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TERM PAPER FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

STATISTICAL TOOLS IN FOCUS

Submitted to:
GLORIA P. GEMPES, Ph.D.
Professor

Submitted by:
KARL PATRICK BANO AMPER
Ph.D. in Education major in Applied Linguistics

December 2022
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS 2

TERM PAPER INSTRUCTION 3

CHAPTERS

1) Cluster analysis 4
2) Curve fitting 4
3) Design of Experiments 5
4) Diagnostic Tests 5

5) Distribution Fitting 6
6) Forecasting 6
7) Group-sequential 7
8) Item Analysis 7
9) Meta-analysis 8
10)Method comparison 8
11)Mixed models 9
12)Multivariate analysis 9

13)Non-parametric 10
14)Operations research 10
15)Proportions 11
16)Quality control 11
17)Reference intervals 12
18)Reliability 12
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19)Survival analysis 13
20)Time series 13
21)Two-way tables 14

TERM PAPER INSTRUCTION

A.      One simple paragraph for each statistical tool:

·         what is it all about

·         in what particular situation is it applied

·         indicate the reference for each tool, preferably different

sources for each tool

·         at least two statistical tools only per page

B.      Short bond paper

C.      Double-spaced & Arial 12

D.      Title page & Table of Contents

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1. CLUSTER ANALYSIS

In statistics, cluster analysis is a set of techniques and algorithms used to group

various items into sets where the similarity between two objects is maximized if they are

members of the same group and minimized otherwise. It is a technique for generating

hypotheses rather than testing them. When utilized, this statistical tool can be used

whenever it's necessary to divide vast volumes of data into a manageable number of

meaningful groups, (Gallestey, 2020).

Gallestey, J. (2020). Cluster analysis. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/science/psychoanalysis

2. CURVE FITTING

Glen (2018) described curve fitting as a method of modeling or representing a

data spread by appointing the best function for the full range in her paper for the

Probability and Statistics Topic Index. It should be able to identify patterns in the

information and provide recommendations about how the data series will behave going

forward. There are thus two (2) different approaches to curve fitting: interpolation, which

involves finding a function that precisely fits the data points, and regression. In contrast

to smoothing, which involves finding a function that roughly fits the data points while

allowing for error and allowing our actual points to be close to each other, this approach

assumes no measurement error, which limits its application to real-world situations. By

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determining if the dots on the scatter plot adhere to a linear, exponential, quadratic, or

other function, we can determine the relationship between two variables using this

statistical tool.

Glen, S. (2018). Curve Fitting from Statistics How To: Elementary Statistics for the rest

of us. https://www.statisticshowto.com/curve-fitting/

3. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

Planning, carrying out, analyzing, and interpreting controlled tests to assess the

variables that determine the value of a parameter or group of parameters is the focus of

the applied statistics subfield known as the design of experiments. This statistical tool is

employed to (1) ascertain whether a factor or set of factors, has an impact on the

response; (2) ascertain whether factors interact in their impact on the response; (3)

model the behavior of the response as a function of the factors; and (4) optimize the

response, (American Society for Quality, 2018).

American Society for Quality (2018). https://www.juran.com/blog/design-of experiments-

an-essential-tool-for-quality-improvement/

4. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS

According to Altman and Bland (2016), diagnostic tests are often created to

identify certain conditions or features. In order to diagnose diabetes, for instance, a test

would check for physical signs of the disease (such as high glucose blood levels at a

specific time after ingesting a controlled amount of sugar). When utilized, this statistical

method can be used to discover particular strengths and shortcomings among other

things. Another use for diagnostic tests is to identify the root of a behavior or feature. To
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find out if a kid has dyslexia or a visual impairment, for example, diagnostic testing may

be given to a student who is having trouble reading.

Altman, D. G., & Bland, J. M. (2016). Statistics Notes: Diagnostic tests 2: predictive

values. Bmj, 309(6947), 102.

