Applied Ocean Research 50 (2015) 130–140

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Applied Ocean Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apor

The optimization of ship weather-routing algorithm based on the

composite influence of multi-dynamic elements (II): Optimized
routings
Ming-Chung Fang a , Yu-Hsien Lin a,b,c,∗
a
Department of Systems & Naval Mechatronic Eng., National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan City 70101, Taiwan
b
International Wave Dynamics Research Center, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan City 70101, Taiwan
c
Research Center for Energy Technology and Strategy, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan City 70101, Taiwan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The ship routing problem can be known as a multi-objective problem. Since the operation strategy is
Received 31 July 2014 influenced by ocean environments, e.g. wind, waves or ocean currents, it is therefore weather routed.
Received in revised form In this study, the three-dimensional modified isochrone (3DMI) method utilizing the recursive forward
12 December 2014
technique and floating grid system for the ship tracks is applied to globally search for the optimum route.
Accepted 29 December 2014
The proposed method considers two types of routing strategies, i.e. ETA (Estimated Time of Arrival)
routing and FUEL (FUEL-saving) routing, with different constraints, such as land boundaries, significant
Keywords:
wave heights, engine revolution speeds and roll responses. As a result, it is verified that the robustness
Weather routing system
3DMI of the proposed method appears to be a practical tool by adjusting the safety threshold for the trade-off
Ship efficiency of ship efficiency and economics.
Ship safety © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
It is well known that the ship routing optimization for ocean-
going vessels is widely applied, and a considerable number of
studies have been carried out [1–10]. Typically, ship routing can
be modeled as a minimum fuel consumption problem subject to
some constraints, which is solved with an optimization method
[11–15]. Generally an optimum route complies with the desired
time of arrival at minimum fuel consumption and better reliable
safety. Heavy loads on the ship and the crew are not allowed to
exceed the criteria value. It causes a multi-objective, nonlinear, and
constrained optimization problem in which a suitable trade-off is
to be found between opposing targets [16].
Referring to previous literatures, there have been some popu-
lar routing algorithms for minimizing fuel consumption or passage
time, e.g. the calculus of variations [17], the modified isochrone
method [18,19], the isopone method [20,21], the two-dimensional
dynamic programming [13,22] and the three-dimensional dynamic
programming [2]. Apart from above-mentioned algorithms, many
other approaches have also been applied to solve these problems,
such as the iterative dynamic programming [23], the augmented
∗ Corresponding author at: Department of Systems & Naval Mechatronic Eng.,
National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan City 70101, Taiwan.
Tel.: +886 06 2757575x63542; fax: +886 6 2080592.
E-mail address: vyhlin@mail.ncku.edu.tw (Y.-H. Lin).
Lagrange multiplier [24], the Dijkstra algorithm [15,25] and the
genetic algorithm [26]. However, most of them are only able to treat
single-purpose routing problem and are not eligible for flexible
spatiotemporal layouts of the grid system.
In authors’ former works [1,9], a heuristic algorithm for ship
routing optimization has been successfully developed to treat
multi-stage process subjected to stochastic and dynamic condi-
tions. The highlight of the proposed 3DMI routing optimization
method shows that it saves a lot of computational time by utilizing
the floating grid system to define the spatiotemporal layouts and
also evaluates the stage variables as well as constraints by applying
the recursive forward algorithm. In addition, the goal of optimized
fuel consumption or safety can also be easily achieved by adjusting
different control modes. However, the trade-off between different
purposes, i.e. ETA and minimum fuel consumption, has not yet been
elaborated.
In the present paper, the multi-objective function has been
included in the 3DMI method to optimize the ship routing globally
by comparing different types of thresholds. It should be empha-
sized that the originality of this paper is to provide access to
elaborate the 3DMI method, which should be able to operate
multi purposes. Furthermore, it has to consider a large amount
of parameters that have influences on ship route decision, e.g.
environmental forces, ship configurations and operational condi-
tions. In this study two objectives are considered, which are fuel
consumption representing operational costs and Estimated Time of
Arrival ETA. Later on the approach will be extended to consider the

0141-1187/$ – see front matter © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2014.12.005
 M.-C. Fang, Y.-H. Lin / Applied Ocean Research 50 (2015) 130–140 131

performances of optimized routes in the existence of probable where I∗ is the conjugate of the incident wave potential I . Note
weather changes. that B is the disturbance potential caused by the oscillatory ship
motions that can be described as the sum of the diffraction potential
2. Ship hydrodynamics D and the radiation potential Rj .

