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 PHYSICAL FITNESS, DIET AND EXERCISE

AEROBIC EXERCISE
HEALTH BENEFITS, TYPES
AND COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS

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PHYSICAL FITNESS, DIET AND EXERCISE

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 PHYSICAL FITNESS, DIET AND EXERCISE

AEROBIC EXERCISE
HEALTH BENEFITS, TYPES
AND COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS

JANETTE A. SIMMONS
AND
AUSTIN C. BROWN
EDITORS

New York

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Copyright © 2013 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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 Contents

Preface vii
Chapter 1 Beneficial Effects of Aerobic Exercise Training on Cardiac,
Vascular and Skeletal Muscle Tissues in Hypertension:
Recent Evidences 1
Fernanda Roberta Roque, Tiago Fernandes,
Vander José das Neves and Edilamar Menezes de Oliveira
Chapter 2 Efficacy of Aerobic Exercise to Induce
Neuroprotection in Neurodegenerative Diseases 33
Brooke Van Kummer, Toni Uhlendorf and Randy Cohen
Chapter 3 Role of Aerobic Exercise in Cardiopulmonary Health
and Rehabilitation 59
Brandon S. Shaw and Ina Shaw
Chapter 4 Moderate Exercise as an Adjuvant Therapy
for Treatment-Resistant Major Depressive Disorder:
6-Month Follow-Up 85
Jorge Mota-Pereira, Jorge Silverio,
Daniela Fonte, Serafim Carvalho, Joaquim Ramos
and Jose Carlos Ribeiro
Chapter 5 Exercise Intervention in Treatment-Resistant Major
Depressive Disorder: Benefits of Accelerometer Monitoring 113
Jorge Mota-Pereira, Jose Carlos Ribeiro,
Daniela Fonte, Serafim Carvalho,
Joaquim Ramos and Jorge Silverio
Chapter 6 The Vascular Endothelium: A Conduit by Which Aerobic
Exercise Reduces Cardiovascular Disease Risk 137
Nina C. Franklin and Shane A. Phillips
Chapter 7 Exercise Intensity in Different Exercise Modes 155
C. Oliveira, M. Simões and P. Bezerra

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vi Contents

Chapter 8 Clinical Effects of Aquatic Therapeutic Exercise

on Osteoarthritis of the Lower Limb 171
Luis Espejo Antúnez and Elisa María Garrido Ardila
Index 189

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In: Aerobic Exercise ISBN: 978-1-62618-578-4
Editors: Janette A. Simmons and Austin C. Brown © 2013 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 7

Exercise Intensity in
Different Exercise Modes

C. Oliveira1, M. Simões1 and P. Bezerra1,2

1
Polytechnic Institute of Viana do Castelo, Portugal
2
Research Center in Sports, Health Sciences
and Human Development

Abstract
Aerobic exercise has long been considered as one of the major means for the
promotion of health and well-being of the populations. Improvements on body
composition, self-esteem and functional capacity are some of the benefits generally
associated to this type of exercise.
In order to reach those goals, an adequate exercise prescription is desirable and it
usually involves specific recommendations for training variables. Several exercise and
physical activity guidelines have been proposed by leading organizations, as the
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) or the American Heart Association
(AHA), regarding aerobic exercise volume, frequency and/or intensity. However, the
latter is known to be influenced by exercise mode selection. For example, recorded
maximal heart rate and maximal oxygen uptake have consistently been lower in cycling
when compared to running, for a given subject. Considering the different type and
number of aerobic activities (e.g. running, swimming) and ergometers (e.g. treadmill,
stationary bicycle), one must take exercise mode into account for an accurate and safe
prescription of exercise intensity.
The purpose of the present work is to perform a literature review on studies
comparing different modes of aerobic exercise and 1) to analyze and discuss their
physiological characteristics and implications on exercise prescription regarding maximal
heart rate, maximal oxygen uptake, ventilatory threshold and energy expenditure and 2)
to compare standard exercise intensity categories (moderate, hard, etc.) and target zones
(lipolytic, glycolytic) in different exercise modes. The aim of this review is to provide
specific suggestions regarding intensity adjustments in various exercise modes, in order
to improve the effectiveness of individualized exercise prescriptions.

