cognitive Biases: A limitation in our thinking that can cause us to
make faulty judgements. Usually, these become patterns that are consistent but
inaccurate.