It is considered that the routing optimization at harsh sea con- 

6

ditions could be evidently affected by a restricted operability of B = j Rj + D (3)

the ship. Therefore, all factors that can cause harm, instability or j=1
resistance of the ship should be taken into account the safe or effi-
The second order nonlinear force, FWA , on the ship with respect
cient ship operation. Since routing optimization requires numerous
to wave heading angle  in short crested waves can be written as
calculations of ship motion responses in an actual sea state, a reli-
able method is needed to describe the ship behaviors in the ocean

environments. In our previous papers [1,9,10], the nonlinear math-
ematical model of six degrees of freedom (DOF) ship motions based
on the strip theory in random waves is applied. It is addressed that
the equation of motion can be formulated as

6
(e)
[−ω2 (M + Ajk ) − iωBjk + Cjk ]k = Fj , j, k = 1, 2, ..., 6
k=1
where the subscript j, k = 1, 2, . . ., 6 represent surge, sway, heave,
roll, pitch and yaw, respectively. The symbol i is used as the imag-
inary number in Eq. (1). M is the mass of the ship, ω the encounter
frequency, and k the motion displacement. It is noted that the wave
(e)
exciting force Fj and motion displacement k are represented by
(e)
the complex numbers. In addition, Fj indicates the wave exciting
force; Ajk the generalized added mass; Bjk the generalized damping
coefficient; and Cjk the hydrostatic restoring force, respectively.
R ) a Af Vrel (5)
Since the motions and the resistances are essential character-
istics for a ship in the prevailing sea conditions, a set of data of
R ) a AS Vrel (6)
motions and resistances over a range of ship speeds with respect to
different sea states can be pre-computed and served as the database
for the decision of the optimized ship routing. The encountered
R ) a AS LVrel (7)
responses of the ship at a given sea state, including added resistance
and motions, can then be determined simply by interpolating the
assigned values from the pre-prepared database, i.e. determining
the relevant quantities needed in the route optimization. Although
R is the coefficient of the rela-
the heading errors caused by lateral forces or yawing moments due
to winds, currents and second-order waves may have the effect on
the steering to keep course, it is neglected in this study because
the maneuverability affected by the rudder force is not considered
in present mathematical model. Its influence is complicated and
needs to be further judged in the future. The components of ship
resistance and their effects on the power performance are described
in the following sections.
2.1. Wave added resistance
The wave added resistance and the drifting force are the resul-
tant second-order nonlinear forces when the ship sails in waves.
Since the wave added resistance results in the additional horse
power required to keep the desired ship speed, it significantly
affects the ship performance in rough seas. The calculation of the
added resistance in the present paper uses the technique similar to
the previous work [27] based on the weak scatter assumption [28],
i.e. B  I , which assumes that the quadratic term and the steady
potential term is small compared with the incident wave poten-
tial. With the solution of the corresponding potentials and motion
response, the mean second-order steady-state hydrodynamic force,
F, suggested by previous literatures [29–32] is addressed in the
following formula.
⎧ ⎫
⎨    ⎬
1 ∂ ∂ϕB
F̄ = Re −  ϕB − ∇ ϕI∗ · ds
⎩ 2 ∂n ∂n ⎭ where Vc is the current speed, ˛c is the attack angle between the
SB
 
