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    Inspecting Wood Structures

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    ting Wood Frame Structures 15 Inspecting Wood Frame Structures Peter Seirup, P.E. The purpose of this article is to make better home inspectors, specifically, to assist inspectors in making better observations ‘and to improve the soundness of interpretation of whar inspectars see. Better inspectors provide better information to their cliems. Better inspections mean happier clients and fewer omissions or costly misunderstandings.' Inspectors as screening agents Home inspectors are generalists. They need tobe familiar with many defects ata home, The warning signs of defects ust be recognized, Nevertheless, inspectors need not pos- sess ultimate detailed knowledge of every system inspected. Rather, inspectors are the sreening agent. If the inspector thinks that further investigation or repair is necessary, chat work can be performed by an appropriate technician specal- ized in this discipline, ‘Many inspectors are not licensed in specific trades or profes- sions. * An inspector is probably not licensed to do electrical \witing, but sche observes electrical conditions and recom ‘mends further investigation or repair by a licensed clectri- cian when, in the inspector's opinion, it’s appropriate. Similarly, inspectors are the screening agent for plumbing ‘and heating defects. Inspectors may not be licensed to work, ‘on pipes oF to install boilers, yet they have to recognize cer- tain plumbing and heating deficiencies. The inspector recom- ‘ends further investigation or repair by a licensed plumber ‘when appropriate. Home inspectors are the screening agent for structures 100. Like electric, plumbing, and heating systems, inspectors need to recognize certain defects and to recommend further investigation or repair when appropriate. I is interesting to note, however, that chances are the person ‘making the structural repair will not be licensed. Carpenters are not licensed locally and licensed designers are not re {quired for building or repairing single family homes in many jurisdictions. Asa result, if the inspector were the contractor making ae pair (never the case for ASHI Inspectors, for ethical rea- sons] that person would use his or her own judgment as to ‘what the repair should be. Therefore, iris critically impor tant that the people actually making these repairs know their limitations. If the worker does not know what repairs are ap- propriate, or how to size a beam, s/he needs to consult some~ ‘one who does, Home inspectors do not normally specify repair details to technical home components. Instead, the inspector identifies the apparent deficiency and suggests “repair as necessary” by the appropriate technician ‘Therefore, the purpose of this article is to assist inspectors in better understanding how a wood frame structure works, so that inspectors can better identify when structures nced re- pairs by an appropriate technician, Behavior of wood materials ‘The purpose of the structure is to define space and support the weight of all building components, occupants, and weather effects. Everything happens for a reason All cracks, sags, and failures are the result of structural ‘movements which can be been predicted if the material stresses are identified. Behavior of wood fibers ‘Tension and compression capability is good parallel to the «grain, But perpendicular to grain compression capability is reduced somewhat and tension capability is reduced dramati cally. Fibers swell and shrink with moisture changes, but do ‘not change length much, Therefore lumber shrinkage from 1 This article ig derived from a paper written for @ wood frame inspection class taught by Mr. Seirup for Souther New England ASHIin 1989. The material herein includes personal opinions of the author and shoul be used accordingly. 2 About haif of ASHI Members hold a professional or trade license. ASHI Technical Journal Spring 1993 16 Inspecting Wood Frame Structures DEEICIENCY: TYPES: Undersized beams Flitchplates, Posts, New beams Weak a Joist hangers, brackets, seen Pistes iy Ss Ee | Is \ 1 Roof spreading Collar ties, Reinforced ridge > beam Buckling columns Heavier columns, Diagonal braces Sagged or weak joists Stiffening giraora® Sister joists Sagged oy weak rafters Sister ‘rafters, Struts to bearing wall below Stiffening girders, Non-alignment of bearing walls Flitchplates, Steel beams, Posts Figure 1 - Typical repairs Spring 1993 ASHI Technical Journal Inspecting Wood Frame Structures curling is around 4% perpendicular to the grain, but less than 112% paralle tothe grain, Different species of wood have different fiber behavior and diferent strengths. Stress vs. strain ‘Stress (Pa), usually measured in pounds per square inch (psi), is @ measure of the imposed load on the internal fibers ‘of a structural component. Strain (@), measured in inches per inch, a pure number, isthe amount of deformation which takes place in a structural component as a result of stress, Beams ‘The “strain” of stretching on the bottom and compressing ton the top (usually from an excessive load thereon) causes the bending of a loaded beam. Stress flows like water Fewer things collapse than should. When a structural mem- ber deforms from over-stess, it pulls in help from nearby components. When a beam is weak, stresses are redistib- uted to flooring, gypsum board, and other components, and the structure often “hangs” together. Nevertheless this ean bbe dangerous. Normal settlement ‘This is a vague term, New structures deform slightly and fi ishes crack and separate due to wood shrinkage. Also small ‘movements result from the structural components actually beginning to bear the weight intended. (Stress causes strain) Types and severity of deficiencies On the next page, Table 1 - Deficiency Types and Table 2 - Factors Determining Severity, oulline common types of de- ficiencies and offer some factors heipful in determining the severity ofthese observations Typical “problems” Not serious — “fake outs” Curing: small movements and cracks which oceur as a ‘wood structure shrinks and begins to bear weight. This in it- self is rarely a problem so long as itis not symptomatic of a more serious situation. Parallel partitions: floor sags around non-bearing walls par- allel to floor joists occur when the floor joists supporting the partition were not doubled. This is sloppy work but not ‘cause for alarm. 7 Parallel partition ridge: when a partition wall on one floor is parallel to the floor joists in the middle of a room on the next floor there will often be a ridge there on the upper floor. The partition below prevents the natural deflection of | the joists above that one spot. This indicates less than ideal architecture but is not a cause for alarm. This is common in a raised-ranch kitchen Roof truss uplift: roof esses tend co uplift andor sag as a result of cyclical weather changes, Snow loads come and go. ‘Humidity and temperature changes affect shrinkage, with in- creased effects when the bottom chord ofthe truss is buried in insulation while other tuss components are exposed 10a dy or cold attic. The primary reason for truss uphit is di {erence in moisture between the bottom truss chord and other truss members, causing the rss to arch upwards. Gaps between the ceiling (and more rarely Moor) and the in- terior partitions on a top floor of large houses or condomini- ‘ums with roof tusses often result. Serious Problems ‘Some common deficiencies and their typical repairs are sketched in Figure 1 Insufficient deck anchorage: every year decks fall off houses. Under heavy loads decks which are insufficiently bolted in place separate from the building, No collar ties: homeowners remove flat ceilings to make ca thedral ceilings without installing new reinforcement against lateral roof thrust. These roofs can collapse uncler heavy snow loads, just like an old barn whose tie-beam connec tions have rotted through at the eaves. Removed columns or walls: raised ranch owners some- times remove a column from the downstairs family room be- ‘cause they do not like the obstruction of the column in living space, No additional reinforcement or insufficient reinforce- ment leaves the floor above in jeopardy of collapse under heavy loads. Bearing walls are sometimes removed by ama- teurish renovations with the same hazard, Buckling columns: slender wood or “jack post” type col- ‘umns meant to carry a high design load can kick out sud denly. The studs of main bearing walls in the basement can all bow and buckle together if not diagonally braced, Here drywall front and back is usually bracing, Decayed girder ends: wood-destroying insects, ' or water sot sometimes completely severs a main supporting girder at the foundation pocket (of at other locations in old post-and- 1. Common insect pesis which do this damage include termites, carpenter ants, and "powder post beetles.’ ASHI Technical Journal Spring 1993 18 Inspecting Wood Frame Structures Table 1 - Deficiency Type Examples Design Detects ‘Non-alignment of bearing walls Missing or undersized bearing walls Undersized beams ‘Construction Defects Omitted beams or columns Missing or undersized beams or columns Insufficient connections Poor bearing of columns on floor Alteration Defects Removed posts or walls ‘Vaulted ceilings with no ties, collar ties Cut-through truss components, notched ‘Age Deterioration Water rot Insect damage Splits and sags Table 2 - Factors Determining Severity Habitability Does the condition severely affect the habitabilty of the home now? Progressive Deterioration Will this condition cause further serious deterioration? Consequences of Failure Would the failure of this particular component cause a Catastrophic loss to person or property? Probability of Failure What are the chances of actual failure: Likely? 50:50? Remote? Single vs. Many ‘The probability of collapse is reduced as more ‘components are provided. In other words, a single undersized beam may fail ifit suffers some damage. ‘A series of undersized joists can share a load if one or {wo joists get damaged. Fast vs. Slow ‘Would the failure be rapid or slow? Would there be time to get away safely? Would there be time to recognize failure in progress and time to shore up the structure? Connections often let go all at once. Other failures may be slower. beam framing). Ths leaves the floor in danger of collapse under heavy load. More commonly, ends of posts rot and crush, permitting floor sagging and other building damage. Cut or removed truss components: since wood trusses are designed for maximum strength with minimum wood, cut- ting througi a uss member ean often render the truss use> Jess. Depending on the location of the damaged truss, this ‘could put part of the structure in jeopardy of collapse. Spring 1993 Grossly undersized beams: all beams sag. Badly sagging ‘beams are usually over stressed. Excessive overstressing ‘eventually causes the extreme fibers in the wood to fail Problems in-between & not serious ‘Non-alignment: non-alignment