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156 C. Oliveira, M. Simões and P. Bezerra

Recommendations for exercise and physical activity based on clinical and scientific
evidence made their debut in the 1960’s, with the publication of the “President's Council on
Physical Fitness” [1]. Latter, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) issued their
first“Guidelines for Graded Exercise Testing and Exercise Prescription” [2] and their earliest
position statement regarding the recommended quantity and quality of exercise for
developing and maintaining fitness in healthy adults [3]. This had a major impact on the
physical activity and exercise fields. Since then, several renowned institutions have issued
specific exercise recommendations intended to promote the health and well-being of the
populations. Some of these institutions include the US Surgeon General, National Institutes of
Health, World Health Organization, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Institute of
Medicine, and the American Heart Association [4].
There are many variables critical to a comprehensive aerobic exercise prescription. These
generally include duration or frequency but also intensity, which is of special relevance for
this chapter. This indicator encompasses detailed categories that range from “very light” to
“maximal”, and is based on maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), maximal heart rate
(HRmax), rate of perceived exertion or metabolic equivalents (MET’s) [5]. Exercise mode is
also considered for exercise prescription and it relates to the specific exercise activity that is
selected. Today, individuals are able to perform an endless number of different activities
thanks to the many sports and ergometers available. However, physiological responses seem
to differ in distinct exercise modes. For example, it is long known that VO2max and HRmax
have consistently been lower in cycling when compared to running, for a given active subject
and furthermore, even the percentage of VO2max or HRmax at which the ventilatory threshold
(VT) occurs seems to be different among exercise modes [6]. It is believed that these
physiological differences are due to the quantity and quality of muscle mass that is recruited
[7, 8], type of muscle contraction [9, 10], training specificity [11, 12], venous return, postural
position, peripheral and central factors [13, 14], neural stimulation [15], and muscle
contraction pattern [16].
In this sense, the definition and categorization of intensity, whether in absolute or relative
terms, should be addressed considering the exercise mode that is elected. However, this is not
the case in current guidelines endorsed by the different health and fitness organizations.
Here, we address the characteristics of several exercise modes, present dataconcerning
VO2max, HRmax and VT, and provide specific suggestions regarding intensity adjustments in
various exercise modes, in order to improve the effectiveness of individualized exercise
prescriptions.

1. A Brief Introduction to Ergometers

In general, the term ergometer applies to motion and exercise, voluntary or involuntary,
to the limbs, joints, and muscles of the human body, and refers to an apparatus that is able to
quantify mechanic workload performed or the energy expenditure of such workload [17]. In
general, ergometers have long been used in clubs and fitness academies. They provide
information about the workload performed in watts or kilocalories (Kcal), in either absolute
(total) or related (i.e. Kcal/min) value. Ergometers are easy to operate and allow individuals

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 Exercise Intensity in Different Exercise Modes 157

to dose the intensity and the load in both exerciseassessment and prescription. Ergometer’s
features should include:

 Both analogic and digital control of speed, rotation per minute (rpm) and
inclination/declination (in case of the treadmill). Also, it should be adjustable to
individuals in testing or exercising session;
 Easy introduction of variables such as weight, height, age and gender, in order to
calculate the caloric expenditure;
 Error of measurement lower than 1%;
 Both ergometer size and security adjusted to individual;
 Easy calibration mechanism.