∞ /2
F(ω, )
FWA = 2 S(ω, )dωd · cos 
0 − /2
a2
= FWAX + FWAY (4)
ω is the encounter frequency;  is the angle between the wave
(1) direction and the primary wave direction; a is the incident wave
amplitude; FWAX is the second order nonlinear force in the longitu-
dinal direction, i.e. wave added resistance and FWAY is the second
order nonlinear force in the transverse direction, i.e. drift force.
2.2. Wind loads
The equations for the calculation of wind loads on ships are
suggested by Isherwood [33] and presented as below:
1 2
FWX = CWX (
2
1 2
FWY = CWY (
2
1 2
MWN = CWN (
2
where FWX , FWY and MWN are the ahead force, the side force and
the yaw moment, respectively. CWX , CWY and CWN are the drag
coefficients of the wind forces.
tive wind incident angle. The longitudinal and the lateral projected
areas of the ship on the wetted area are denoted as Af and AS , respec-
tively. a is the air density and L is the ship length. It is noted that
Vrel is the relative velocity between the wind and the ship.
2.3. Ocean surface currents
In addition to the above-mentioned components of resistance
that are expected to influence ship’s fuel consumption, it is benefi-
cial to take advantages of favorable ocean currents accelerating or
avoid the opposed currents retarding the ships during their voy-
ages. For example, on the planned routes of east-bound voyages in
the North Pacific Oceans, the North Pacific Current, which is formed
by the Kuroshio Current [34,35] running northward off the coast
of Japan and California Current southward off the coast of British
Columbia, plays an important role in saving fuel consumption and
flows west-to-east in the latitude between 40◦ and 50◦ .
Basically, current forces on a ship are subject to the product of
cross-sectional area underwater and squared current velocity. The
equations of the relative velocities between a ship in the body-
fixed coordinate system and ocean surface currents in the inertial
coordinate system is briefly defined as follows:
Vcx = Vc cos ˛c − Vx (8)
Vcy = Vc sin ˛c − Vy (9)
(2)
current incidence and the body-fixed coordinate system.
132 M.-C. Fang, Y.-H. Lin / Applied Ocean Research 50 (2015) 130–140
Subsequently, the current forces for a ship can be represented
as the following formulae:
1 cretized between the adjacent two stages as the following equation:
2 2
Fcx = (Vcx + Vcy )BdCcx (˛cr ) (10)
2
1 2 2
Fcy = (Vcx + Vcy )LdCcy (˛cr ) (11)
2 where the superscript  of i is used as the interim parameter at
1 2 2 stage k + 1 when performing iteration. Vi ,k+1 is the actual ship speed
Nc = (Vcx + Vcy )L2 dCcn (˛cr ) (12)
2 when the ship departs from stage k to k + 1 by adopting calm water
where
V 
cy
˛cr = arctan − (13)
Vcx
From Eqs. (10) to (13), Ccx , Ccy and Ccz are the drag coefficients
of ocean currents, which are determined by the coefficient of the
relative current incidence ˛cr and obtained from graph based on
experimental data [36]. is the ship heading angle in the inertial
coordinate system. B is the width of a ship on the wetted surface.
3. Objective functions
3.1. Control variables and weights
For the speed of self-propelled ship in calm water, it is given
by the intersection of the effective thrust line and the resistance
line. In general, this procedure is often recognized as the access to
determining the speed given by the total resistance. However, some
difficulties may arise due to the fact that a large amount of grid
points, including ship speeds and courses, would increase rapidly
and need to be determined in the navigational domain. Another
challenge is that for each candidate voyage, i.e. each waypoint on
the isochrone, the total resistance will be different depending on
encountering weather conditions even if the calm water resistance
is given as a constant value. It means that one has to determine the
effective thrust curve and total resistance against speed, and then
determine the intersection of these two lines to find the reduced
speed, Vr .
During the entire voyage of a ship, therefore, it is assumed in this
study that the speed loss caused by external forces, i.e. wind, wave
or ocean currents, be limited. As a result, it may be reasonable to
assume that over the applicable range of speed reduction from the
calm water speed V to the reduced speed Vr , the effective power PE
in calm water, viz. PE = FR (V)V = FT (Vr )Vr , remains constant. On the
other hand, the effective power in the presence of external forces,
viz. PT = FT (V)V, can be represented by the following relationship:
PT = FT (V )V = FR (V )V + FA (V )V = FT (Vr )Vr + FA (V )V (14)
where FT , FR and FA are the total resistance, the still water resis-
tance and the added resistance, respectively. It is noted that added
resistance FA is composed of FWAX , FWX and FCX aforementioned.
In the following calculation, the voyage speed is taken as the
control variable of each stage due to the consideration of reduced
speed during a fixed passage time. While the voyage speed is taken
as the control variable of a stage, passage time or fuel consumption
would be defined as the flexible parameter for each possible state of
straightforward to determine the voyage speed by 3DMI method.
By means of the 3DMI method, the voyage speed V should be dis-
Vi ,j,k+1 = Vi,k + jV (15)
speed Vi,k .
In carrying out the shortest-time route by taking into account
the given voyage speed V, the passage time used for covering the
distance L between two adjacent waypoints is evaluated below:
Li,j,k+1
ti,j,k+1 = (16)
Vi,j,k
Another optimized route that has to be considered is the mini-
mum fuel consumption route, expressed as:
fueli,j,k = s · FT (Vi,j,k ) · Vi,j,k (17)
where s is the specific fuel consumption rate of the container ship
and approximately given as s = 129.4 g/BHPh in accordance to ISO
standard reference at MCR.
3.2. Objectives and constraints
The least common denominator of all assignments in optimiza-
tion is to minimize or maximize an objective function. Hence, the
minimum requirements to state a problem as an optimization task,
is to transform it into one objective function:
O = f (Q, P) (18)
Q is a set of decision variables and P is a set of given parameters that
represent the minimum or maximum of the objective function.
It is worth to mention that if the solution of the problem is sub-
ject to one or more boundary conditions, it is called constraint.
Furthermore, constraint can generate local and global optima
although the objective function is single or linear. If more than one
objectives is addressed, the optimization is called multi-objective.
It is possible that two or more objectives represent a certain con-
tradiction and the design space is bordered by a set of solutions
for which an improvement in one objective can only be realized by
impairing another objective.
Representing the ship’s position at time ti, j, k and the operation
from ti, j, k to ti, j, k+1 as a function of Xi, j, k and Ui, j, k respectively, and
implementing great circle sailing to navigate a ship for t hours
from the position Xi, j, k with the operation parameter Ui, j, k , the
objective function O at ti, j, k+1 can be written as:
Oi,j,k+1 = f (Xi,j,k , Ui,j,k , Si,j,k+1 , fueli,j,k+1 , Mi,j,k+1 , ti,j,k+1 ) (19)
a stage. The term “stage” represents the voyage progress between where X = f1 (, ϕ) is the ship’s position is a function of longitude
two isochrones after ship operation is made, whereas the state is
the candidate route associated with ship motion responses under
certain weather/sea conditions.
In order to meet the actual performance of effective thrust, it
has been mentioned that the approximation of total resistance FT
requires determination of the additional resistance arising from
winds, waves and ocean currents for each voyage between adja-
cent grids using the prevailing environmental conditions at that
location, but for the given calm water resistance FR . Once the voy-
age speed for each possible route is determined, i.e. PT is found, it is
 and latitude ϕ; U = f2 (V, C) is the ship’s operation is a function
of ship speed V and course C; S = f3 (s , Hs ) is the ship’s safety is
a function of significant roll response s , and the significant wave
height Hs ; fuel = f4 (FR , FWA , FW , FC ) is the ship’s fuel consumption
is a function of calm water resistance FR , wave added resistance
FWA , wind drag force FW , and current force FC ; M is the boundary
constraints or the obstacle areas; i = 1, 2, 3, . . ., N; j = 0, 1, 2, . . ., J − 1;
k = 1, 2, 3, . . ., K − 1.
In principal, it is possible to simply use the Estimated Time of
Arrival, ETA, and minimum fuel consumption, FUEL, as objectives.
 M.-C. Fang, Y.-H. Lin / Applied Ocean Research 50 (2015) 130–140 133

