q

860 ⏐⏐⏐ POWER (ac)

Ps
19.7 THE TOTAL P, Q, AND S
The total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, and volt-amperes, and
the power factor of any system can be found using the following pro-
cedure:
1. Find the real power and reactive power for each branch of the
circuit.
2. The total real power of the system (PT) is then the sum of the
average power delivered to each branch.
3. The total reactive power (QT) is the difference between the reactive
power of the inductive loads and that of the capacitive loads.
4. The total apparent power is ST  兹P 苶T2苶
苶苶Q2T苶.
5. The total power factor is PT /ST .
There are two important points in the above tabulation. First, the
total apparent power must be determined from the total average and
reactive powers and cannot be determined from the apparent powers of
each branch. Second, and more important, it is not necessary to con-
sider the series-parallel arrangement of branches. In other words, the
total real, reactive, or apparent power is independent of whether the
loads are in series, parallel, or series-parallel. The following examples
will demonstrate the relative ease with which all of the quantities of
interest can be found.

EXAMPLE 19.1 Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive,

and volt-amperes, and the power factor Fp of the network in Fig. 19.17.
Draw the power triangle and find the current in phasor form.

Load 1

0 VAR
+ I 100 W

Load 2 Load 3

E = 100 V ∠0° 700 VAR (L) 1500 VAR (C)

200 W 300 W

FIG. 19.17
Example 19.1.

Solution: Construct a table such as shown in Table 19.1.

TABLE 19.1

Load W VAR VA

1 100 0 100
2 200 700 (L) 兹(2
苶0苶0苶苶
)2苶 苶(7苶0苶0苶苶
)2  728.0
3 300 1500 (C) 兹(3
苶0苶0苶苶
)苶
2
苶(1苶5苶0苶0苶苶
)2  1529.71
PT  600 QT  800 (C) ST  兹(6苶0苶0苶)苶2苶
苶(8苶0苶0苶)苶2  1000
Total power dissipated Resultant reactive power of network (Note that ST  sum of
each branch:
1000  100  728  1529.71)
 q
Ps THE TOTAL P, Q, AND S ⏐⏐⏐ 861

Thus,
PT 600 W
Fp      0.6 leading (C) PT = 600 W
ST 1000 VA
53.13° = cos –1 0.6
The power triangle is shown in Fig. 19.18.
Since ST  VI  1000 VA, I  1000 VA/100 V  10 A; and since v
of cos v  Fp is the angle between the input voltage and current: QT = 800 VAR (C)

I  10 A ⬔53.13° ST = 1000 VA

The plus sign is associated with the phase angle since the circuit is pre-
dominantly capacitive. FIG. 19.18
Power triangle for Example 19.1.

EXAMPLE 19.2
a. Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, and volt-
amperes, and the power factor Fp for the network of Fig. 19.19.

R XL

I 6⍀ 7⍀
+
E = 100 V ∠0° XC 15 ⍀
–

FIG. 19.19
Example 19.2.

b. Sketch the power triangle.