Despite having general characteristics, each ergometer holds its own specificities.
Therefore, it is important to briefly describe the main features of the most common
ergometers:

1.1. Treadmill

This apparatus is the most popular ergometer in gyms and fitness academies. The modern
treadmill was first created in 1952 by Dr. Robert Bruce at the University of Washington, and
was designed to help in the diagnosis of conditions such as heart and lung disease.The main
movement patterns are similar to walking, brisk walking or running which are the basic skills
of both majority of sport modalities and daily tasks. Thus, individuals usually report lesser
muscle fatigue, soreness or any discomfort when performing on treadmill, when compared to
other unfamiliar exercise modes. The exercise on the treadmill is focused on lower limbs.
However, with increasing intensity, the upper limbs are required to participate in order to
provide maintenance of body balance and improve the effectiveness of the exercise. Despite
several treadmill protocols for cardio-respiratory assessmenthave been defined, testing
conditions may alter the normal performance of the individual. In fact, collecting data and
controlling variables such as blood lactate or VO2max may imply important variations on
walking/running patterns (reference).According to literature, on the treadmill the individual
may reach the highest value of energy expenditure in relation to intensity, when compared to
elliptical-gym-bike, ergo-bike or upper-body-ergometer. However, treadmill requires an
adaptation to performing conditions in order to evaluate maximal effort.

1.2. Elliptical

This ergometer has been required more and more by fitness academies and gyms. The
elliptical, also named walker or crosstrainer, exercises the lower limbs and/or upper limbs.
The motion developed with this apparatus is elliptic, anteroposterior and impact-
free.Additionally, elliptical allows individual to control workload in both upper and lower
limbs, according to fatigue status. The specific characteristics of the apparatus may create

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158 C. Oliveira, M. Simões and P. Bezerra

initial problems in coordination between upper and lower limbs. These difficulties disappear
after the initial training sessions.

1.3. Cycle-Ergometer

The cycle-ergometer, stationary bicycle or ergo-bike is one of the most used apparatus in
gyms and fitness academies. A large number of differentmodels can be found in the market.
In ergonometric terms, we can find cycle ergometer were individuals adopt an upright or a
recumbent position. It is characterized for being an impact-free movement pattern and
involves the recruitment of muscles primarily located on the lower limbs, throughout the
different intensity ranges. The workload may be controlled mechanically (friction brake belt),
using compressed water or in electromagnetic mode, which seem to be more accurate. This
ergometer offers a comfortable and safe position for exercising, data collection in testing
sessions and adaptation to specific pathologies. On the other side, individuals usually report a
quick perception of fatigue on the lower limbs, when not familiarized with this form of
exercise.

1.4. Arm Crank

Most of the ergometers focus exercise on the lower limbs. The arm crank or upper-body-
ergometer is a relatively recent apparatus, created to exercise the upper limbs and
istechnically similar to a conventional cycle ergometer. Some models combine upper with
lower limbs exercising. This apparatus allows both testing and exercisingin individuals
without independent mobility.However, despite a few very specific conditions, exercise
patterns are not generally transferable to daily tasks or routines.The arm crank usually
generates the lowest values of VO2max in comparison with other ergometers that use larger
muscle mass recruitment.

1.5. Ergo-Rower

This apparatus simulates the action of rowing in water. Three different designs can be
found on ergo-rowers, in order to allow the foot stretcher (with flywheel) and handler to move
relatively nearer and apart from each other. The most common presents the foot stretcher and
flywheel both fixed, with only the seat sliding on a rail (fixed head ergometer); other design
allow both the seat and the foot stretcher to slide on a rail, (floating head ergometer); a third
option presents the seat fixed, were only the foot stretcher slides backward and away from the
rower.
The workload may be controlled through either piston resistance orbraked flywheel
resistance, comprising magnetic, air and water resistance rowers. The developed power comes
from the lower limbs, trunk and upper limbs working together and applying force to the
apparatus. A proper technic is required to prevent knee’s damage or lower back pain.