Table 1
The main features of the environmental data.

Data source Data type Resolution Time step

WW3  Longitude (◦ ) 1.25◦ × 1◦ 3h

ϕ Latitude (◦ )
WIND Wind speed (m/s)
WDIR Wind dir. (◦ )
HTSGW Wave height (m)
WVDIR Wave dir. (◦ )
WVPER Wave period (s)

OSCAR VCX Current speed along longitude (m/s) 1◦ × 1◦ 5 days

VCY Current speed along latitude (m/s)

EOTPO5 h Elevation (m) 1/12◦ × 1/12◦ *

However, it is relevant that tailored objective functions are able to sources were obtained from ETOPO5 data and can be coupled with
control, speed up/slow down, and improve the optimization result: other finer grids, i.e. ETOPO1, for avoiding land collision. The data
⎧ ⎫ format of WW3, OSCAR as well as ETOPO5 are presented in Table 1.
⎨K   (Li,j,k+1
J−1 N GCR GCR ) ⎬
− Li,j,k Moreover, in the simulation of ship routing optimization, it is
ETAopt = min (20) necessary to obtain the weather, sea and bathymetry conditions
⎩ Vi,j,k+1 ⎭
k=1 j=0 i=1 at any given time and ship’s position using the weather forecasts
⎧ ⎫ (WW3 and OSCAR) and ETOPO data sets. Thus, numerical interpo-
⎨K J−1 
 N ⎬ lations presented in our previous paper [1] are applied to calculate
FUELopt = min (fueli,j,k+1 − fueli,j,k ) (21) the environmental and bathymetry data in the routing algorithm.
⎩ ⎭
k=1 j=0 i=1

