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Hyperspectral systems' role in

understanding the composition of
atmospheric air pollution

Ali Nahidi, William Roper, Richard Gomez

Ali Nahidi, William E. Roper, Richard B. Gomez, "Hyperspectral systems' role

in understanding the composition of atmospheric air pollution," Proc. SPIE
5097, Geo-Spatial and Temporal Image and Data Exploitation III, (14 August
2003); doi: 10.1117/12.502417

Event: AeroSense 2003, 2003, Orlando, Florida, United States

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 Hyperspectral Systems Role in Understanding the Composition of
Atmospheric Air Pollution

Au Nahidi1, William E. Roper 2 Richard

"2The George Washington University, George Mason University

ABSTRACT

A wide variety of hyper-spectral (HS) sensors and collection platforms are in existence. This paper investigates
hyper-spectral imaging systems (HIS) worldwide in order to address issues associated with the better both airborne
and space based systems are included in the review. Examples of the sensors include ENVISAT, SCIAMACHY,
TERRA, AQUA, MOPITT, MIPAS, AVIRIS, LIDAR, Landsat 7 and others. Applications include geo-
environmental studies, aerosol release, materials identification, agricultural studies, atmospheric studies, and many
others. Two case studies are presented that address the evaluation of African smog and its effect on the African
ecosystem and the evaluation of aerosol pollution in the northeastern region of the United states with particular
attention to particulate matter.

Keywords: hyper-spectral, spectrometry, air pollution, hazardous air emissions, spectral resolution, TERRA,
AQUA, MOPITT, MIPAS, LIDAR, AVIRIS, spectral range, and hyper-spectral sensors.

1. INTRODUCTION

Man's activities have a significant influence on climate. Fossil fuel burning equipments produce emissions such as:
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. A combination of this Hazardous Air
Pollutants (HAP) with background natural emissions such as aerosols and particulate matter is difficult to study and
predict. This paper introduces the utilization of Hyperspectral Imagery (HIS) in understanding the composition of
atmospheric air pollution. Different sensors to achieve this goal will be studied and their advantages and
disadvantages will be explained. Additionally two case studies of HIS applications for furthering the understanding
of aerosol pollution in the northeaster region of the United States and the effects of smog on the ecosystem in Africa
will be presented.

2. COMBUSION PROCESS

Gasoline and diesel fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons, compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon atoms. In a
"perfect" engine, oxygen in the air would convert all the hydrogen in the fuel to water and all the carbon in the fuel
to carbon dioxide. Nitrogen in the air would remain unaffected. In reality, the combustion process cannot be
"perfect," and automotive engines emit several types of pollutants. Perfect combustion is illustrated by the following
relationship:

FUEL (hydrocarbons) + AIR (oxygen and nitrogen) ==>> CARBON DIOXIDE + water + unaffected nitrogen

For the case of typical engine combustion which can be directly associated with the operation of motor vehicles and
large stationary sources of the air pollution the chemical reaction is quite different and the resulting by-products

1
Facility Engineering Manager and Doctoral Student, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, George Washington
University, Washington, DC 20052
2
Professor and Chair, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Suite 643, Academic Center, George Washington
University, Washington, DC 20052
Research Professor, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia

Geo-Spatial and Temporal Image and Data Exploitation III, Nickolas L. Faust, William E. Roper, Editors, 167
Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 5097 (2003) © 2003 SPIE · 0277-786X/03/$15.00

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 include unburned hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water is the simplest case.
The relationship can be illustrated as:

FUEL + AIR ==>> UNBURNED HYDROCARBONS +NITROGEN OXIDES + CARBON MONOXIDE +

CARBON DIOXIDE + water

2.1 Exhaust Pollutants

Hydrocarbon emissions result when fuel molecules in the engine do not burn or burn only partially. Hydrocarbons
react in the presence of nitrogen oxides and sunlight to form ground-level ozone, a major component of smog.
Ozone irritates the eyes, damages the lungs, and aggravates respiratory problems. It is our most widespread and
intractable urban air pollution problem. A number of exhaust hydrocarbons are also toxic, with the potential to cause
cancer. Under the high pressure and temperature conditions in an engine, nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the air
react to form various nitrogen oxides, collectively known as NOx. Nitrogen oxides, like hydrocarbons, are
precursors to the formation of ozone. They also contribute to the formation of acid rain. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a
product of incomplete combustion and occurs when carbon in the fuel is partially oxidized rather than fully oxidized
to carbon dioxide (CO). Carbon monoxide reduces the flow of oxygen in the bloodstream and is particularly
dangerous to persons with heart disease. In recent years, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
started to view carbon dioxide, a product of "perfect" combustion, as a pollution concern. Carbon dioxide does not
directly impair human health, but it is a "greenhouse gas" that traps the earth's heat and contributes to the potential
for global warming