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 Exercise Intensity in Different Exercise Modes 159

1.6. Ski Ergometer

This apparatus simulates nordic skiing. It exercises strength and endurance by working
the entire body in an impact-free manner. There are two main types of ski ergometers. The
more conventional ones involve pulling the handles of the ergometer and passively returning
to the initial position. Each pull involves the arms, shoulders, core and legs in a downward
“crunch”, using body weight to help accelerate the handles. The other type of ski ergometer is
similar to the previous one but adds an active return to the initial position, simulating nordic
skiing in a more accurate manner.This type of exercising is commonly named doble
poling.The ski ergometer uses the same flywheel resistance and electronic monitoring
systems as ergo-rower.

2. Physiological Indicators
Physiological indicators are priceless tools to the knowledge of the biological
implications of a training program or a physical exercise test. They provide relevant
information about the body's acute responses to exercise, allowing the comprehension of the
type and amount of stress that a given individual may be subjected to. Additionally, they are
of critical importance for an exercise prescription that is suited to the unique characteristics,
needs and goals of each individual.
Heart rate (HR) and the analysis of gas exchanges are possible the most useful and easily
applicable indicators in the exercise prescription context. The analysis of gas exchanges also
provides valuable information regarding VO2max and the VT. It should be noted that the use
of VT as a physiological indicator arises from the need to clearly distinguish two possible
training zones. This distinction, perhaps the most crucial and important in evaluating and
prescribing exercise (given that separates a no fatigue zone from another of exponential and
critique fatigue) will allow for comparison of physiological responses between different
ergometers, enabling understanding the contingencies that they impose.

2.1. Heart Rate

HR represents the number of cardiac cycles performed per unit of time, often 1 minute,
and is usually displayed in beats per minute (bpm). For its easiness of use, HR is a parameter
commonly used to control exercise intensity [18]. In health clubs in particular, HR has been
considered as an extremely useful indicator because of its easiness of use and also the
relatively low costs associated. Historically, HR has been strongly related to exercise intensity
since it increases in proportion to the metabolic rate required for a given aerobic effort.
Exercise prescription using heart rate is based on percentages of its maximum value, and
as such, this must be known. HRmax refers to the maximum number of beats per minute that
the heart can achieve, under specific conditions. It can be determined by a maximal exercise
test or estimated by HRmax prediction equations (with lesser accuracy).When metabolic needs
are increased, it becomes necessary to increase or enhance the efficiency of blood circulation,
which can be achieved by two mechanisms: 1) increased cardiac output (Q), which represents

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160 C. Oliveira, M. Simões and P. Bezerra

the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle in each systole (Q = HR*Stroke Volume),
and 2) redistributing the bloodstream to active skeletal muscle. In this last point, it should be
noted that only about 15 to 20% of Q at rest is sent to the muscles, but at high intensities, they
may receive up to 85% of the total Q. This blood deviation is achieved essentially by reduced
blood flow to the abdominal region, particularly kidney, liver, stomach and intestines. The
increase of Q during exercise can be achieved by an increase in stroke volume, heart rate, or
both.
However, in untrained or moderately trained subjects, stroke volume does not increase
beyond an intensity of 40% to 60% of VO2max. Thus, increasing Q at greater rates is
primarily due to the increase in HR. In addition, when graphically observed, HR curve shows
a nearly linear association with exercise intensity, until very close to their maximum values
(figure 1).
At the beginning of the exercise there is a rapid increase in HR, stroke volume and Q. HR
and Q increase almost immediately after muscle contraction. If the work rate is constant and
below lactate threshold, a plateau in HR, stroke volume and Q is reached after 2 or 3 minutes.
As exercise intensity increases, HR and Q increase in direct proportion to VO2, reaching a
plateau at 100% of VO2max. If exercise is prolonged, Q remains at a constant level
throughout the duration of the exercise. However, stroke volume decreases beyond a certain
point. As a compensatory mechanism to keep Q, HR will increase its bpm. This phenomenon
is observed during prolonged exercise and is termed cardiovascular drift due to the blood
flow redistribution under the influence of increased body temperature, cutaneous vasodilation
and dehydration (reduced plasma volume) and consequent reduction in venous return and
stroke volume for each beat.
HR monitors are a non-expensive and practical way to determine HR at any given
moment. Many ergometers also have incorporated a similar measurement instrument, which
allows the user to know HR valueswithout the need for external equipment. However, the use
of an ergometer cardio-frequency meter may not prove as a comfortable or practical method,
since it may imply that the individual changes its biomechanics of motion.