of bearing walls, columns, tc. from floor fo floor usually causes distortions inthe struc- ture. The seriousness depends on the probability and conse- quences of collapse. This depends on the degree of non- ASHI Technical Journal Inspecting Wood Frame Structures 19 Figure 2- Platform Framing alignment, just how undersized the components are, whether it is single or multiple components that are deformed, and hhow vulnerable the areas is to amateurish alteration. Types of Structures Platform construction ‘This method of framing [Figure 2 above] has been used since World War I, Each floor is constructed as a platform, upon which walls for that story are raised. Itis easier 10 build than balloon framing, and makes use of shorter wall stud materials. A number of the defects shown on the sec- ond page of this paper in Figure ! - Typical Repairs can oc- ‘cut with this framing method when framing members are im- properly sized, not properly connected, or not propery sup- ported, Balloon framing Balloon framing [Figure 3 above] was the standard type of wood frame structure built from about 1830 to 1940, Itis a Figure 3- Balloon Framing very strong kind of structure, characterized by wall studs ‘hich extend uninterrupted from the wood sills atop the foundation all the way up to the roof line. Floor joists are nailed to individual wall stds.” In addition to nailing joists to wall stud, often aledger strip was notched into the studs to support the floor joists. Despite their age, we generally see fewer structural prob- Jems with balloon framed houses than with moder platform framed buildings. Balloon-frame houses often hold their shape pretty well and are much less subject co sagging from, age than older post-and-beam houses. Sagging floors ‘A common condition with older frame houses, regardless of framing method used, is pitching of floors towards the cen- ter of the house. This can often be traced to wooden columns in the basement that have been water damaged and therefore ‘rushed at their base. Replacing such posts may not be that 1. Figures 2 and 8 courtesy of of Carson Dunlop Corp., Toronto, 2. The absence of fre-stops inside balloon framed walls at each floor level is a serious fire hazard, permiting wall cavitios to ‘act as natural chimneys speeding the spread ol fire through a building. During a normal home inspection the presence Or absence of these stops is usually impossible to see unless renovation is in progress. ASHI Technical Journal ‘Spring 1998 20 expensive, Even if such columns were replaced, the house -may still sag to its center unless jacking was done when 12- pairs were made.! ‘Substantial sagging could also be due to improper alteration of the structure during “home improvement.” If the re- ‘modeler is unfamiliar with te framing technique there is ‘rcater opportunity for serious structural damage.” Finally, serious termite damage could be the cause of seri- ously sagging floors. Substantial sags in balloon framed houses should always be investigated, Post and beam houses Post and beam was the standard wood constuction method uni about, 1830, and is still used today in some spocalty buildings. ** In these structures, the weight is carried by very large comer posts and several large intermediate posts, spaced several feet apart. Large beams (horizontal members) are placed between the posts. Tn traditional constuction, Connections of posts to beams are notched, fitted, and pexged together using mortise and tenon Joints. "In modem construction sce] connection devices are ‘often used on joints which simply but the square end of one member against the side of another. ‘The typical post and beam colonial from the 1700's and carly 1800°s is a rectangle divided into thirds by front 0 back beams. The middle third is usually a litle smaller and thas the massive stone chimney foundation in the very center. ‘The front-to-back beams on either side of the chimney are braced by cantilever supports from the chimney foundation. ‘These beams also hold up the fireplace hearths. Usually these cantilever supports have decayed and have either been, reinforced with columns underneath or have been cut off al together in favor of columns. Inspecting Wood Frame Structures Roof rafters are braced mid-span by beams (purlins) in the aitic, supported by posts, These posts usually bear mid-span ‘on heavy beams on the ceiling of the second flooz. Non- alignment of these cohimns from floor to floor (the typical design) makes a building prone to sagging with age. Sagging— post and beam framing: As slated above, the natur ofthe post and beam concept with non-aligned posts from floor-to-oor encourages sag- ing with age. This i one reason why itis hard to find an an- tique post and beam house that does not have substantial floor sagging. More than half of these sags do not need rein- forcement. Itis often very difficult tell, however, which sags are from conditions which could be progressive or dan- gerous to the structure and its occupants. Sagging away from the chimney in the center of the house may very well not be a problem since this is where the beams are supported, AA big ridge om the main floor of the house, right ove top of a foundation, is likely nota problem either since normal age deflection of beams and joists cannot oceur over a founda- tion as it does elsewhere. ‘Sagging of a main floor can be a problem if the joists are badly damaged by rot or insects. IF the floor shakes a lot ‘when you jump, chances are that reinforcement would be ap- propriate, Insect and water damage— One will never see a 200 year old house without “powder ‘post beetle damage.” Powder post beetle damage is charac terized by powdery wood visible on the outside of a timber and very fine exit holes (typically 1/16” diameter) in the ‘wood surface. 