5. DISTRIBUTION FITTING

According to McNeese (2016) distribution fitting determines whether a sample of

data's distribution significantly deviates from an anticipated distribution. Once the type of

distribution has been determined, fitting a distribution to a data sample entails

estimating the distribution's parameters in such a way that the sample is as likely as

possible (in terms of maximum likelihood) or that at least some sample statistics (mean,

variance, for example) are as similar to the distribution's statistics as possible. The

normal, gamma, Weibull, and lowest extreme value distributions are a few examples of

statistical distributions. You are attempting to assess the process capabilities of your

unusual process in this example.

McNeese, B. PhD. (2016). Distribution fitting.

https://www.spcforexcel.com/knowledge/basic-statistics/distribution-fitting.

6. FORECASTING

Singh (2018) defined the term "forecasting" refers to the projection of what might

occur in the future using statistics based on historical data. Simply said, forecasting is

the process of creating predictions based on historical and current data, most frequently

via trend analysis. This can be done with any quantitative data, including sales, GDP,
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property sales, stock market performance, etc. For instance, if one wanted to predict

how much snow would fall in 2016–17, it would be simple to claim that the same

amount (25.8 inches) will fall in 2016–17.

Singh, S. (2018). What is Statistical Forecasting? A snowfall-based explanation.

https://blog.arkieva.com/statistical-forecasting-definition/

7. GROUP SEQUENTIAL

For instance, it might be helpful to do statistical comparisons when only a fraction

of the data has been obtained when the data is accumulated over time. In relation to

that, group-sequential analysis enables one to assess statistically significant differences

at any point during the data collection process. When employed, this statistical tool is

mostly useful for designing clinical trials. It entails that the trial's sample size is not

predetermined in advance and that data is reviewed in order as it is gathered.

Additionally, this is known as a follow-up assessment and may be done at various

times. In actuality, group sequential analysis can arrive at a conclusion far sooner than

a classical design would allow. As a result, it can save time and money and limit the

exposure of patients to subpar medical care, (Group Sequential Design, 2021).

Group Sequential Design (2021). https://www.ncss.com/software/ncss/group sequential-

analysis-in-ncss/.

8. ITEM ANALYSIS

Item analysis employs statistics and professional judgment to assess the quality

of individual items, item sets, and complete sets of items as well as the relationships
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between individual items. When used, this statistical method can be used to examine

how well specific items performed with respect to other items on the test or in relation to

some external criterion. This knowledge is put to use to raise test and item quality.

McCowan, R. J., & McCowan, S. C. (1999). Item Analysis for Criterion-Referenced

Tests. Online Submission.

9. META-ANALYSIS

Cochrane (2021) defined meta-analysis as a statistical synthesis of findings from

two or more independent studies. This can be done if an issue is the subject of several

scientific research, and each of those studies reports measurements that are likely to

include some inaccuracy. The objective is then to utilize statistical methods to determine

the pooled estimate that is the closest to the unobserved shared reality based on how

this inaccuracy is perceived. Meta-analyses are frequently, but not always, significant

steps in a systematic review process of a systematic review. For instance, a meta-

analysis of many clinical trials of the treatment may be carried out to better understand

how effectively a medical treatment works, for instance, a meta-analysis of many clinical

trials of the treatment may be carried out.

Cochrane (2021). Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.2.

https://training.cochrane.org/handbook/current/chapter-10.

10. METHOD COMPARISON

According to Montenij et al. (2018), research on method comparisons, which is

particularly relevant to cardiac output (CO) monitoring, tries to assess the reliability of a
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new monitor in contrast to an established reference approach. Other forms of studies

are required to assess the degree to which novel monitors modify hemodynamic

treatment, impact the patient outcome, and cost-effectiveness when validity has been

established. Numerous methodological difficulties are present in technique comparison

research.