2.2 Evaporative Emissions

Hydrocarbon pollutants also escape into the air through fuel evaporation. With today's efficient exhaust emission
controls and today's gasoline formulations, evaporative losses can account for a majority of the total hydrocarbon
pollution from current model cars on hot days when ozone levels are highest. Evaporative emissions occur several
ways:
S Diurnal: Gasoline evaporation increases as the temperature rises during the day, heating the fuel tank and
venting gasoline vapors.
S Running Losses: The hot engine and exhaust system can vaporize gasoline when the car is running.
. Hot Soak: The engine remains hot for a period of time after the car is turned off, and gasoline evaporation
continues when the car is parked.
. Refueling: Gasoline vapors are always present in fuel tanks. These vapors are forced out when the tank is
filled with liquid fuel.
3. FUNDAMENTALS OF HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGERY

Multispectral remote sensing (MRS) can be defined as an imaging system with 2 or more bands but about 12 to 15
bands is the practical maximum. A "band" is defined as a portion of the spectrum with a given spectral width, such
as 10 or 50 nm. Multispectral systems are non-contiguous in their coverage of the spectrum. The bands can be
spectrally narrow or wide. Many satellite systems have traditionally had wide (50 - 200 nm) bands while some
aircraft systems have discrete narrow bands (around 10 nm).

Hyperspectral systems are known for having dozens to hundreds of narrow contiguous bands. Most are able to
collect images starting at about 400 nm, which is the edge of the blue visible part of the spectrum. Typically these
systems can measure energy to 1 100 or even 2500 nm. Hyperspectral systems are usually fundamentally different
than multispectral systems because they generally build up images line by line as the aircraft moves rather than
acquiring a complete image as a camera does.

Spectral research is the study of the phenomenon of spectra and its underlying principles. Atoms and molecules are
constantly communicating with us and sending us messages. They sign their names with their spectral signatures or
spectrum. Spectroscopic techniques can be used to read th spectral signatures and decode the massages. The
signature of an object is a characteristic, or combination of characteristics, by which a material or an object may be

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 identified on an image or photograph. Considerable work in the area of spectral sensing is being conducted
worldwide to identify and collect the specific signatures of objects and to develop the spectroscopic techniques best
suited to the task. Scientific advances in the area of spectral research are opening new technological opportunities to
develop an increased capability to perform surveillance and target acquisition tactical missions. Universities and
workshop organizers are increasingly offering excellent training opportunities in the subject of hyperspectral
imaging technology. At George Mason University (GMU), graduate introductory and advanced courses in
hyperspectral imaging are part of the curriculum. Certificate courses in this field are offered by GMU as well.

4. BASIC PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The composition of the atmosphere is important in any understanding of the role, which the atmosphere plays in
remote sensing and in interactions with electromagnetic radiation. The atmosphere is largely a mixture of gases,
some with fairly constant concentrations, others that are variable in space and time. In addition there are suspended
particles (e.g. aerosol, smoke, ash etc.) and hydrometeors (e.g. cloud droplets, raindrops, snow, ice crystals, etc).
About 99% of the mass laid below an altitude of 30km. Table 1 below shows the composition of the atmosphere
below 100km.

Constituent % bg volume Variable con3tituents % bg volume

Nitrogen (N2) 78.08 Water vapour 0 to 4
Oxygen (02) 20.95 Ozone 0- 1 2 x 1 O- 4
Argon (Ar) 0.93 Ammonia (NH3) O.004x 1 O-4
Carbon dioxide (C02) 0.033 Stil phur dioxide (S02) 0.00 1 x 1 O- 4
Neon (Ne) 1 8.2 x 1 O—4 Nitrogen dioxide (N02)* 0001 x 1 O—4
Heli urn ( He) 5.2 x 1 O— 4 other gases trace arnounts
Krypton (Kr) 1 .1 x 1 O—4 aeroo1s, dust gae highly variable
Xenon (Xe) 0.089 x 1 O- 4
Hydrogen (H2) O.5x 1O-4
Methane (CH4) 1 .5 x 1 O- 4
NitrousOxide (N20)* O27x 1O-4
Carbon rnonoxide (CO)* O.19x 1O—4

