Phased Array Technical Guidelines

Useful Formulas, Graphs,

and Examples

R/D Tech Corp.

Introduction

One of the major contributors to the reliability of any nondestructive

testing (NDT) method is the human factor. The personnel involved in
the phased array ultrasonic inspection must be trained and certified.
Through his or her skills, education, and training, the NDT practitioner
must demonstrate that he or she can handle specific requirements
related to the procedure and equipment (phased array ultrasonic
instrument, scanners, probes, software, analysis layouts, and
reporting). The practitioner must be familiar with the basic features of
phased array ultrasonic technology applied to specific components.

The customer-oriented philosophy of R/D Tech resulted in the

publication of the first book dedicated to phased array ultrasonic
technology: Introduction to Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology
Applications: R/D Tech Guideline. This Guideline was intended for a
large audience, with extensive chapters on basic ultrasonic testing,
data representation and scanning patterns, phased array probes, and
applications. The Guideline contains more general information
compared to the booklet. The Guideline can be purchased by e-mail
order through our Web site.

The Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet was written for the NDT
practitioner as an aide-mémoire of the basic phased array ultrasonic
technology. It is oriented toward day-to-day activities, and know-how
and how-to problems (procedure compliance, calibration,
characterization, new setup construction, and solved inspection
problem). By its contents and dimensions, the booklet was designed to
fit into a pocket. The booklet must withstand field conditions, hence
we produced the book on water- and tear-resistant synthetic paper,
with a sturdy cover and binding.

The Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet contains the following:

• Chapter 1, “Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General

Features”
Describes the PAUT principles, and presents the main hardware
components and type of phased array beam forming and
movement (linear, azimuthal, depth, plane, and 3-D).
• Chapter 2, “Phased Array Probes—General Features”
Describes the PA probes and their main features required to be
used for day-to-day inspections. The examples are based on the

R/D Tech Introduction 1

 1-D planar linear array, the most commonly used type of probe for
many applications.
• Chapter 3, “Focal Laws—General Examples”
Illustrates the basic steps in defining focal laws for Tomoscan III™
PA (TomoView™ 2.2R9) and OmniScan® PA for linear array
probes.
• Chapter 4, “Scanning Patterns, Views, and Layouts”
Presents the major data representations (A-scans, S-scans, B-scans,
C-scans, and D-scans) and the basic layouts and scanning patterns
for Tomoscan III PA (TomoView 2.2R9) and OmniScan PA.
Recommended layouts for specific applications are also noted.
• Chapter 5, “Ultrasound Settings, Calibration, and Periodic
Checking”
Presents basic examples for ultrasonic settings and optimization,
equipment calibration, and in-the-field periodic checking.
• Chapter 6, “Useful Tables, Charts, and Formulas”
Is a useful review of the main formulas, such as: Snell’s law, near-
field length, wavelength, beam width, half-angle beam spread.
Special emphasis is focused on defect sizing using different
methods. Besides tables and formulas, the chapter incorporates
graphs for a quick evaluation of specific features: refracted angle,
equivalent delay, and reflector size.
• Appendix A: “Unit Conversion”
Provides the metric-English conversions for units used in this
booklet.
• Appendix B: “Support and Training”
Presents the R/D Tech Web site section where you can find or post
added information related to this booklet.
• “Selected References”
Lists basic materials, which support and enrich the booklet ideas.
The booklet is written as an open dialog; we include hints, important
marks, and caution or warning signs for specific activities.

As the R/D Tech CEO and President mentioned in the preface of this
booklet, we welcome your opinion, comments, and ideas to improve
on the Phased Array Technical Guidelines booklet with the aim of
making a second edition.

Please use the Web site forum link, at www.rd-tech.com, for a real-
time communication. Our marketing team thanks you in advance for
your input and will contact you for specific problems you may raise.

We hope this booklet will be a great help in carrying out phased array
ultrasonic inspections.

Noël Dubé
Business Development Vice-President, R/D Tech

2 Introduction R/D Tech

1. Phased Array Ultrasonic
Technology—General Features

The phased array ultrasonic technology is based on the following

technical features:

a) Multiplexing of a large number of identical crystals as a single

probe
b) Control of the focal depth
c) Control of the steering angle
d) Control of the beam width
e) Program of the virtual probe aperture (VPA) [see Figure 1-1]
f) Scan with a large number of A-scans
g) Display of the UT data in a generic view called S-scan

VPA2 VPA1

Probe 2 Probe 1

+∆β1

-∆β2

F1

F2 Sweep range 1

Sweep range 2

Figure 1-1 Multielement probe focusing at different depths and for different angles.
Note that the sweep range could be positive and/or negative; different numbers of
elements may be grouped to form a virtual probe aperture (VPA).