GCR and LGCR 5. Optimized routings

where Li,j,k i,j,k+1
denote the great circle distances from the
present locations to the destination point at k and k + 1 stage.
Eqs. (20) and (21) show the objectives applied in the routing
optimizations of shortest time distance and minimum fuel con-
sumption, i.e. ETA and FUEL routings, respectively. Eq. (20) uses
the summation of passage time at each voyage stage based on
the shortest distance evaluated by great circle sailing method. The
objective function considering the fuel consumption in Eq. (21)
includes a series of minimum fuel consumption between connected
two stages. The FUEL routing is selected by adopting the candidate
route of lowest fuel consumption. In the following, the fast voy-
age speeds are forced to slow down by considering the residual
fuel storage, whereas the slow voyage speeds are not handled as
strictly.
4. Environmental data
In order to obtain the precise forecast of environmental factors
along routes, the wave model, WAVEWATCH III (WW3 hereinafter),
is the reliable solution to our system. WW3 adopts operational
NCEP products as input and issues weather forecast data four times
a day at 00Z, 06Z, 12Z and 18Z. The issued data set produces fore-
casts of every 3 h from the initial time out to 180 h. In addition, the
data resolution in WW3 is 1.25◦ in Longitude and 1◦ in Latitude.
Additionally, Ocean Surface Currents Analysis-Real time
(OSCAR) data access system [24] provides global data of opera-
tional ocean surface velocity fields to the end users by a web-based
interactive data selection interface. The OSCAR surface currents are
available on a time base with 72 steps per year (nearly 5 day spac-
ing) issued from October 1992. The data files are stored in netCDF
format and available in filtered and unfiltered 5-day mean, monthly
mean, long term seasonal mean. Essentially, the characteristics of
current patterns are long-term operational. Hence, major ocean
currents can be disrupted for several days by very intense weather
systems such as hurricanes and by global phenomena such as El
Nino. The operation of ship routing through dynamic current pat-
terns would be determined by implementing OSCAR data within
15 m of water depth.
The bathymetry data used for the computational domain ranges
from 180.0◦ E to 180.0◦ W in longitude and from 0◦ N to 65.0◦ N in
latitude, with a grid resolution of 5 arc minute (∼9260 m). The data
In the present study, the subject ship for the numerical sim-
ulation of east-bound transoceanic voyages is the container ship,
which was used for demonstrating the reliability of the 3DMI
method [1]. The principal specifications of the hull form and per-
formance of main engine are shown in Table 2. Meanwhile, the
regression line of ship speed (kts) vs. engine revolution speed (RPM)
and engine power (BHP) as illustrated in Fig. 1 is derived and applied
to the 3DMI method according to the main engine room data pro-
vided by China Ship Building Company, Taiwan.
To verify the applicability of the proposed 3DMI method, a series
of simulation tests were carried out for the east-bound transoceanic
voyages of the container ship in the North Pacific Ocean. On depart-
ing near Tokyo Harbor (35.6◦ N, 139.8◦ E), Japan, at 0000Z on 01
June 2011, the destination was set near San Francisco City (37.5◦
N, 123◦ W), U. S., by considering ETA and FUEL routings and those
with safety constraints as shown in Table 3. Table 3 shows a series
of cases used for the different objectives of routing optimization,
i.e. ETA and FUEL routings, respectively. For the sake of safety con-
cern, the constraint of maximum significant roll responses during
the voyage has also been considered for each objective routing
alternatively. The additional constraints are required to control
the feasibility of a specific route variant in terms of voyage speed
(0.8V ≤V ≤1.2V), voyage course (C-45◦ ≤ C ≤ C + 45◦ ) and navigable
water depth (h ≤ 10 m) for avoiding land collision. Eventually, both
of ETA and FUEL routings are to be optimized.
Table 2
Principal specifications of the container ship.
Ship
Length (m) 185.5
Breadth (m) 30.2
Depth (m) 16.6
Draft (m) 5.9
Transverse GM (m) 3.28
Vertical center of gravity (m) 12.45
Longitudinal center of gravity (m) 0.33
Main engine
MCR (PS) 33,760
100% RPM 91
Service speed (kts) in calm water 22
134 M.-C. Fang, Y.-H. Lin / Applied Ocean Research 50 (2015) 130–140

Table 3
The general descriptions of optimized routings. “” indicates the constraint of roll angle.

Casename Objective Constraint Departure (lon, lat) Arrival (lon, lat) Distance (miles) Fuel (tons) ETA (days)

eta01 15
eta02 14.5
eta03 14
eta04 13.5
eta05 * 13
eta06 12.5
eta07 12
eta08 11.5
eta09 11
ETA (139.8◦ , 35.6◦ ) (−123◦ , 37.5◦ ) 6215 1350
eta s01 15
eta s02 14.5
eta s03 14
eta s04 13.5
eta s05  = 10◦ 13
eta s06 12.5
eta s07 12
eta s08 11.5
eta s09 11

fuel01 15
fuel02 14.5
fuel03 14
fuel04 13.5
fuel05 * 13
fuel06 12.5
fuel07 12
fuel08 11.5
fuel09 11
FUEL (139.8◦ , 35.6◦ ) (123◦ , 37.5◦ ) 6215 1350
fuel s01 15
fuel s02 14.5
fuel s03 14
fuel s04 13.5
fuel s05  = 10◦ 13
fuel s06 12.5
fuel s07 12
fuel s08 11.5
fuel s09 11