Montenij, L. J., Buhre, W.F., Jansen, J.R., Kruitwagen, C.L., & de Waal, E.E., (2018).
Methodology of method comparison studies evaluating the validity of cardiac
output monitors: a stepwise approach and checklist. British Journal of
Anaesthesia, 116 (6): 750–8 (2016). https:// doi: 10.1093/bja/aew094
11. MIXED MODELS

According to Vyawahare (2019), a statistical model that includes both fixed and

random effects is known as a mixed model (or, more properly, a mixed error-component

model). It is a development of straightforward linear models. Physical, biological, and

social science fields across a broad spectrum can benefit from these models. When

your data contains both global and group-level trends, regression models are a great

tool for linear regression models. They are especially helpful in situations when

measurements are taken repeatedly on the same statistical units (as in longitudinal

research) or on groups of related statistical units.

Vyawahare, S. (2019). Introduction to Mixed Models. Analytics Vidhya.

https://medium.com/analytics-vidhya/introduction-to-mixed-models 208f012aa865

12. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS

According to Gonzales et al. (2015), multivariate analysis is the simultaneous

observation and analysis of multiple statistical result variables. The technique is used in

design and analysis to carry out trade studies across various dimensions while
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accounting for the effects of all variables on the relevant responses. Multivariate

techniques were created to evaluate huge datasets and ever-more-complex data. We

should employ multivariate statistical methods since modeling is the greatest way to

express our understanding of reality. Multivariate approaches, or the analysis of various

variables for each person or thing under study, are made to examine data sets at once.

Gonzales, D., Golpe, R., Marcos, P.J., Mengual, M., (2015). Multivariate analysis in

thoracic research. Journal of Thoracic Disease.

https://doi.org/10.3978%2Fj.issn.2072-1439.2015.01.43

13. NONPARAMETRIC

A statistical method known as nonparametric statistics includes the assumption

that the data come from predetermined models that are based on a limited set of

parameters, such as the linear regression model and the normal distribution model.

Consider a second researcher who wants to determine whether the typical number of

hours of sleep is related to how frequently people get sick. The distribution of illness

frequency is non-normal, being right-skewed and outlier-prone since many people get

sick very infrequently, if at all, and occasionally others become sick far more frequently

than most others, (Hayes, 2021).

Hayes, A. (2021). Nonparametric Method. Investopedia.

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/nonparametric-method.asp

14. OPERATIONS RESEARCH

By definition, operations research (OR) is an analytical approach to problem-

solving and decision-making that is beneficial to organizational management. In

operations research, issues are deconstructed into their simplest forms before being
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mathematically analyzed and then resolved in a set of processes. The following steps

can be used to roughly break down the operations research process, recognize a

problem that needs fixing, and create a model for the issue that incorporates elements

of the real world and variables using the model to generate answers to the issue.

Analyzing the success of each solution after testing it on the model. putting the actual

problem's answer into practice.

Lewis, S. (2019). What is Operation Research and why is it Important?

https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/operations-research-OR

15. PROPORTIONS

A percentage is the portion of the whole that has a particular quality. Additionally,

it is a unique kind of ratio in which the numerator is included in the denominator. An

illustration is the ratio of deaths to men, which is calculated by dividing deaths to men by

deaths to men and women (i.e., the total population). Consider a sample of four pets,

such as a dog, a cat, a fish, and a bird. We could inquire as to what component has four

legs. Only the dog and the cat are four-legged pets. The percentage of animals with four

legs is therefore 2/4, or 0.50, (Subhi, 2017).

Subhi, S. (2017). Difference Between Ratio and Proportion.

https://stattrek.com/statistics/dictionary.aspx?definition=proportion

16. QUALITY CONTROL

According to Britannica, T. Information Architects of Encyclopaedia (2022),

monitoring and preserving the quality of goods and services through the use of

statistical techniques is known as statistical quality control. When a choice needs to be

made between accepting or rejecting a set of components or objects based on the

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quality of a sample, acceptance sampling is one technique that can be utilized. A

second approach, known as statistical process control, makes decisions about whether

to continue a process or modify it in order to attain the target quality using graphical

displays called control charts.