c. Find the energy dissipated by the resistor over one full cycle of the
input voltage if the frequency of the input quantities is 60 Hz.
d. Find the energy stored in, or returned by, the capacitor or inductor
over one half-cycle of the power curve for each if the frequency of
the input quantities is 60 Hz.
Solutions:
E 100 V ⬔0° 100 V ⬔0°
a. I      
ZT 6   j 7   j 15  10  ⬔53.13°
 10 A ⬔53.13°
VR  (10 A ⬔53.13°)(6  ⬔0°)  60 V ⬔53.13°
VL  (10 A ⬔53.13°)(7  ⬔90°)  70 V ⬔143.13°
VC  (10 A ⬔53.13°)(15  ⬔90°)  150 V ⬔36.87°
PT  EI cos v  (100 V)(10 A) cos 53.13°  600 W
 I 2R  (10 A)2(6 )  600 W
V R2 (60 V)2
     600 W
R 6
ST  EI  (100 V)(10 A)  1000 VA
 I 2ZT  (10 A)2(10 )  1000 VA
E2 (100 V)2
     1000 VA
ZT 10 
QT  EI sin v  (100 V)(10 A) sin 53.13°  800 VAR
 QC  QL
 I 2(XC  XL)  (10 A)2(15   7 )  800 VAR
 q
862 ⏐⏐⏐ POWER (ac)
Ps
VC2 V L2 (150 V)2 (70 V)2
QT        
XC XL 15  7
 1500 VAR  700 VAR  800 VAR
PT 600 W
Fp      0.6 leading (C)
ST 1000 VA
PT = 600 W
b. The power triangle is as shown in Fig. 19.20.
53.13°
VR I (60 V)(10 A)
c. WR      10 J
f1 60 Hz
QT = 800 VAR (C)
VL I (70 V)(10 A) 700 J
ST = 1000 VA d. WL        1.86 J
q1 (2p)(60 Hz) 377
VC I (150 V)(10 A) 1500 J
WC        3.98 J
FIG. 19.20 q1 377 rad/s 377
Power triangle for Example 19.2.

EXAMPLE 19.3 For the system of Fig. 19.21,

Heating Motor h = 82% Capacitive load

+ elements 9⍀
12 R
E = 208 V ∠0° 60-W 6.4 kW 5 Hp
bulbs
– Fp = 0.72 XC 12 ⍀
lagging

FIG. 19.21
Example 19.3.

a. Find the average power, apparent power, reactive power, and Fp for
each branch.
b. Find the total number of watts, volt-amperes reactive, and volt-
amperes, and the power factor of the system. Sketch the power tri-
angle.
c. Find the source current I.

Solutions:
a. Bulbs:
Total dissipation of applied power
P1  12(60 W)  720 W
Q1  0 VAR
S1  P1  720 VA
Fp1  1
Heating elements:
Total dissipation of applied power
P2  6.4 kW
Q2  0 VAR
S2  P2  6.4 kVA
Fp2  1
 q
Ps THE TOTAL P, Q, AND S ⏐⏐⏐ 863

Motor:
Po Po 5(746 W)
h Pi      4548.78 W  P3
Pi h 0.82
Fp  0.72 lagging
P3 4548.78 W
P3  S3 cos v S3      6317.75 VA
cos v 0.72
Also, v  cos1 0.72  43.95°, so that
Q3  S3 sin v  (6317.75 VA)(sin 43.95°)
 (6317.75 VA)(0.694)  4384.71 VAR (L)
Capacitive load:
E 208 V ⬔0° 208 V ⬔0°
I        13.87 A ⬔53.13°
Z 9   j 12  15  ⬔53.13°
P4  I2R  (13.87 A)2 • 9   1731.39 W
Q4  I2XC  (13.87 A)2 • 12   2308.52 VAR (C)
S4  兹P 苶24苶
苶苶Q24苶  兹(1
苶7苶3苶1苶.3
苶9苶苶
W苶)2苶
苶(2苶3苶0苶8苶.5
苶2苶苶
VA苶R
苶苶)2
 2885.65 VA
P4 1731.39 W
Fp      0.6 leading
S4 2885.65 VA
b. PT  P1  P2  P3  P4
 720 W  6400 W  4548.78 W  1731.39 W
 13,400.17 W
QT  Q1  Q2  Q3  Q4
 0  0  4384.71 VAR (L)  2308.52 VAR (C)
 2076.19 VAR (L)
ST  兹苶 PT2苶苶
苶QT2苶  兹苶
(1苶3苶
,4苶0苶0苶
.1苶7苶
W苶)2苶
苶(苶2苶0苶7苶6苶
.1苶9苶
V苶A苶
R苶)2
 13,560.06 VA
PT 13.4 kW
Fp      0.988 lagging
ST 13,560.06 VA
v  cos1 0.988  8.89°
Note Fig. 19.22.