5.1. ETA by routing optimization
Fig. 2(a) presents a trade-off curve evaluated by ETA routings
and those with safety constraints, i.e.  = 10◦ , between Actual Time
of Arrival (ATA) and the corresponding fuel consumption during the
entire voyage. Each point represents a feasible voyage that can be
taken into account for a minimum distance based on its given ETA.
According to different designs of ETAs, the initial voyage speeds
and total fuel consumption would be varied. It is obvious that fuel
consumption begins to decrease accompanied with increasing ATA.
By comparing the results of ATA vs. voyage distance in Fig. 2(b), it
4 of Fig. 2(b) appear that the voyage distances with safety constraints
x 10
10 95
9 90
8 85
7 80
BHP (PS)
is clearly shown that the variation of voyage distance calculated by
different ETA routings, which reference routes are based on GCRs,
is little.
For the ocean-going vessels, roll motion is surely an important
parameter in ship’s stability. Subsequently, the constraint of roll
motion would be considered in the route optimization of ETA. Dur-
ing the investigations at rough sea conditions, it turned out that
the constraint for the tolerable roll response has to be reduced to
less than 10◦ to obtain a remarkable influence of this constraint on
the result. In comparison with the voyage results of ETA routings,
it is also found in Fig. 2(a) that both ATAs and fuel consumption of
ETA routings with safety constraints are higher than those without
safety constraints due to circumnavigating bad weather. The results
are larger than those without safety constraints, especially at higher
ATA.
In Fig. 3(a), the optimized ETA routings for the nine east-bound
transoceanic voyages are shown as black solid lines. Note that the
ship takes nearly the same courses during the entire voyages, basi-
cally following the GCR from Tokyo to San Francisco. These results

RPM

6 75 are obtained in which fuel efficiency and safety are not bounded
in ETA routings. The trends of additional resistance vs. the longi-
5 70
tudinal coordinate in Fig. 3(b) essentially present the influences of
4 65 external forces, i.e. winds, waves and currents, on ETA routings in
dynamic ocean environments. Specifically, it is observed that faster
3 60 voyages (the cases of smaller ETAs) experience larger assistance
nearby 180◦ E owing to the contribution from the following storm
2 55
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 waves. In comparison with the voyage results in Fig. 3(a), it is clearly
Ship Speed (kts) shown in Fig. 4(a) that the ship for slower voyages with safety
constraints begins to take more southerly courses in the Bering
Fig. 1. The performance of main engine by considering the ship speed (kts) engine
power (BHP, solid lines) and engine revolution speed (RPM, dashed lines). Sea at 0000Z on 09 June 2011 for avoiding the oncoming storm.
 M.-C. Fang, Y.-H. Lin / Applied Ocean Research 50 (2015) 130–140 135

(a) (b)
1400 6350
ETA routings ETA routings
1300 ETA routings with constraints 6325 ETA routings with constraints
Fuel Consumption (tons)

Voyage Distance (miles)

6300
1200
6275
1100
6250
1000
6225
900
6200

800 6175

700 6150
11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 17 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 17
ATA (days) ATA (days)

Fig. 2. The voyage results of ETA routings and those with constraints by comparing (a) ATA vs. fuel consumption; and (b) ATA vs. voyage distance.

It could be understood that for following given ETAs additional
fuel consumption and voyage distance are required when the ship
circumnavigates the original routes. For faster voyages with safety
constraints, in contrast, the courses still keep the same because
the storm is left behind. Moreover, it is obvious in Fig. 4(b) that the
peaks of additional resistance for slower voyages arise at about 172◦
W due to heading waves when deviating the original ship courses.
5.2. Fuel saving by routing optimization
The so called “optimized fuel saving route (FUEL)” is a voyage
comprising a series of efficient ship operations in the existence
of external forces, like wind, wave or ocean current forces. Apart
from increasing the safety of ship operation and detecting the
range of attainable times of arrival, fuel saving is a major target of
route optimization. In this study, FUEL routings serve to assess the
amount of possible fuel saving by considering the reserve of fuel
and fuel-saving route simultaneously. Afterwards, FUEL routings
adopt the fuel consumption of ETA routing as the reference,
but use unbound arrival days and courses. Since the decision of
FUEL routing is made by choosing the optimal fuel-saving route
from a series of candidate voyages, the following routes might
produce additional fuel consumption due to longer distances by
circumnavigating original routes. Therefore, the voyage speed
must be slow down according to the residual amount of fuel.
The trade-off curves introduced by FUEL and ETA routings are
both illustrated in Fig. 5(a). By comparing the total fuel consump-
tion between FUEL and ETA routings, it is indicated that voyages
of FUEL routings save more fuel consumption than those of ETA
routings, up to 5.3%. It is apparent that the fuel consumption of

Fig. 3. (a) East-bound voyages and (b) the corresponding additional resistances of ETA routings.
136 M.-C. Fang, Y.-H. Lin / Applied Ocean Research 50 (2015) 130–140

Fig. 4. (a) East-bound voyages and (b) the corresponding additional resistances of ETA routings with safety constraints.