Table 1: Main constituents of the earth's atmosphere

* a concentration near the earth's surface

Nitrogen, oxygen and argon account for about 99.99% of the permanent gases. Of the variable constituents, carbon
dioxide can be somewhat variable in concentration on a localized basis at low levels. Water vapor content may vary
from about 0 to 4%, and ozone concentrations also vary markedly. In addition to these variable constituents there are
also aerosols and hydrometeors, which can vary widely in space and time.

Atmospheric gases critically affect the earth's global energy balance through absorption and re-emission and through
the role they play in global geophysical cycles. Solar radiation reaching the earth's surface is determined by
atmospheric gases. For example harmful UV radiation is blocked by the ozone layer. Also, "windows" in which
atmospheric effects are minimal allow ground-based measurements of celestial objects, and satellite-based
measurements of the earth's surface or clouds for remote sensing applications.

Table 2 gives the main atmospheric gases which absorb radiation along with their absorbing regions, at ultraviolet
(UV), visible, infrared (IR) and microwave wavelengths. The main spectral regions ("windows") for which
atmospheric absorption is small are listed at the bottom of the table.

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 Absorber Sgmbol Spectri1 Rejion
Carbon dioxide C02 1 3.5— 1 6.5 urn (center at 1 5 urn),
4.2—4.4 urn (center at 4.3 urn),
1 0.4, 9.4, 5.2, 2.7, 2.0, 1 .6 and
1 .4 urn; a1o a aerie of'.ieak bands
in the 0.76— 1 .24 urn range

Molecular oxggen 02 1.O7and 1.27 um)aerieof1ine

bet'ween 50— 70 6Hz, one ii ne at
1 1 8.75 6Hz; a1o '.ieak banth in the
vii b1e iith centres betieen
5384and 7621

Water vapour H20 5.5—7.5 urn (centre at 6.3 )urn),

2.6—3.3 urn (evera1 centres), 1.9.
1.4 1.1, 0.94, 0.81 0.72 urn,
22.24and 183.31 GHz,p1u1ine
at frequencies higher than 300 6Hz
that extend &1 the vay to 6 um
a fe'.i weak banth i n the vii ble

Ozone 03 1 4.1 , 9.6, 9.0, 5.75, 4.75, 3.59,

3.27, 2.7urn, 1 8 ii ne between 9.3
and 43.65 6Hz ii ne at 96.23,
1O1.74and 1 18.36GHz plus 20
1 i nea betiee n 1 6 0 a nd 3 8 0 6 Hz ; al o
1 800-3400 (centre at 2600 A),
3200-3600A, 4400-7400 A

Methane CH4 3.3 and 7.7 urn

Nitrous oxide N2O 4.5, 7.8,17.0 urn, p1u 251, 75,

50, 25 6Hz

Carbon rnonoxide CO 4.67,2.35. 1 .57. 1 .1 9 urn,

2.38—25.0 urn (several centres).
plu23O.77and 1 15.27 6Hz

Windo - 8- 1 3 Zrn, 1 8 4.7, 4.0 3.8, 2.3,

1 .65 1 .25,1 .05 urn regions ol the
interval 1.4-10.0GHz, 33366Hz,
60- 1 00 6Hz, 1 25- 1 40 6Hz,
2 1 0— 2356Hz, p1 u the vii ble region

Table 2: From Smith (1985), p39lAtmospheric absorption features are shown in Figurel for ground level and at an
altitude of 1 1 km. Regions of minimal absorption (windows) are the troughs in the curves.

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 I UZ 5 52O3O 50 *00
WAVLEMGT14 tm

Figure 1: (a) Atmospheric absorption at ground level for diffuse terrestrial radiation and for solar radiation, with a
zenith angle of 50 degrees. (b) Same as in a but for the layer of atmosphere above 1 1km. After Wallace and Hobbs
(1977), p332.

Figure 2 shows solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere and the actual radiation at sea level, which have been
reduced due to absorption by atmospheric gases. The dashed curve is a blackbody at 5900K for comparison with the
solar curve outside the earth's atmosphere.