Figure 1. A model example of heart rate and increasing exercise intensity.

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 Exercise Intensity in Different Exercise Modes 161

2.2. Maximal Oxygen Uptake

VO2max refers to the maximum capability of active muscles to captivate, transport and
use oxygen. VO2max is an aerobic metabolism measure, frequently referred as the maximum
aerobic power, and is considered by some researchers as the best indicator of cardiovascular
fitness, since it is directly related to cardiac output, hemoglobin concentration, enzyme
activity, mitochondrial density, muscle mass, heart rate, blood O2 content and the extractive
capacity of O2 at muscular level (arteriovenous difference) [19]. Individual’s VO2max
gradually increases up to 18-20 years of age and may be presented in absolute terms (l/O2)
and/or in relative terms when attempting to calculate the VO2max according to the body
weight of an individual (mlO2/kg/min). For a male adult, the absolute normal values range
from 2,5 to 5 l/min, and relative values range from 35 to 75 ml/kg/min of oxygen. In females,
the values found are slightly lower, 1,8 to 3,5 l/min in absolute terms and from 30 to 65
ml/kg/min in relative terms. At rest, the use of O2 does not differ between trained and
untrained subjects. However, during exercise, VO2max of a trained subject can be twice
higher than a sedentary or untrained one. Oxygen consumption can raisefrom 250ml/min at
rest to 2500ml/min during exercise (in sedentary subjects) or more than 5000ml/min in
trained subjects, linearly increasing with exercise intensity, until close to maximum intensity
(figure 2). VO2max measurement can be achieved through direct and indirect methods. In
indirect methods, VO2max is determined by linear regression between oxygen consumption
and HR. Direct methods measure gas exchanges during ventilation (spirometry), including
expiratory fractions of O2 and CO2, during a progressive exercise to exhaustion. In
specialized literature we can find several tests for determining VO2max. The final value is
dependent on several factors, as the protocol type [20], ergometer type [21], and test duration
[22].

Figure 2. A model example for oxygen consumption with increasing exercise intensity.

1.3. Ventilatory Threshold

VT was proposed by Wasserman andMcIlroy [23]as a noninvasive way to determine

lactate threshold.

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Figure 3. A model example ofVEO2(oxygen ventilatory equivalent) and VECO2 (carbon

dioxide ventilatory equivalent) evolution with increasing exercise intensity and ventilatory threshold.

There are various methods that can be used to detect VT: 1) increased ventilatory
equivalent for oxygen (VEO2) without a parallel increase from the ventilatory equivalent for
carbon dioxide (VECO2); 2) loss of ventilation/minute linearity with increasing intensity; and
3) loss of linearity between the increase in carbon dioxide and oxygen volumes (V-slope
method). When exercise intensity exceeds the lactate threshold, there is a marked increase in
blood lactate concentrations. In a process called lactate buffering, sodium bicarbonate and
lactate interact and origin carbonic acid and sodium lactate. An enzyme (carbonic anhydrase),
acts on carbonic acid and converts it into water and carbon dioxide. This rapid accumulation
of carbon dioxide in the blood (and corresponding decreased in blood pH), stimulates the
medullary respiratory center, causing hyperventilation. Hyperventilation can be evaluated by
the "talk test" and is roughly associated to the lactate threshold [24]. Hyperventilation
promotes more carbon dioxide expel, which leads to reduced changes in VECO2, but to a
substantially marked imbalance in VEO2. The latter significantly increases after a certain
point, since oxygen consumption does not linearly follow the increase in ventilation.
This point is suggested to be roughly coincident with the lactate threshold. As easily
noted, determining the VT presumes the direct measurement of gas exchanges during
ventilation by spirometry method. Subsequently, it becomes necessary to analyze VEO2 and
VECO2 graphical curves (figure 3), ventilation curve, or volumes curves of oxygen and
carbon dioxide, for determining the VT. The method of ventilatory equivalents (ratio between
VEO2andVECO2) seems to be the method that most relates to the lactate threshold [25].