FUEL routings appears increasing values with decreased ETAs. In
Fig. 5(b), the voyage distances evaluated by FUEL routings vary evi-
dently and have larger values than those by ETA routings. It should
be mentioned that the variation pf voyage distances vs. ATAs evalu-
ated by ETA and FUEL routings appear evidently due to the fact that
voyage distance is neither objective nor constraint in the objective
function. Therefore, it is reasonable for different routings that for
reaching the objectives in dynamic ocean environments the voyage
distance could be varied. Fig. 6(a) shows the results of ATA and total
fuel consumption of both FUEL and ETA routings by discussing the
influences of safety constraints on the voyage performances. It is
clearly found that by given ETA the total fuel consumption of FUEL
routings with safety constraint is lower than that without safety
constraint, even much lower than that of ETA routing with safety
constraint. In addition, it is implied in Fig. 6(b) that the total passage
time of FUEL routing with safety constraint is the largest among
all other routings, and the total voyage distance of FUEL routing
without safety constraint is the largest among others.
In Fig. 7(a), the fuel-saving routes, i.e. FUEL routings, for the
nine cases with unbound courses are presented as different types
of lines. It should be mentioned that the ship for faster voyages
adopts more northerly routes to take advantages of North Pacific
Ocean Currents. The voyage data of FUEL routings appear that
ocean environmental forces would have greater effects on the
faster voyages than on the slower ones. In Fig. 7(b), the results
of additional resistance vs. voyage trajectories in the longitudinal
coordinate demonstrate that ocean environmental forces actually
provide much more benefits to the fuel consumption of faster voy-
ages than that of slower voyages in FUEL routings. By considering
the safety constraints in FUEL routings, it is obviously indicated

(a) (b)
1400 6800
ETA routings ETA routings
1300 FUEL routings FUEL routings
6700
Fuel Consumption (tons)

Voyage Distance (miles)

1200
6600
1100
6500
1000
6400
900

6300
800

700 6200
11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 17 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 17
ATA (days) ATA (days)

Fig. 5. The voyage results of ETA and FUEL routings by comparing (a) ATA vs. fuel consumption; and (b) ATA vs. voyage distance.
 M.-C. Fang, Y.-H. Lin / Applied Ocean Research 50 (2015) 130–140 137

(a) (b)
1400 6800
ETA routings ETA routings
1300 ETA routings with constraints ETA routings with constraints
6700
FUEL routings FUEL routings
Fuel Consumption (tons)

Voyage Distance (miles)

1200 FUEL routings with constraints FUEL routings with constraints
6600
1100

1000 6500

900
6400
800
6300
700

600 6200
11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 17 11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15 15.5 16 16.5 17
ATA (days) ATA (days)

Fig. 6. The voyage results of optimized routings and those with constraints by comparing (a) ATA vs. fuel consumption; and (b) ATA vs. voyage distance.

Fig. 7. (a) East-bound voyages and (b) the corresponding additional resistances of FUEL routings. The arrows show the circulation of ocean currents in the North Pacific.

in Fig. 8(a) that slower voyages seem to circumnavigate much
southerly their original fuel-saving routes with oncoming storm.
It is worth to mention in Fig. 8(b) that although circumnavigation
of FUEL routings with safety constraints increases the passage time
and the voyage distance, but may decrease the fuel consumption
owing to the additional assistance on the optimized fuel-saving
routes.
6. Discussions
Table 4 summarizes the voyage performances of different rout-
ings and those with constraints. Essentially, ETA routing presents
not only the shortest-distance voyage, but also the minimum-
time voyage. In contrast, FUEL routing performs the minimum
fuel-consumption voyage, but takes additional passage time and
voyage distance. By considering the influences of safety con-
straints on both of these optimized routings, it is obvious that
total fuel consumption of ETA routing increases in comparison
to the decrease of FUEL routing. The voyage performances of
different optimized routings would be discussed in the follow-
ing.
The bar diagram for the differences between ETA routings and
those with safety constraints in Fig. 9 reveals that the ratios of total
fuel consumption generally coincides with voyage distance as well
as ATAs during the range of ETAs. For ship operations in rough seas,
slow-down and steering, which might result into longer passage
time and voyage distance, are the relevant alternatives to preven-
ting from potential capsizing. In terms of ETA routing, high ETAs
mean low initial voyage speeds, which produce larger proportion
of fuel consumption in comparison to the original fuel plan.
138 M.-C. Fang, Y.-H. Lin / Applied Ocean Research 50 (2015) 130–140

Fig. 8. (a) East-bound voyages and (b) the corresponding additional resistances of FUEL routings with safety constraints.

Table 4
The voyage performances of optimized routings.