IL

21 24 .6 2.a O 3.2
WAVELENGTH (em)

Figure 2: Solar irradiance at the top and bottom of the earth's atmosphere. for the sun at the
zenith. Shaded areas indicate absorption by atmospheric gases. After Valley (1965).
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 5. AIR QUALITY SENSORS
There are several types of sensors with variable capabilities that can be applied in air quality surveillance. One can
differentiate between three major types of sensors: space borne, air borne and insitu or field instruments. Following
is an overview of different type of sensors:

For the purposes of this introduction, spectroscopic instruments made by institutes in the US and Canada is included
in the following explanation, which is ordered by satellite. There are several satellites in orbit that measure different
pollutants in the atmosphere. Although the existing research concentrates on methane and VOC other major
pollutants are also detected with many of the following instruments.

ENVISAT is the newest satellite from the Europeans Space Agency (ESA) launched on February 28th 2002. It is the
largest platform for ten different environmental instruments in the Earth 's orbit and has a global coverage every
three days.

SCIAMACHY is a joint operation by Dutch and German institutes and is designed to detect many pollutants by
measuring the emitted, reflected and backscattered radiation in the atmosphere. It has bands in the range of 240 nm
to 1700 nm and some in the region of 2.0 m to 2.4 m. The instrument has a swath width of over 500 km anda
resolution of 0.023 x 2.3 degrees. This is not sufficient to track pollution to its source. The potential for this
instrument is as a general alert of the presence of pollutants in the area. Other instruments may then be used for the
tracking of the plume to the source. The costs for the data are not known at this point, as the data is not yet available
for general use.

NASA created the Earth Observing System (EOS) for the long-term global observations of the land surface,
biosphere, solid Earth, atmosphere, and oceans. Its aim is to collect information on the global climate change and
use the data for the creation of computer models that show the causes and effects of the global climate change
[wi 1]. NASA has launched several satellites that look at land and sea with different sensors and provides this data to
researchers for free. At the moment there are four satellites orbiting the earth for EOS and another fifteen are
planned for launch the next four years. The satellite currently of interest is TERRA. TERRA was launched on
December 18th 1999 and became operational on February 20th 2000 and has a repeat cycle of 16 days. There are 5
instruments in total mounted on the platform: ASTER, CERES, MISR, MODIS and MOPITT. For more information
on TERRA, please visit:

5.1 Air borne spectroscopic Instruments

Several companies produce spectrometers for market and a search on the Internet showed that there is a large
interest in the detection of pollution in the atmosphere. There are two Canadian Companies working on the
development of spectrometers for the pollution, ComDev and ITRES. ComDev is the company that developed
MOPITT for the Terra satellite and MIPAS for ENVISAT [w14]; it has also designed an adapted version for
airplane use. Like the MOPITT on TERRA, it can measure the concentrations of methane and carbon monoxide in
the troposphere. According to the specifications the plane would need to fly at an altitude of 20 km. This means that
special planes with a pressure cabin are necessary to perform the flights and they are much more expensive than
regular airplanes.

There are many companies and organizations in the US working with spectroscopy to develop instruments that can
detect many different pollutants. The following is an incomplete listing. AVIRIS (Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging
Spectrometer) is not a company, but is a result of cooperation between the Jet Propulsion Lab of the California
Institute of Technology and NASA. The main objective of the AVIRIS project is to identify, measure, and monitor
constituents of the Earth's surface and atmosphere based on molecular absorption and particle scattering signatures.
The optical sensor of AVIRIS can measure radiation in 224 continuous channels from 400 to 2500 nanometers. The
spatial resolution of 17 m of the system is very good and would be more than sufficient to track pollution plumes to
their source. The disadvantage of AVIRIS is that is not a commercially available sensor, the only access to the data
is to apply to NASA. This means that the JPL and NASA decide which areas are covered during the flights.