Britannica, T. Information Architects of Encyclopaedia (2022, November 27). statistical

quality control. Encyclopedia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/facts/statistical-quality-control

17. REFERENCE INTERVALS

Reference intervals for hematological parameters serve as fundamental

diagnostics that aid in the prediction of pathophysiological changes in fish species

raised in the culture. Hematological parameters in teleost fish are mostly defined in

terms of erythrocyte and leukocyte parameters. Erythrocytes are the primary blood cells

in fish, both because of their abundance and because of the crucial functional role they

serve, (Witeska, 2013)

Witeska, M., (2013). Erythrocytes in teleost fishes: a review. Zool. Ecol. 23, 275—281.

https://doi.org/10.1080/21658005.2013.846963.

18. RELIABILITY

The degree to which an instrument produces the same results throughout

numerous trials is referred to as its reliability. It is a measure's general consistency. If a

measurement consistently yields results that are similar, it is considered to have high

dependability. It is a trait of a group of test results that has to do with how much random

error from the measuring method might be present in the results. Highly trustworthy test
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results are exact, reproducible, and constant from one testing session to the next. That

example, roughly the same results would be produced if the testing procedure was

repeated with a set of test-takers, ("Reliability and Validity", 2020).

Reliability and Validity (2020). https://www.statisticssolutions.com/reliability-and validity/.

19. SURVIVAL ANALYSIS

A highly specific category of statistical analysis is survival analysis. The goal of

survival analysis is to examine the time leading up to an event rather than the event

itself. The failure time or survival time are other names for this period of interest. The

intervals of time that can be employed in a survival analysis include days, months,

weeks, years, etc. Longer studies are typically favored for analysis since they present

stronger evidence and more trustworthy findings. Some of the events, however, are

almost impossible to monitor over an extended length of time. For instance, researchers

may find a relatively low median survival time in a study of pancreatic cancer, one of the

deadliest and fastest-growing types of cancer, which may mean that half of the patients

passed away in just three months, (Etikan et al., 2018).

Etikan I., Bukirova K., & Yuvali M.(2018). Choosing statistical tests for survival analysis.

Biom Biostat Int J. 2018;7(5):477-481. DOI: 10.15406/bbij.2018.07.00249

20. TIME SERIES

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According to Hayes (2022), a time series is a collection of data points that appear

in a particular order over a certain amount of time. Cross-sectional data, which records

a point in time, can be compared to this. An investment time series records data points

at regular intervals and charts the movement of the selected data points, such as the

price of an asset, over a given period of time. The data can be acquired in a way that

gives the investor or analyst looking at the activity the information they need because

there is no minimum or maximum period of time that must be included.

Hayes, A. (2022). What Is a Time Series and How Is It Used to Analyze Data?.

Investopedia. https://www.investopedia.com/terms/t/timeseries.asp

21. TWO-WAY TABLES

In statistical analysis, two-way tables are used to summarize the connection

between two categorical variables. Cross-tabulation, contingency, and crosstab tables

are other names for two-way tables. Both the levels of one categorical variable and the

levels of the other categorical variable are inserted as rows and columns, respectively,

in the table. The data can be condensed in a r x c contingency table if Variable 1 has r

levels and Variable 2 has c levels. The counts (i.e. frequencies) for each combination of

levels within the two variables that the categorical data represent are inserted into

specific cells of the table. The output of a two-way table frequently includes percentages

of individual rows, columns, and the overall sum, (NCSS Data Analysis & Graphics,

2022).

NCSS Data Analysis & Graphics. (2022). Analysis of Two-Way Tables in NCSS.

https://www.ncss.com/software/ncss/analysis-of-two-way-tables-in-ncss/