6 VA
3,560.0
ST = 1 QT = 2076.19 VAR (L)
8.89°
PT = 13.4 kW

FIG. 19.22
Power triangle for Example 19.3.

ST 13,559.89 VA
c. ST  EI I      65.19 A
E 208 V
Lagging power factor: E leads I by 8.89°, and
I  65.19 A ⬔8.89°
 q
864 ⏐⏐⏐ POWER (ac)
Ps

EXAMPLE 19.4 An electrical device is rated 5 kVA, 100 V at a 0.6

power-factor lag. What is the impedance of the device in rectangular
coordinates?
Solution:
S  EI  5000 VA
5000 VA
Therefore, I    50 A
100 V
For Fp  0.6, we have
v  cos1 0.6  53.13°

R
Since the power factor is lagging, the circuit is predominantly induc-
tive, and I lags E. Or, for E  100 V ⬔0°,
1.2 ⍀
I  50 A ⬔53.13°
ZT XL 1.6 ⍀
However,
E 100 V ⬔0°
ZT      2  ⬔53.13°  1.2   j 1.6 
I 50 A ⬔53.13°
FIG. 19.23
Example 19.4. which is the impedance of the circuit of Fig. 19.23.

19.8 POWER-FACTOR CORRECTION

The design of any power transmission system is very sensitive to the
magnitude of the current in the lines as determined by the applied loads.
Increased currents result in increased power losses (by a squared factor
since P  I2R) in the transmission lines due to the resistance of the
lines. Heavier currents also require larger conductors, increasing the
amount of copper needed for the system, and, quite obviously, they
require increased generating capacities by the utility company.
Every effort must therefore be made to keep current levels at a min-
S
imum. Since the line voltage of a transmission system is fixed, the
QT apparent power is directly related to the current level. In turn, the
smaller the net apparent power, the smaller the current drawn from the
S < S Q T < QT supply. Minimum current is therefore drawn from a supply when S  P
v < θ and QT  0. Note the effect of decreasing levels of QT on the length
v
(and magnitude) of S in Fig. 19.24 for the same real power. Note also
that the power-factor angle approaches zero degrees and Fp approaches
FIG. 19.24
Demonstrating the impact of power-factor
1, revealing that the network is appearing more and more resistive at the
correction on the power triangle of a network. input terminals.
The process of introducing reactive elements to bring the power fac-
tor closer to unity is called power-factor correction. Since most loads
are inductive, the process normally involves introducing elements with
capacitive terminal characteristics having the sole purpose of improving
the power factor.
In Fig. 19.25(a), for instance, an inductive load is drawing a current
IL that has a real and an imaginary component. In Fig. 19.25(b), a
capacitive load was added in parallel with the original load to raise the
power factor of the total system to the unity power-factor level. Note
that by placing all the elements in parallel, the load still receives the
same terminal voltage and draws the same current IL. In other words,
the load is unaware of and unconcerned about whether it is hooked up
as shown in Fig. 19.25(a) or Fig. 19.25(b).
 q
Ps POWER-FACTOR CORRECTION ⏐⏐⏐ 865

IL Is
IL
+
Inductive load Fp = 1
Inductive load
L XL > R + Ic L XL > R
E = E ∠0° Fp < 1 E Fp < 1
Xc
R – R

– ZT = ZT ∠0°

(a) (b)

FIG. 19.25
Demonstrating the impact of a capacitive element on the power factor of a
network.

Solving for the source current in Fig. 19.25(b):

Is  IC  IL
 j IC (Imag)  IL(Re)  j IL(Imag)
 IL(Re)  j [IL(Imag)  IC (Imag)]
If XC is chosen such that IC(Imag)  IL(Imag), then
Is  IL(Re)  j (0)  IL(Re) ⬔0°
The result is a source current whose magnitude is simply equal to the
real part of the load current, which can be considerably less than the
magnitude of the load current of Fig. 19.25(a). In addition, since the
phase angle associated with both the applied voltage and the source cur-
rent is the same, the system appears “resistive” at the input terminals,
and all of the power supplied is absorbed, creating maximum efficiency
for a generating utility.