Casename Objective Constraint ETA (days) ATA (days) Fuel (tons) Voyage Distance (miles)

eta01 15 15.000 726.62 6207.74

eta02 14.5 14.500 763.69 6199.80
eta03 14 14.000 829.04 6214.50
eta04 13.5 13.500 889.96 6209.41
eta05 * 13 13.000 955.97 6210.51
eta06 12.5 12.500 1033.73 6213.73
eta07 12 12.125 1139.46 6227.83
eta08 11.5 11.625 1230.57 6229.96
eta09 11 11.125 1315.34 6233.97
ETA
eta s01 15 15.250 744.80 6261.64
eta s02 14.5 14.750 803.71 6235.02
eta s03 14 14.125 857.25 6234.52
eta s04 13.5 13.625 912.76 6224.56
eta s05  = 10◦ 13 13.125 985.01 6220.33
eta s06 12.5 12.625 1064.16 6234.91
eta s07 12 12.125 1143.29 6220.75
eta s08 11.5 11.625 1230.57 6230.00
eta s09 11 11.125 1315.30 6233.99

fuel01 15 16.000 714.06 6462.55

fuel02 14.5 15.875 754.63 6616.58
fuel03 14 15.250 823.29 6574.14
fuel04 13.5 14.500 868.44 6499.92
fuel05 * 13 13.875 940.44 6419.28
fuel06 12.5 13.750 1021.49 6592.55
fuel07 12 12.500 1079.25 6286.72
fuel08 11.5 12.250 1189.59 6420.74
fuel09 11 11.875 1265.53 6448.69
FUEL
fiiel s01 15 16.500 688.08 6483.22
fiiel s02 14.5 16.000 719.94 6435.19
fiiel s03 14 15.125 766.09 6261.23
fiiel s04 13.5 14.750 831.28 6384.73
fiiel s05  = 10◦ 13 14.125 881.75 6353.43
fiiel s06 12.5 13.250 969.72 6228.20
fiiel s07 12 12.625 1063.06 6217.60
fiiel s08 11.5 12.000 1140.83 6200.95
fuel s09 11 11.750 1251.86 6374.05
 M.-C. Fang, Y.-H. Lin / Applied Ocean Research 50 (2015) 130–140 139

ETA routings appear an increase value in comparison to the decrease of FUEL

6
Fuel Consumption
routings. In terms of the performances of ATAs from ETA and FUEL
5 Voyage Distance routings, it is shown that ATAs of ETA routings are generally in
ATA proportional to the given ETAs, in contrast to random variations of
4 ATAs from FUEL routings due to slow down and steering in dynamic
harsh sea conditions. Practically, engine revolution control should
Ratio (%)

3
be complicated according to the real-time influences of encounter-
2 ing weather conditions. In our study, it is simplified by adopting Eq.
(14) to meet with force balance between the thruster force and the
1 total resistance for routing optimization treatment.
0
Acknowledgements

11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15

ETA (days)
The authors would like to express their thanks to the Ministry
of Science and Technology, Taiwan for a grant under Contract No.
Fig. 9. Ratios of voyage differences between ETA routings and those with safety NSC 102-2218-E-006-017. The authors also thank the great support
constraints. for this work provided by Research Center for Energy Technol-
ogy (RCETS), National Cheng Kung University. The partial support
FUEL routings coming from the International Wave Dynamics Research Center
4 (IWDRC), National Cheng Kung University, for a grant under Con-
Fuel Consumption
3
Voyage Distance tract No. NSC 103-2911-I-006-302 is very appreciated.
2
ATA
1
References
0
Ratio (%)

-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
11 11.5 12 12.5 13 13.5 14 14.5 15
ETA (days)
Fig. 10. Ratios of voyage differences between FUEL routings and those with safety
constraints.
By comparing the differences between FUEL routings and those
with safety constraints as shown in Fig. 10, the ratios of total fuel
consumption, voyage distance and ATA are taken into account. The
bar diagram presents that the variation of total fuel consumption
is essentially in agreement with the trend of total voyage distance,
but seems to be unrelated with total passage time. Since the arrival
time on schedule is not the principal consideration in terms of
FUEL routing, the decision on arising the sailing speed during the
passage would not be conducted. In contrast, the decision on slow-
down and fuel-saving route is able to meet the needs of the fuel
plan. Therefore, the total passage time would be in disagreement
with other two parameters due to preventing from bad weather in
dynamic ocean environments.
7. Conclusions
In this paper, two types of optimized routings, i.e. ETA and FUEL,
have been verified by means of elaborated objective functions with
constraints of 3DMI method. According to different purposes, a
series of minimized weights, viz. passage time and fuel consump-
tion of each stage, have to be evaluated along the voyages in the
dynamic ocean environments. In summary, ETA routings present
not only the shortest-distance, but also the minimized passage-
time routes by taking the arrival day on schedule into account. To
compare with the ETA routings, an evident fuel saving is carried out
by considering FUEL routings. However, FUEL routings may pro-
duce additional voyage distance and passage time as a result of
searching for fuel-saving routes. By considering the influences of
safety constraints on both of these optimized routings, it is appar-
ent that total fuel consumption and voyage distance of ETA routings
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