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 This data may contribute to the present research, as NASA supplies data to graduate students for free. Graduates can
apply for one flight line per year if NASA approves their research. This is a good opportunity to get data we can use
to set up our GIS. Geophysical & Environmental Research Corp. (GER) has focused on the design and manufacture
of hyperspectral instruments [w17]. It sells instruments that can measure in intensities in the following wavelengths:
4.3 - 1.05 jim, 1.5 - 1.8 jim, 2.0 - 2.5 jim and 8 - 12.5 jtm. These wavelengths include those that contain information
on the presence of methane in the atmosphere. Hyper-Spec TIR has designed a sensor that can collect data in 240
spectral bands over the range of 450nm to 2.4 m [w18]. It is flexible with the bands for measurements and the FOV.
They also provide geo-rectification and geo-location to reduce the amount of post-processing needed. The data
collected during the flight can be stitched together with any extra processing needed. Integrated Spectronics Pty Ltd
(ISP) is based in Australia. It has hyper spectral scanners, which has a spatial coverage in the VIS, NIR, SWIR, MIR
and TIR, which covers the bands for methane detection. Furthermore it has a 2-30 meter spatial resolution and it can
be used on an aircraft with a standard camera port and other accessory equipment standard for remote sensing
aircraft..

5.2 Field Spectroscopic Instruments

The companies and institutes listed below have developed spectrometers that can be used in the field for in situ
measurements. These instruments can be a good addition to detect the precise source of pollution, in the event of a
small leak. The companies previously mentioned that also produce handheld measure instruments are: ITRES, GER,
HyperSpecTlR and ISP.

Gas Technology Institute (GTI) is a combination of the Gas Research Institute (GRI) and the institute of Gas
Technology (IGT). A course recently provided was designed to update knowledge of developments in detection of
natural gases and how to set up an economical system to detect these gases. It also allowed the participants take part
in developing new systems and detectors. The costs of this course were $ 100,000 total divided by the number of
participants, GTI expects 5 participants, and the costs per participant would amount to $40,000. In addition the GTI
also asked companies and institutes for a field test of a portable methane detector, which would involve the most
recent developments and provide the participants with the opportunity for technology testing. The total costs of this
project would be $700,000, but the participants would only have to pay a total of $140,000, with 7 participants, this
would cost $20,000 per participant.

Analytical Spectral Devices (ASD) is a global supplier of portable spectroscopic instrumentation. It delivers
instruments specifically designed for a great variety of applications in 35 countries. The instruments made have
optical ranges in the UV, visible and NIR [w21]. Some of the instruments can measure in the spectral bands of 350-
2500 nm, and are very light and handy in the field.

5.3 Airborne LIDAR

LIDAR is costly to purchase, as a system can range from CAD 600,000 to CAD 1,300,000. It is possible to rent
these systems as well. As mentioned in the spectroscopy for airplanes ITRES is also working on a combined system
of measurement comprised of hyperspectral systems and LIDAR. Integrating the CAST hyperspectral imaging
system with a scanning LIDAR system provides a powerful combined capability. Not only can the two systems
share positional (GPS) and attitude (IMU) information, but also ITRES' proprietary photogrammetric bundle
adjustment can be applied to eliminate the offset between the two sensors. The adjusted LIDAR DEM data is then
used to improve vertical geometric accuracies by reducing topographical distortions in the CAST image, while the
CAST hyperspectral data enhances the value of the elevation model produced by the LIDAR.

Optech's designs and manufactures custom scanning LIDAR systems that detect, measure and track Ozone, methane
benzene, toluene, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, NO2 and PM-1O [w22]. The customer has the options of the type
of spectral bands, swath-width and TFOVAs Optech shows, an advantage of LIDAR is that it can be applied to
measuring VOC too, although all the chemicals fall under the name VOC will have to be measured separately.
Skyborne Lidar Systems Air Pollution Sensing Equipment for the 21st Century. Skyborne is the world leader is
designing and operating sophisticated optical remote sensing systems for global air pollution monitoring. An
airborne system designed and built by Skyborne is currently the world's most sensitive airborne lidar system.

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 An AMAX DOAS instrument has been constructed and operated successfully onboard the DLR Falcon. For the
adaptation to the boundary layer measurements performed in the frame of this project, the most important change is
the telescope viewing geometry, and adaptation of the entrance optics to the aircraft. The flight altitude will be that
of the boundary layer height in order to separate the boundary layer abundances from those of the above free
troposphere and the stratosphere.

Two campaigns are scheduled for August 2002 and November 2003 in the Po-Valley in the frame of the EU project
"Format" (Formaldehyde as a tracer for oxidation in the atmosphere). During this campaign, our measurements will
be compared also to in situ measurements performed simultaneously on the same and two other aircraft, to MAX
DOAS and LP DOAS measurements performed from/at ground, and to satellite data (SCIAMACHY, GOME). The
measurements and study of the Milano plume will focus on HCHO, N02, and ozone.

