importance of error-correction facilities for speech be nice if there was some recognition of the limitations of
input/output, they offer virtually nothing of practical laboratory experiments as evaluation tools. In the end, if
use for implementing this.
8. User models of editing command selection. 17 pages.
Again, the title is somewhat misleading. It is basically
a comparison of paper-and-pencil tests of editing
command selection versus using an interactive editor.
The authors come to the conclusion that there is little
comparison in the results of the two methods, and
feel that further research is needed.
9. User assistance in human-computer interfaces. 26 pages.
Once again, this is a report of some laboratory
experiments, within the area of word processing. It is
doubtful if their conclusions would apply in other
contexts, and their discussion of the use of an on-line
expert assistant is rather superficial; almost behaviourist
in its lack of concern for what is going on inside the
user's head, that may have led to the request for help.
10. Human-computer communication for dynamic task
allocation. 47 pages. Here, the authors are addressing
one of the more important topics for ergonomists in
the next decade; how do we allocate control
dynamically between humans and computers where
both could do the task? Unfortunately, the authors of
this chapter have chosen to use an OR paradigm for
this problem, relying on probability theory and utility
theory to generate their decision rules for choosing an
appropriate action. They then tested their model in an
experiment, and obtained a fairly good match between
the model's predictions and human performance. But
one wonders whether normative models of this sort
are of any relevance to real tasks, where the
requirement for dynamic task allocation implies long-
term users, who typically have idiosyncratic ways of
working and who want control systems tailored to
their requirements.
11. Human-computer dialogue design and research issues.
10 pages. This is really a wash-up chapter, in which
the authors run rapidly through the stages of software
interface design. This is a good chapter, and left this
reviewer wishing that the editors had used this
structure for the rest of the book.
This is not a book for novices. Nor, despite its title, is it
a book for people wishing to design dialogues. It is a book
bringing together a series of reports, and it suffers from the
problems that this entails. While some of the chapters are
concerned with weighty matters, and have interesting things
to say, several of the others are a little lightweight, and there
is a lack of continuity from chapter to chapter. In the
opinion of this reviewer, books of this sort demand strong
editorial guidance, and ought to have connecting sections
between the chapters to help the reader along; this book
needs more than it received. Three other carping criticisms
can also be made; despite the strong emphasis on considering
the user throughout the book, there is remarkably little
within the book that discusses actual users and their
problems. True, there are many experiments reported, but
the subjects could as well be laboratory rats as humans for
all the consideration there is of them within the covers of
this book. People interact with computers within an
organisational and social context, and it is an error to over-
look the importance of this context. Secondly, continuing
this theme, while we must congratulate the authors for their
willingness to test their hypotheses by experiments, it would
the work that Prof WiUiges and his co-authors have carried
out is to be of use, it will be used in real, practical situations,
where people have to take responsibilities, and where
decisions matter. It would be nice if academics in general
recognised this, and tested their ideas more fully. Of course,
it could be argued in defence of the authors that most of
what they report is still experimental, and could not be
tried out in real situations because it is too prone to failure.
But this brings out the third criticism of this reviewer, that
the book was written perhaps a few years too soon, before
the ideas and concepts in the book have been sufficiently
developed and tested.
However, it is always easy to be critical. One must also
recognise that the book represents a real step forward in
developing tools for the human-computer interface, and
there is little doubt that other groups currently active in this
particular field will fred much to interest them and to guide
them in their own efforts. The thinking behind SUPERMAN,
AIDE, and the behavioural demonstrator is sound, and if
the tools could be brought to a state of fruition, they would
undoubtedly make a signal contribution to the human
factors field. I expect that shortly there wig be good news
from Prof Williges and his colleagues in this respect.
Murray Sinclair
Flight simulation
J.M. Rolfe and K.J. Staples (Eds)
Cambridge Aerospace Series, Cambridge University Press,
1987, pp 282+ xii, ISBN 0 521 30649 3, £40.00.
This book, edited by two MOD researchers, represents
an impressive and valuable collection of papers from an
equally impressive line-up of international contributors.
Industrial and academic specialists are represented, as are
renowned establishments such as the CAA in this country
and NASA in the USA.
Ever since the first powered flight by the Wright Brothers
in 1903, the fact has remained that most pilots have received
'on-the-job' flying training at the controls of a real aircraft
in real flight. This has posed increasingly severe problems
for trainers and trainees alike due to increased performance
of aircraft and the multiple demands for the pilot's attention
at all stages of flight. The revolutionary Link Trainer was
used in this country during the Second World War, training
pilots for aircraft which could barely exceed 300 mile/h
(480 kin/h). The name of Link still features at the top of the
list of international simulator developers, but for aircraft
with advanced fly-by-wire or fly-by-light avionics, advanced
cockpits, and for speeds now routinely exceeding 1000 mile/h
(1600 kin/h). As the introduction to the book ernphasises,
these advances have changed the role of the flight simulator
considerably from a basic training facility to one which
permits system development, research and experimentation.
The first 90 pages or so of the book are concerned with
the mathematical modelling and physical aspects of
simulation, with particular reference to aircraft motion
aerodynamics and flight systems such as inertial navigation,
flight management, engine design, and so on. For readers
with only a basic grounding in maths or physics, these
chapters may prove tough going. However, the text
accompanying the numerous equations - for motion,
Applied Ergonomics September 1987 245
perturbations, orientation - is very readable and serves to
highlight the main points and problems in achieving
representative aircraft flight characteristics. In addition,
each topic is well-referenced and would enable an individual
new to the subject of flight simulation to research the topic
to whatever level he or she required.