1 Such jacking is often avoided. Bullings are very plastic when they deform over along period. Sudden large movements, ‘such as jacking severely sagged floors, risks Separate framing members, be done by an experienced technician. sive cosmetic damage to walls In Some cases ican also oreak or ich are curved and which do not immediately straighten when jacked. Jacking should only 2 Anexample documented by the editor was a balloon-framed two-story barn an original door cut into the gable-end. In the "1960's a pair of large openings for overhead garage doors was cut into the side of tha balloon-framod side. Tho installer placed a doubled 2x6 header over each door, faling to observe good framing practices. The result was vory serious, Sagging of the building wall and a costly future repair. 3. The 1830 date pe tains to construction in the East. Post and beam framing was common in the Pacific Northwest (and possibly other areas in North America) as late as the 1920's and 1930's. 4 The Timber Framing Institute continues to conduct post and beam framing classes in the Northeastem US. 5 Terminology: mortise is tho “hole” into which the tonon of the connecting beam is placed. The wood peg used is a treenall Property cult ane fied, even using green wood, these joints, lproected from rotor inser, may ‘alter original construction, onaiion with no separation, on referred to as a bent. w Spring 1998, ‘be found in perfect 10H" formed by a pair of posts with crossbeat is ASHI Technical Journal Inspecting Wood Frame Structures Powder post beetles ‘These insects usually attack the sap wood (the outer portions ofthe timber) and not the heart wood. Therefore if one probes one usually finds thatthe center ofthe beam is still okay. Nevertheless, the sap wood does provide some strength, so damaged beams and joists are somewhat less strong. Sometimes a stiffening beam under a set of floor jists is appropriate to reinforce such a floor. ‘Two hundred years gives wood-destroying insects a lot of ‘opportunity to find a house, Damage could have taken place any time and it may not have been repaired. Chronic dampness ‘Over years, chronic dampness causes wood to decay. Damp- ness and insect damage together are often enough to make re- pairs necessary. Sometimes whole floor systems need to be replaced, particularly on extensions to post and beam houses. over areas where there was no basement, Another common area of very extensive damage from rot or insects are the wood sill beams set atop stone foundation walls which place the wood at or below ground level. Inspec- tors finding wood siding at ground level on these houses _may expect wood sill to be at real risk ofthis damage. Re- pais to whole floor systems or house sills are often quite costly, Post and beam connections Considering the comparatively small number of posts, com- ppared with a stud-framed platform or balloon framed house, every post and beam is usually required (cannot be removed) and every connection among posts and beams is critical While limited insect damage to large beams may have left them usable, damage atthe base of a post can cause consider- able building movement and sagging. More vulnerable are the pegged post and beam connections. If the connections are in failure the entire set of floor beams is in danger of col- lapse. Inspectors should be particularly alert for separated connections or rovinsect damage at these points where they are visible in basements and attics. Post and beam bulges A significant bulge at the top of a wall along the eaves (or soffit-line) is often very serious. This can be associated with 24 ‘sag along the ridge of the roof. Actually this is the most ‘common cause of collapse of antique bars that have not been maintained. ‘When the barn roof is allowed to deteriorate, water leaks in atthe eaves and decays the pegged post and beam connec- tions atthe top of the building walls. Cross beams tie the ‘wall tops together at the base of the roof and thus resist the ‘outward thrust caused by the weight ofthe roof itself. In Northern climates a very heavy snow load is usually what causes the eventual collapse, This can happen to houses as, well. Bulges in this area need to be investigated. The inspector ‘may find that steel cables have been used to tie the opposite walls of the building together to resist further movernent, ‘These bulges are fairly common in newer balloon or plat- form constructed houses where someone has removed criti- cal horizontal support (such as ceiling joists) to create a ca- thedral ceiling. Earthquakes and Gale Winds Earthquakes and gale winds can be thought of in the same ‘category as the previous discussion. They impose extreme lateral forces on a structure. In nuuch of the United States and Canada inspectors do not treat this topic with urgency since natural disasters are rare in some areas. Nevertheless seismic engineers agree that an ‘earthquake of more than 6 on the Richter scale is almost cer- tain to occur in the Northeastern United States within the next twenty years It could occur as you are reading this ati- cle. Significant damage will be certain, Some of the more important earthquake and gale-wind pro- tection includes: ~ Anchor bolts between the mud sill and the masonry foun-

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