EXAMPLE 19.5 A 5-hp motor with a 0.6 lagging power factor and an
efficiency of 92% is connected to a 208-V, 60-Hz supply.
a. Establish the power triangle for the load.
b. Determine the power-factor capacitor that must be placed in parallel
with the load to raise the power factor to unity.
c. Determine the change in supply current from the uncompensated to
the compensated system.
d. Find the network equivalent of the above, and verify the conclusions.
Solutions:
a. Since 1 hp  746 W,
Po  5 hp  5(746 W)  3730 W
Po 3730 W
and Pi (drawn from the line)      4054.35 W
h 0.92
Also, FP  cos v  0.6
and v  cos1 0.6  53.13°
QL
Applying tan v  
Pi
we obtain QL  Pi tan v  (4054.35 W) tan 53.13°
 5405.8 VAR (L)
and
S  兹P
苶2苶
i 苶
QL2苶  兹(4
苶0苶5苶4苶.3
苶5苶苶
W苶)2苶
苶(5苶4苶0苶5苶.8
苶苶 苶R
VA苶苶)2
 6757.25 VA
 q
866 ⏐⏐⏐ POWER (ac)
Ps
The power triangle appears in Fig. 19.26.
b. A net unity power-factor level is established by introducing a
S = 6757.25 VA capacitive reactive power level of 5405.8 VAR to balance QL. Since
QL = 5404.45 VAR (L)
V2
QC  
v = 53.13° XC
P = 4054.35 W V2 (208 V)2
then XC      8 
QC 5405.8 VAR (C)
FIG. 19.26
1 1
Initial power triangle for the load of and C      331.6 mF
Example 19.5. 2pf XC (2p)(60 Hz)(8 )
c. At 0.6Fp,
S  VI  6757.25 VA
S 6757.25 VA
and I      32.49 A
V 208 V
At unity Fp,

S  VI  4054.35 VA
S 4054.35 VA
and I      19.49 A
V 208 V
producing a 40% reduction in supply current.
d. For the motor, the angle by which the applied voltage leads the cur-
rent is
v  cos1 0.6  53.13°
and P  EIm cos v  4054.35 W, from above, so that
P 4054.35 W
Im      32.49 A (as above)
E cos v (208 V)(0.6)
resulting in
Im  32.49 A ⬔53.13°
Therefore,
E 208 V ⬔0°
Zm      6.4  ⬔53.13°
Im 32.49 A ⬔53.13°
 3.84   j 5.12 
as shown in Fig. 19.27(a).

Is = Im = 32.49 A Is = 19.49 A Im = 32.49 A

+ XL 5.12 ⍀ + IC = 26 A
E = 208 V ∠0° E = 208 V ∠0° XC 8⍀ Zm R 10.64 ⍀ XL 8⍀
– R 3.84 ⍀ –

Motor Motor
(a) (b)

FIG. 19.27
Demonstrating the impact of power-factor corrections on the source current.
 q
Ps POWER-FACTOR CORRECTION ⏐⏐⏐ 867

The equivalent parallel load is determined from

1 1
Y    
Z 6.4  ⬔53.13°
 0.156 S ⬔53.13°  0.094 S  j 0.125 S
1 1

10.64  j 8 
as shown in Fig. 19.27(b).
It is now clear that the effect of the 8- inductive reactance can
be compensated for by a parallel capacitive reactance of 8  using a
power-factor correction capacitor of 332 mF.
Since
1 1 1 1
YT        
j XC R j XL R
1 1
冢 冣 冢
Is  EYT  E   (208 V)   19.54 A
R 10.64  冣 as above

In addition, the magnitude of the capacitive current can be deter-

mined as follows:
E 208 V
IC      26 A
XC 8

EXAMPLE 19.6
a. A small industrial plant has a 10-kW heating load and a 20-kVA
inductive load due to a bank of induction motors. The heating ele-
ments are considered purely resistive (Fp  1), and the induction
motors have a lagging power factor of 0.7. If the supply is 1000 V at
60 Hz, determine the capacitive element required to raise the power
factor to 0.95.
b. Compare the levels of current drawn from the supply.