3. Physiological Outcomes in
Different Ergometers
A search for studies comparing physiological outcomes when performing different
exercise modes that evaluated VO2max or HRmax and corresponding values at VT was
performed. In table 1 we present data for the treadmill and cycle-ergometer and in table 2 we
present a multiple ergometer comparison. Most of the studies compared physiological
outcomes between the treadmill and cycle ergometers. The average VO2max and HRmax was
of 59,7 ml/kg/min and 191 bpm for the treadmill and 56,5 ml/kg/min and 184 bpm for the
cycle ergometer. %VO2max and %HRmax at VT were generally higher in the treadmill
exercise mode (71,9% and 86,3% vs 67,6% and 81,2% for the cycle).

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 Table 1. Studies comparing VO2max, HRmax and VT in treadmill and cycle ergometers

Author, year [ref.] Population Variables Exercisemode

n Status Treadmill/running Cycle
Withers, 1981 [26] 10na Cyclists VO2max (L/min) 4.2±0.3 4.5±0.4
% VO2max at VT 74.3±6.1 66.3±6.9
HRmax (bpm)
% HRmaxat VT
Withers, 1981 [26] 10na Runners VO2max (L/min) 4.6±0.4 4.3±na
% VO2max at VT 77.3±2.6 61.2±4.9
HRmax (bpm)
% HRmaxat VT
Jacobs, 1985 [27] 12 M na VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 66±8 60±6
% VO2max at VT 85±5 79±7
HRmax (bpm)
% HRmaxat VT
Schneider, 1990 [28] 10 M Triathletes VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 75.4±7.3 70.3±6.0
% VO2max at VT 71.9±6.6 66.8±3.7
HRmax (bpm)
% HRmaxat VT
Schneider, 1991 [29] 10 W Triathletes VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 63.6±1.2 59.9±1.3
% VO2max at VT 74.0±2.0 62.7±2.1
HRmax (bpm)
% HRmaxat VT
Bolognesi, 1997 [30] 8M Duathletes VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 71.4±10.3 66.3±9.0
% VO2max at VT 73.9±6.6 68.8±3.7
HRmax (bpm) 179±8 176±10
% HRmaxat VT 86±4.2 80.4±3.2
Hue, 1998 [31] 7M Triathletes VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 62.1±6.3 65.4±4.2
% VO2max at VT 74.7±10.1 65±9.9
HRmax (bpm) 190±13 181±14
% HRmaxat VT 86.1±6.7 81.8±6.6

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 Table 1. (Continued)