A first tomographic arrangement has been set up in the frame of the motorway emission campaign BAB II (Fiedler
et a!., 2001). It consisted of two telescopes sites and eight retroreflector arrays, providing 16 different light paths in
total. The idea is to measure not only vertical profiles on both sides of the motorway using the eight light beams
parallel to the motorway but also to provide a 2D image by the use of crossing light beams, in order to test the
capability of the technique and to validate meterological propagation models. However, there were only two
telescopes used in this excursion and the retroreflectors could not be pointed simultaneously, but had to be scanned
successively. Hence a tomographic reconstruction was possible only for stable meteorological conditions and a
constant vehicle flux during one measurement cycle, which varied between 15 and 45 minutes.

6. CASE STUDIES
The following two case studies that made use air quality sensors for characterizing the air shed environment are
presented to illustrate the practical use of the systems described earlier.

6.1 NASA scientists on "SAFARI" mission study African smog and ecosystems
African smog and its role in global change are under study by NASA and international scientists tracking the
movement of air pollution in the southern part of the continent. The southern African atmosphere is particularly
vulnerable to air pollution due to a persistent high-pressure system there. African smog is a soup of smokes from
industry, mining, agricultural burning and other sources. NASA researchers were among more than 100 scientists
who are now conducting extensive and varied field studies as part of the Southern African Regional Science
Initiative (SAFARI 2000) that has been underway for more than a year, and will continue into September. Flights
and science activities are based in Pietersburg, Republic of South Africa.

NASA's Airborne Science ER-2 high-altitude aircraft based at the Dryden Flight Research Center, Edwards, Calif.,
is making regular research flights from Pietersburg. The aircraft is carrying instruments that will, in part, validate
instruments on NASA's Terra satellite. The ER-2 carries simulators for three of Terra's five instruments. The first
simulator, Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere Airborne Simulator (MOPITT-A), measures carbon
monoxide and methane in the atmosphere. A second, the Airborne Multi-angle Imaging Spectro-Radiometer
(AirMISR), can distinguish different types of clouds, aerosol particles and surfaces. The third is the Moderate-
resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Airborne Simulator. The simulator's spectral bands are sensitive to
fires and can provide estimates of the amounts of aerosols and gases released into the atmosphere through
measurements of reflected light and energy.

The ER-2 is also flying a solar flux radiometer instrument. Scientists will use data from this instrument to find out
how much solar energy is absorbed by particles of smoke, dust and other aerosols and how much energy clouds
reflect. Additional instruments on the ER-2 are the Cloud LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) which provides
data on the true height of cloud boundaries and clouds density structure; Scanning High Resolution Interferometer
Sounder which forms a photographic record of light interference patterns from upwelling atmospheric and surface
radiation; and the Leonardo Airborne Simulator, an airborne micro-satellite sensor which scans the atmosphere and
ground in the hyperspectral range for fires, aerosols and vegetation. The ER-2 is capable of carrying a payload of
instruments: in a nose bay, the main equipment bay behind the cockpit, two wing-mounted superpods, and small
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 underbody and trailing edge pods. The aircraft typically flies at 65,000 feet. Most missions last about six hours with
ranges of about 2,200 nautical miles.

The SAFARI effort includes analysis of terrestrial ecology and land processes; land cover and land use change;
atmospheric aerosols and trace gases; clouds and radiation; hydrology; and computer modeling. Researchers are
studying these elements by using ground and airborne measurements complemented by remote sensing observations
from older satellites as well as a new generation of Earth observation satellites. They include sensors on NASA's
Terra, Landsat 7 and SEAWIFS satellites as well as the European ENVISAT and POLDER II spacecraft. The study
region for SAFARI 2000 includes Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland,
Zambia and Zimbabwe. Scientists from the United States,Canada, the United Kingdom and Germany are
collaborating to conduct the science initiative. NASA's Earth Observing System project is the primary sponsor of
U.S. participation in SAFARI 2000.

6.2 Washington University Researchers use ENVI to identify Aerosol Pollution

Atmospheric aerosols play an important role in climate change. In fact, much research supports the theory that
atmospheric aerosols could partly neutralize the heating effect of greenhouse gases. Aerosols are typically studied
over water, due to the relatively constant reflectance of water and the ability to easily separate surface and
atmospheric contributions on the satellite signal. The remote sensing of atmospheric aerosols over land, however, is
still a challenging issue. The influence of surface reflectance over land is much more complex on a satellite signal,
which makes it difficult to separate the surface and atmospheric contributions.