Of interest to the human factors specialist, I felt that the
chapter on visual systems for flight simulation was very well
written, with a concise introduction on luminance require-
ments, visual fields of view (eye and head motions), stereopsis,
visual acuity and basic display requirements. This introduction
forms a useful foundation for understanding current
methods and future possibilities with computer-generated
imagery (CGI) for flight simulation, in both civil and military
applications. There are many significant visual system
advances currently being researched in the military sphere
such as Singer Link's ESPRIT system (Eye-Slaved Projected
Raster Inset) which is an example of 'area-of-interest' (AOI)
displays. AOI systems are based on the principle of
generating and displaying CGI in the direction in which the
pilot is looking at any given moment. These systems are
capable of tracking both head and eye movements and, by
considering the distribution of visual acuity across the
human retina, can project a high-resolution central field of
view (around 15 ° - 2 5 °) for detailed inspection, surrounded
by a lower resolution but larger visual field. Currently,
international research is being devoted to replacing spherical
screen simulators in this context with systems capable of
generating imagery using a helmet-mounted display.
Another interesting chapter on the flight simulator as a
research tool presents a useful summary of some of the
facilities that are available for simulation research both in
the air (variable stability aircraft) and on the ground. Two
research programmes are described in brief, one concerned
with the broad topic of flying 'qualities', the other concerned
with cockpit data entry devices, specifically comparing a
touch-sensitive display with a direct voice input system.
Space does not permit a review of other aspects of the
book, such as aviation legislation and the design requirements
for the simulator instructor's station. However, and in
conclusion, I hope that this most informative book is the
first edition in a series of regular updates on the topic of
flight simulation. The subject is one of immense interest
across the world, particularly with the recent emergence of
advanced concepts such as the 'visual' cockpit and the 'auto-
mated wingman', both of which seek to address the traditional
role of the pilot as an active flyer, navigator and in military
contexts, deliverer of munitions. The book contains reviews
of many technologies which are not only restricted to the
subject of flight simulation. Consequently I feel that it will
become an important and useful reference source for
government, industrial and academic institutions alike.
R.J. Stone
Human Factors Department, British Aerospace Sowerby
Research Centre (Bristol)
Noise and human efficiency
M. Loeb
John Wiley and Sons Ltd, Chichester, pp 269 + xiv, £28.00.
Dr Loeb was Professor of Psychology at the University
of Louisville and had been Head of the Audition Section of
the United States Armed Forces National Research
246 Applied Ergonomics September1987
Committee on Hearing, Bioacoustics and Biomechanics. He
had virtually completed the manuscript for this book at the
time of his sad death in May 1985. It was subsequently made
ready for publication by a group of his former colleagues.
students and friends. Noise and human efficiency is the
sixth in the Wiley series of Studies in human performance.
It is the first monograph in the series, the previous
contributions having been edited volumes.
Sound, whether it be audible, infrasonic or ultrasonic,
is claimed to affect a wide range of human activities, usually
adversely. This book takes the form of a comprehensive
review of research which has been carried out in this field
by a large number of workers. Initially, the book sets out to
introduce the reader to the subject with three background
chapters. Chapter 1, "The nature of sound and noise",
defines sound, identifies some of its essential characteristics,
and describes ways of measuring and producing it. Chapter 2,
"The auditory system", commences with a concise
description of the structure of the hearing mechanism. It
goes on to explain the associated nervous system and current
understanding of the manner in which this functions.
Chapter 3, "Hearing - our basic capacities", briefly describes
human auditory capabilities and the ways by which these
can be measured.
Chapter 4, "Masking and related phenomena", leads into
the main body of the book by considering the various forms
that masking and its associated effects can take. Chapter 5,
"Hearing loss and other after-effects on hearing", covers
this very broad area in a thorough, if necessarily abbreviated,
manner. Subjects which are considered include temporary
and permanent effects of noise on hearing in terms of
changes in threshold, loudness and pitch. Tinnitus,
recruitment, tone decay and the effects of hearing loss on
the perception of speech are also discussed. Chapter 6,
"Subjective reactions to noise", looks at tile scaling of sound
by the use of such concepts as pitch, loudness and annoyance
Indices designed to quantify environmental annoyance over
time, such as CNR, TNI and NPL, are covered. In addition,
legal aspects of noise annoyance, economic impact and
social costs are discussed.
Chapter 7, "Physiological effects of intense noise", covers
physiological non-auditory effects of intense noise and the
likelihood of habituation to it. The possibility of associated
chronic health problems is also considered, as are special
effects due to infra- and ultrasound. Other phenomena, such
as startle, EEG changes and effects on sleep, are included.
Chapter 8, "The intersensory effects of acoustic simulation",
discusses, and largely dismisses, the likelihood of sound
influencing the degree, acuity or quality of non-auditory
sensation. Chapter 9, "Noise and task efficiency", concludes
that non-auditory effects of noise on performance are not as
widespread, but are more complex, than originally believed.
Chapter 10 is entitled "Conclusions and prophecies",
and discusses the more significant findings and trends from
the foregoing text. It does not take the form of a full over-
view of the book, as the individual chapters each contain
summary sections. These summaries are likely to prove
useful to the reader, who is frequently presented with a
catalogue of research results which are contradictory or
inconclusive.
Noise and human efficiency is an excellent and concise
survey of an extremely wide and complex area of research.
Its extensive list of references (31 pages) would make it a
valuable addition to the shelves of any institution or