R/D Tech Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General Features 3

Specific features of phased array technology include the following:

a) Probe design is based on modeling.

b) Each active element of a multielement probe is excited by an
independent pulser (see Figure 1-2).
c) The excitation time is computer-controlled and delayed
according to Fermat principle in such a way that the cylindrical
(spherical) wave front will reach in the same time (in phase) the
specific points in space.
d) The beam is cylindrically or spherically focused (see chapter 2
for more details).
e) The wave front reflected by the defect reaches the reception;
time of flight is delayed according to the focal point, refracted
angle, and number of active elements.
f) The individual amplitudes from each active element are
summed up (amplitude and same phase).
g) The focal law calculator determines the time delay on individual
elements to steer and focus the beam at different depths and
angles. See Figure 1-3 for an example of delay value (in
nanoseconds [10−9 s], that is, a billionth part of a second!). More
details are presented in chapter 3.
h) Analog signals are rectified, smoothed, averaged, and may be
compressed in an 8-bit or 12-bit option (see Figure 1-4).
i) Beam movement is linked with scanner axes and part geometry.
Data may be viewed in a single plane or through a projection
between reference and measurement cursors (see chapter 5 for
more details).
j) The focus pattern of S-scan may be changed (see Figure 1-5).
k) Inspection data is displayed in multiple views or layout; defect
amplitude is color-coded based on specific color palette
(rainbow, gray, unrectified, specific custom-built); data is
plotted into 2-D specimen for each view (see chapter 4 for more
details).
l) Data analysis is more reliable and efficient with customized
defect table and merging A-scans (see chapter 5 for more
details).

4 Chapter 1 R/D Tech

 Probe Incident wave front
Emitting Pulses
Trigger
Acquisition Phased array
unit unit Flaw

Reflected wave front

Receiving Echo signals

Acquisition Phased array

unit unit Flaw

Figure 1-2 Principle of phased array emitting and receiving with a multielement
probe.

The main advantages of phased array technology can be summarized

below:

1. Faster. Phased array inspections with linear scanning are typically

an order of magnitude faster than conventional single probe raster
scanning. This saves significantly in plant downtime and operator
costs.
2. Flexibility. A single array can inspect many different components
with different inspection patterns, using electronic setup files.
3. Complex inspections. Phased arrays can be programmed to inspect
geometrically complex components, for example automated welds
or nozzles, with relative ease. Phased arrays can also be
programmed to perform special scans, for example tandem,
multiple angles, multiple modes, and zone discrimination.
4. Small array size. The small size of arrays makes them perfect for
specific applications, for example turbines and discs, where space
is limited.
5. Mechanical reliability. Fewer moving parts make a more reliable
inspection system. Replacing mechanics with electronics reduces
wear and tear, as well as increases significantly system reliability.
6. Increase the detectability of misoriented defects. Focus beam increases
the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The multitude of A-scans grouped
in a sector with specific angular resolution contributes to detection
probability.

R/D Tech Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General Features 5

 Analog
Filters Smoothing
rectification

A/D Averaging Compression

Figure 1-3 Block diagram for RF signal processing on the receiving chain, after the
summation of individual amplitudes (see Figure 1-2).

1 32 1 32 1 32

-30˚ 0˚ 30˚

Figure 1-4 Example of delay values on individual elements for steering the beam of a
longitudinal wave from −30° to +30°.

aa cc dd
bb

Figure 1-5 Different types of focusing will generate different S-scan views:
(a) projection S-scan is very useful for narrow-gap weld inspection; (b) true depth is
useful for detection and sizing defects at a constant depth (for example, inner wall
fatigue cracks); (c) half-path S-scan is the most commonly used S-scan; (d) focal
plane S-scan is useful for detection of lack of fusion along the weld geometric
preparation.

6 Chapter 1 R/D Tech

Examples of pattern recognition are given in Figure 1-6 to Figure 1-8.

Figure 1-6 Multiangle inspection of a calibration block with stacked side-drilled holes.
Left: inspection setup; right: ultrasound display—sectorial scan.

Figure 1-7 Linear (electronic) scan with a static probe over a test piece with artificial
defect of variable shape and depth. Top: scanning pattern; bottom: ultrasound
display—side (B) view.

R/D Tech Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General Features 7

 UT
ran
β start β finish g e

0.5 t

1.5 t

Figure 1-8 Example of UT range selection and sweep range for a crack detection
and sizing with skip angles. Top: principle and UT range setting; bottom: OmniScan
results for a fatigue crack of 8 mm height.

Tip:

• For a reliable detection and sizing of inner-surface breaking

cracks ( h crack < ( 1 ⁄ 3 )t piece ), set the ultrasonic range between
( 0.5 – 1.5 ) × t piece ⁄ cos β optimum , to display the crack facets in
direct and skip detection the crack (see Figure 1-9).
• Use the zoom and software color palette functions for a better
sizing and crack orientation.

8 Chapter 1 R/D Tech

 • Set the sweep range in such a way to detect the crack by at least
two angles at a difference of >10 degrees when the probe is
moved backward (see Figure 1-9).

Figure 1-9 Example of UT sweep range for a crack detection by two angles at
difference >10 degrees. Left: detection with 38.5°; right: detection with 60°. Remark
the crack facets, detected also by skip, at 60°.

Data analysis and defect characteristics (height, orientation, location)

is very reliably performed by plotting UT data into 2-D and 3-D
specimen (see Figure 1-10).

Courtesy of Ontario Power Generation Inc., Canada

Figure 1-10 Example of UT data plotting (VC S-scan) of a crack into an isometric
view of a turbine component.

R/D Tech Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology—General Features 9