Dr. Fang Li, senior research associate, and Professor Rudolf Husar, at Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri,
are taking a novel approach to aerosol pollution research. Using ENVI, they have proven that SeaWiFS (Sea-
viewing Wide Field-of view Sensor) satellite data, typically used for the study of the Earth's waters, can be
successfully used in cloud-free areas over both water and land in the study of aerosol pollution. Their 30-day pilot
study has shown the existence of large, 1 km x 1km scale hazy air masses with strongly varying spectral extinction -
a measure for aerosol attenuation to sunlight - which could be a sign of aerosol pollution, and has demonstrated that
the methodology is potentially applicable for daily, global monitoring of aerosols and surface color over cloud-free
areaS.

Dr. Li and Professor Husar's primary goal is to extract atmospheric aerosol information - particulate matter air
pollution - in the Northeastern region of the United States in an effort to identify the existence of aerosol pollution in
that area. "Standard remote sensing techniques provide only the combined surface and aerosol reflectance, but not
their separate contributions," explains Dr. Li. "We are focusing on a unique technique called co-retrieval. The
challenge of co-retrieval is to separate the aerosol and surface reflectances in order to have 'truer' measurements of
both." Their project is based on a radiative transfer theory that states that sensed radiation is decomposed into
scattering and absorption by gases and aerosols, as well as reflection from surfaces and clouds, and that air
scattering and surface/aerosol reflectance are assumed to be additive.

The co-retrieval process entails several steps. First, one removes air scattering and absorption from the satellite
images. Second, long-term data are used to generate aerosol and cloud-free surface images. Third, the initial aerosol
properties are estimated over non-cloudy areas. Fourth, the aerosol is derived for each pixel based on an excess
reflectance. Lastly, daily aerosol-free surface reflectances are reconstructed, and the aerosol properties are updated.
Although the retrievals of aerosol and surface reflectance are interdependent, and provide a mutual quality control
through iteration, successful aerosol retrieval depends on high quality surface reflectance data, and the surface
reflectance can only be retrieved for known aerosol-optical properties.

For Dr. Li and Professor Husar's research, the retrieved aerosol parameters are the columnar aerosol optical
thickness at several wavelengths, such as .416 and .67 urn, and the spectral aerosol reflectance function. Both the
aerosol parameters and the surface reflectance are retrieved over all cloud-free areas at all wavelengths. Dr Li and
Professor Husar use eight wavelength (0.4-0.9 m) SeaWiFS LAC satellite data to co-retrieve both the columnar
optical properties and the aerosol-free surface reflectance. Columnar aerosol optical properties are aerosol optical
properties integrated with respect to the height from the ground surface to the top of the atmosphere. The properties
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 indicate the quantity of aerosol load that exists in the entire atmospheric layer. Then, they separate the aerosol
reflectance, the air molecular reflectance, and the surface reflectance from the satellite-measured total reflectance.

Dr. Li is primarily interested in the spectral aerosol optical thickness, and spectral surface reflectance. "Spectral
aerosol optical thickness indicates how large the aerosol Angstrom exponent is," explains Dr. Li. "Usually, the
larger the Angstrom exponent is, the smaller the average aerosol particle size is." Spectral surface reflectance allows
him to measure ground biomass.

In addition to SeaWiFS data, Dr. Li and Professor Husar also use WMO visibility data and GIS datasets. WMO
visibility data are visibility records collected by the World Meteorological Organization from the meteorological
stations and some airports throughout the world. They use the visibility data as a reference index of air pollution to
compare the atmospheric aerosol optical properties measured on ground and from space. If there are unique
properties, the visibility information is a critical element of most radiative transfer models used in satellite
atmospheric correction. The GIS datasets used are ArcView Shape Files, which provide geophysical border
information that is overlaid on the ENVI image for a map-formatted output.