Solutions:
a. For the induction motors,
S  VI  20 kVA
P  S cos v  (20
103 VA)(0.7)  14
103 W
v  cos1 0.7 ⬵ 45.6°
and
QL  VI sin v  (20
103 VA)(0.714)  14.28
103 VAR (L)
The power triangle for the total system appears in Fig. 19.28.
A

ST
kV

Note the addition of real powers and the resulting ST: QL = 14.28 kVAR (L)
20
=

ST  兹(2
苶4苶苶kW
苶苶
)2苶
苶(1苶4苶.2
苶8苶苶kV
苶A
苶R
苶苶)2  27.93 kVA
S

30.75° 45.6°
S 27.93 kVA
with IT  T    27.93 A P = 10 kW P = 14 kW
E 1000 V Heating Induction motors
The desired power factor of 0.95 results in an angle between S
and P of FIG. 19.28
Initial power triangle for the load of
v  cos1 0.95  18.19° Example 19.6.
 q
868 ⏐⏐⏐ POWER (ac)
Ps
changing the power triangle to that of Fig. 19.29:
Q L = 7.9 kVAR (L) Q ′L
v = 18.19° with tan v   Q′L  PT tan v  (24
103 W)(tan 18.19°)
PT
PT = 24 kW
 (24
103 W)(0.329)  7.9 kVAR (L)
FIG. 19.29 The inductive reactive power must therefore be reduced by
Power triangle for the load of Example 19.6
after raising the power factor to 0.95. QL  Q′L  14.28 kVAR (L)  7.9 kVAR (L)  6.38 kVAR (L)

Therefore, QC  6.38 kVAR, and using

E2
QC  
XC

we obtain

E2 (103 V)2
XC      156.74 
QC 6.38
103 VAR
1 1
and C      16.93 mF
2pf XC (2p)(60 Hz)(156.74 )
b. ST  兹(2
苶4苶苶W
k苶苶)2苶
苶7
[苶.9
苶苶Vk苶A
苶R
苶苶L
(苶)]
苶2苶
 25.27 kVA
S 25.27 kVA
IT  T    25.27 A
E 1000 V
The new IT is
IT  25.27 A ⬔27.93 A (original)

19.9 WATTMETERS AND

FIG. 19.30
Digital wattmeter. (Courtesy of Yokogawa
Corporation of America)
POWER-FACTOR METERS
The electrodynamometer wattmeter was introduced in Section 4.4 along
with its movement and terminal connections. The same meter can be
used to measure the power in a dc or an ac network using the same con-
nection strategy; in fact, it can be used to measure the wattage of any
network with a periodic or a nonperiodic input.
The digital display wattmeter of Fig. 19.30 employs a sophisticated
electronic package to sense the voltage and current levels and, through
the use of an analog-to-digital conversion unit, display the proper digits
on the display. It is capable of providing a digital readout for distorted
nonsinusoidal waveforms, and it can provide the phase power, total
power, apparent power, reactive power, and power factor.
When using a wattmeter, the operator must take care not to exceed
the current, voltage, or wattage rating. The product of the voltage and
current ratings may or may not equal the wattage rating. In the high-
power-factor wattmeter, the product of the voltage and current ratings is
usually equal to the wattage rating, or at least 80% of it. For a low-
power-factor wattmeter, the product of the current and voltage ratings is
much greater than the wattage rating. For obvious reasons, the low-
power-factor meter is used only in circuits with low power factors (total
impedance highly reactive). Typical ratings for high-power-factor
(HPF) and low-power-factor (LPF) meters are shown in Table 19.2.
Meters of both high and low power factors have an accuracy of 0.5% to
1% of full scale.