Author, year [ref.] Population Variables Exercisemode

n Status Treadmill/running Cycle
Billat, 1999 [32] 8 na Triathletes VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 59.8±4.7 60.2±5.5
% VO2max at VT 84.9±0.6 72.5±0.4
HRmax (bpm) 189±11 183±10
% HRmaxat VT
Glass, 1999 [33] 8M na VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 41.4±14.5 36.5±13.6
12 W % VO2max at VT 65.2±11.7 58.7±7.0
HRmax (bpm) 185.4±10.7 180.4±11.5
% HRmaxat VT
Hue, 2000 [34] 29 M Triathletes VO2max (L/min) 4.81±0.42 4.70±0.49
% VO2max at VT 54.2±na 63.8±na
HRmax (bpm) 188±7 180±11
% HRmaxat VT
Vercruyssen, 2002 [35] 8 na Triathletes VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 69.9±5.5 68.7±3.2
% VO2max at VT 70.1±3.4 69.9±3.3
HRmax (bpm) 190.1±5.7 186.4±6.9
% HRmaxat VT
Persinger, 2004 [24] 10 M na VO2max (L/min) 3.59±0.94 3.20±0.84
6W % VO2max at VT 77.4±na 67.2±na
HRmax (bpm)
% HRmaxat VT 89±6 82±8
Caputo, 2006 [36] 11 M Triathletes VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 63.7±4.7 61.4±4.5
% VO2max at VT 87.3±4.2* 81.5±5.5*
HRmax (bpm) 193.1±11.0 183.6±7.9
% HRmaxat VT
Machado, 2009 [37] 14 boys Active VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 45.2±5.3 42.5±7.1
% VO2max at VT 66.8±16.4 56.2±15.4
HRmax (bpm) 197.0±8.0* 189.4±8.1*
% HRmaxat VT 74.5±8.9 70.3±6.6
M = men; W= women; na = non available.

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 Table 2. Studies comparing VO2max, HRmax and VT in various ergometers

Author, year [ref.] Population Variables Exercise mode/Ergometer

n Status Treadmill Cycle Other Other Other Other
Davis, 1976 [38] 30 M Collegestudents VO2max (ml/Kg/min) (a)
% VO2max at VT 58.6±5.8 63.8±9.0 46.5±8.9
HRmax (bpm)
% HRmaxat VT
Smith, 1996 [39] 10 M Recreational (b) (c) (d) (e)
exercisers VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 45.4±3.9 40.5±4.8 41.5±4.4 41.9±4.4 40.1±4.3 38.4 ± 3.3
% VO2max at VT 78.9±6.9 71.9±10.1 77.4±5.9 77.3±7.8 76±8 76.4±7.2
HRmax (bpm) 192±7 186±8 187±10 188±9 184±6 183±9
% HRmaxat VT 88.1±6.1 83.5±4.8 86.2±5.5 86.9±6 85.4±8.1 85.6±5.8
McLean, 1987 [40] 16 M Recreational (f)
7W triathletes VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 59.0±8.8 54.0±8.3 49.6±5.6
% VO2max at VT 82.3±4.7 76.3±5.3 78.5±8.1
HRmax (bpm)
% HRmaxat VT
duManoir, 2005 11 M Recreational level (g)
[41] hockey players VO2max (L/min) 4.41±0.56 4.13±0.33 4.17±0.24
% VO2max at VT 75.3±na 62.3±na 70±na
HRmax (bpm) 200±4 198±8 199±7
% HRmaxat VT
Larson, 2006 [42] 4M Elite collegiate (h) (i)
5W cross-country ski VO2max (L/min) 6.00±0.42 6.23±0.47 5.36±0.28
racers % VO2max at VT 48.3±na 49.8±na 50.4±na
HRmax (bpm) 189±6 189±8 186±9
% HRmaxat VT
Chaves, 2007 [43] 5M Active adults (j) (a)
1W VO2max (ml/Kg/min) 52±4 46±7 52±5 39±4
% VO2max at VT 92±na 80±na 80±na 75±na
HRmax (bpm) 195±8 181±6 188±9 176±12
% HRmaxat VT 94±na 89±na 88±na 86±na
M = men; W= women; a = data for arm crank; b = data for stepper; c = skier; d = shuffle skier; e = data for rower; f = swimming; g = skating treadmill; h =
diagonal skiing; i = double poling; j = data for elliptical; na = non available.