Dr. Li used IDL to write the data processing routines for the analysis of the SeaWiFS data. He uses ENVI for the
data processing and image analysis. Although Dr. Li typically works with data sets that range from 30 to 50MB, it
is not uncommon for him to work with SeaWiFS processed data as large as 1 30 GB. Using ENVI, Dr. Li was able to
develop a technique called the "cloud screen approach." "The cloud screen approach is based on the at-sensor
spectral reflectance," explained Dr. Li. "Cloud spectral reflectance is in flat shape and has high absolute value for
each band. We set both the spectral slope threshold and band absolute value threshold to filter the cloud pixels in
images."

Dr. Li considered other packages before choosing ENVI, but none measured up to ENVI's power and flexibility.
"We looked at SeaDAS, which is a freeware package supported by the NASA ocean biochemistry program
specifically designed for the analysis of SeaWiFS data. However, it is only available on sgi and Sun platforms, and
we needed a more platform-independent solution." "Two features convinced us to buy ENVI. One is that it easily
displays SeaWiFS data in gray scale as well as RGB. Another is that there is great flexibility for users to manipulate
image datasets and render them. I really appreciate ENVI's flexibility in input and output files," said Dr. Li. "Also,
we could not display so many images in different band combinations, nor show the x, y, z, profiles as easily, without
ENVI."

Dr. Li uses the Building Geometry File routine and Georeference HDF SeaWiFS Data routines the most. "The
former is used to produce the satellite viewing zenith and azimuth angles, and solar zenith and azimuth angles. The
latter allows us to register the image into the proper latitude and longitude coordinates," he said ."The ENVI z-
profile feature is also very important to us. We use it to recognize the spectral reflectance characteristics of
vegetation, seawater and cloud, so that we can create the filter of cloud. Gray and RGB arbitrary band selections
enable us to find that the bands seven and eight are only minutely influenced by atmosphere, so their corresponding
images can be used to distinguish the boundary of the ground surface between sea and land," he said. "ENVI has
been very instrumental to us. It is a very powerful and effective image-processing package in the field of remote
sensing. It is so good at rendering color images in a flexible way, and does so very quickly. It also allows users to
develop their own interfaces, which is a great benefit for someone like me". He also expressed interest in using
ENVI for the next stage of the project, and in future remote sensing projects.
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Remote Sensing of Air Quality can be a very useful tool in helping reduce air pollution. Most polluted cities in the
word utilize stationary instruments to measure the air contaminants and issue warnings, when the air pollution
reaches a specific maximum. The problem is that those instruments are not able to trace the contaminants to their
sources due to mobility of air. Application of remote sensing of air quality seems to enhances the quality of
measurements and enable the decision makers to try to reduce the source of pollution and establish a trend by whish
pollution control can be based. Instead of passively waiting for pollution to reach a maximum it is conceivable that
through planning and monitoring one is able to act quickly and reduce the source of pollution prior of getting out of
control. More research is needed to find out the extent of the utilization of remote sensing of air pollution for
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 practical means in poor countries around the word and the extent of involvement of word organizations like the
word bank in helping those countries to cope with their acute air pollution problems.

8. REFERENCES
On Line
Project 00-07 : Spectral research program
rgomez@gmu.edu
ENVISAT
http://www.esa.int/envisat/instruments.html
http://www.esa.int/export/esaSA/ESADTOMBAMC_earth_O.html
TERRA & AQUA
http://terra.nasa.gov/
http://agua.nasa.gov/
http://www.comdev.cal
US and Australian Companies
http://makalu.jpl.nasa.gov/aviris.html
http://www.ger.com/
HyperSpecTlR
http://www.spectir.com/hyperspectral.htm
Integrated Spectronics Pty Ltd
http://members.ozemail.com.au/—tdc/main.htm
Field Spectroscopic Instruments
http://www.gastechnology.org/pub/working/index.asp
Analytical Spectral Devices (ASD)
http://www.asdi.com/
Airborne LIDAR
http://www.optech.on.cal
Skyborne Lidar
http://www.skybornelidarsystems.com/index.html
NASA Dryder Flight Research Center
http://www.dfrc.nasa.govIPAO/PressReleases/2000/OO-71.html
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Transportation and Air Quality.
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April 21 , 2001
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Reformulated Gasoline
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. State Assurance Funds: State Funds in Transition Modeisfor Underground
Storage Tank Assurance Funds, (1997) EPA 5 10-B-97-002. (www.epa.gov/swerustl/stateslfundinfo.htm.)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Underground Storage Tanks. "Corrective Action Measures
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John A Richards, Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis
John R. Jensen, Remote Sensing of the Environment
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