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166 C. Oliveira, M. Simões and P. Bezerra

A similar pattern was found in the multiple ergometer comparison, as the highest values
were generally attained in the treadmill. For example, Persinger et al. [24] reported
cleardifferences in HR, VT and the VO2 at VT, in the treadmill and cycle ergometer modes.
These researchers concluded that in the treadmill, VT occurs at 77% of VO2max, whilein the
cycle ergometer VT occurs at 67% of VO2max. Furthermore,for HR data the same authors
report that VT occurs at 89% of HRmax on the treadmill and at 82% of HRmax in the cycle
ergometer.DuManoir et al. [41] also reported differences at VT in three distinct modes of
exercise (skating, running and cycling). For these researchers, VT occurred at 61.3% of
VO2max in cycling, at 69.6% in skating and at 75.3% of VO2max in running mode. On the
other hand, Smith et al. [39] found no significant differences in the percentage of VO2max
that VT occurs in six different types of ergometers (treadmill, skier, shuffle skier, step,
cycling and rowing).
Sample characteristics range from professional athletes to previously sedentary
individuals. This is of particular relevance as it seems to be one of the factors that must be
taken into account for an accurate exercise prescription.
For example, while cyclists tend to achieve their highest VO2max when performing a
maximal test in a cycle ergometer, sedentary, active or professional runners consistently
achieve higher VO2max values on the treadmill. However, for either population, VT is
normally achieved at higher percentages of VO2max in the treadmill exercise mode [26, 29,
30, 37]. As VT clearly defines a transition between a lower intensity zone that is sustainable
for longer periods of time and other zone that induces rapid fatigue, exercising at a specific
percentage of VO2max or HRmax in two different exercise modes might induce different
subjective effort perceptions. For example, an individual exercising at 90% of HR max in the
cycle ergometer would perceive exercise to be more intense than when exercising at the same
HR in the treadmill.

4. Suggestions for a More Accurate Exercise

Prescription Based on Exercise Mode
The first step should be determining VO2max or HRmax for each of the ergometers or
exercise modes that will be used for cardiovascular training. Alternatively but with lower
accuracy, one can perform a maximal effort on one ergometer and using that data, infer
maximal outcomes for other modes of exercise, based on personal level of physical fitness
and more importantly, exercise mode experience or training specificity. For example,
sedentary individuals tend to show a 5% higher HRmax when performing an incremental
treadmill test, compared to an incremental cycle ergometer test [44]. In this way, if one attains
a HRmax of 200 bpm on the treadmill, his HRmax on the cycle ergometer should be around 190
bpm.
Then, one should determine when VT occurs. The highest percentage of VO2max or
HRmax at which VT occurs is generally found in the treadmill exercise mode. Using HR data,
VT usually takes place at 85 to 90% of HRmax. In absolute terms, when comparing VT in
treadmill and cycle ergometers, recreationnal subjects exhibit an average difference of 22
bpm [44].

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 Exercise Intensity in Different Exercise Modes 167

5. Practical Example for a Sedentary

or Recreational Individual That Pretends
to Exercise at an Intensity That Is
Lower Than the VT
HRmax in treadmill: 200 bpm

HRmax in cycle-ergometer: 190 bpm

VT in treadmill: 178 bpm (89% of HRmax)

VT in cycle-ergometer: 158 bpm (83% of HRmax)

In this example, subject would be able to exercise just below 178 bpm whenever using
the treadmill, but should not exceed 158 bpm when performing exercise in the cycle-
ergometer.This represents a 20 bpm difference between ergometers at VT, which has a
relevant impact in practical terms.
It is thought that this methodology can be applied to all kinds of populations, from
sedentary to elite athletes, including high-risk individuals. As triathletes routinely perform
three different exercise modes, data for HRmax, VO2max and VT in this population is
relatively abundant. However, the same information is lacking in many other individuals with
different characteristics.
In conclusion, considering the exercise mode and the individual’s training experience and
specificity are critical steps to improve the safety and the accuracy of exercise prescriptions
and should provide additional health and performance benefits to active individuals.

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