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Plasma Treatment in Textile Substrates - A Review

Article  in  Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics · January 2012

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 Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics
Plasma Treatment in Textile Substrates - A Review
--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number:

Full Title: Plasma Treatment in Textile Substrates - A Review

Article Type: Original Paper

Corresponding Author: Balakumar C., M.Sc.,

PSG College of Arts & Science
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu INDIA

Corresponding Author Secondary

Information:

Corresponding Author's Institution: PSG College of Arts & Science

Corresponding Author's Secondary

Institution:

First Author: Hasabo A Mohammed Ahamed, Ph.D.,

First Author Secondary Information:

Order of Authors: Hasabo A Mohammed Ahamed, Ph.D.,

Rajendran R., M.Sc., MBA, PGDEM, Ph.D.,

Balakumar C., M.Sc.,

Jayakumar S., Ph.D.,

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Abstract: Use of plasma in textile modification represents great outlook for improvement of older,
energetically demanding, slow and environment polluting treatment technologies.
Application of plasma is eco-friendly and reduces production costs due to energy
savings and reduction of processing times. Moreover, plasma treatment offer the
possibility to obtain textile finishes without changing the key textile properties. The
present review attempts to give an overview of plasmas for textile treatment in a broad
perspective and consists of six parts; introduction to plasma; importance of plasma
treatment in textile materials; the effect of plasma treatment on different types of
fabrics; the mode of action of plasma on fabrics; environmental impact of plasma
treatment; and conclusions.

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Plasma Treatment in Textile Substrates - A Review
Abstract:
Use of plasma in textile modification represents great
outlook for improvement of older, energetically
demanding, slow and environment polluting
treatment technologies. Application of plasma is eco-
friendly and reduces production costs due to energy
savings and reduction of processing times. Moreover,
plasma treatment offer the possibility to obtain textile
finishes without changing the key textile properties.
The present review attempts to give an overview of
plasmas for textile treatment in a broad perspective
and consists of six parts; introduction to plasma;
importance of plasma treatment in textile materials;
the effect of plasma treatment on different types of
fabrics; the mode of action of plasma on fabrics;
environmental impact of plasma treatment; and
conclusions.
Keywords: Plasma, Textiles, Environmental impact,
Eco-Friendly
INTRODUCTION:
Plasmas are ionized gases [1]. A gas is normally an
electric insulator. However, when a sufficiently large
voltage is applied across a gap containing a gas or
gas mixture, it will breakdown and conduct
electricity. The reason is that the electrically neutral
atoms or molecules of the gas have been ionised, i.e.
split into negatively charged electrons and positively
charged ions. The resulting ionised gas is often called
a discharge or plasma. The interactions of the
electrically charged particles with each other, with
the neutral gas and with contact surfaces produce the
unique physical and chemical properties of the
plasma environment. This environment is distinct
from that found in solids, liquids or gases; hence
plasmas are sometimes called the fourth state of
matter [2]. There are many different ways to induce
the ionisation of gases. (1) Glow discharge, (2)
Corona discharge, (3) Dielectric Barrier discharge,
(4) Atmospheric pressure plasma technique. The
oldest type of plasma technique is glow discharge
and it is produced at reduced pressure (low-pressure
plasma technique) and provides the highest possible
uniformity and flexibility of any plasma treatment.
Corona Discharge is formed at atmospheric pressure
by applying a low frequency or pulsed high voltage
over an electrode pair, the configuration of which can
be one of many types. Dielectric-Barrier discharge is
formed by applying a pulsed voltage over an
electrode pair of which at least one is covered by a
dielectric material. The Atmospheric Pressure
1
Plasma is a unique, non-thermal, glow-discharge
plasma operating at atmospheric pressure [3].
IMPORTANCE OF PLASMA IN TEXTILE
APPLICATIONS:
The introduction of rigorous ecological legislation
particularly in developed countries in the last decade
forced the companies to face the environmental
problems and to consider not only the issue of
industrial wastes but also a possible replacement of
conventional processes with treatments that can
provide equal or even higher efficiency and lower
environmental impact. However, solving the
environmental problems in textile industry is not an
easy task because of the fact that it comprises of too
many different sectors, which use a variety of toxic,
hazardous and poor biodegradable compounds and
auxiliaries. High water and energy consumption, high
oxygen demand of several input materials being used
as well as a generation of huge amounts of effluents
with high chemical oxygen demand (COD),
excessive colour, pH and toxicity are only some of
the items illustrating the complexity of textile
processing environmental impact [4]. Positive
experience and interest for plasma processing in
microelectronics production, automotive industry,
biomedical applications and modification of
polymers [5,6] is being slowly transferred to the
textile industry though still more at a scientific level.
Plasma treatment of textiles offers plenty of
functional, environmental and economical benefits.
The multifunctionality of plasma processing is
reflected in the possibility of using one system for
modification of different kinds of fibres (natural
protein and cellulose, synthetic) and textile forms
with highly flexible product functional design [7].
Thus, appropriate choice of gas (O2, N2, H2, air, Ar,
He, NH3, hydrocarbons, fluorocarbons) and control
of plasma operating conditions (treatment time,
power, pressure, gas flow rate) provide intrinsic
effects on textiles. The fibre surface modification is a
crucial point in numerous processes and applications
since the fibre surface is mostly responsible for the
majority of end-use properties of textile products [8].
In addition, plasma treatment seems to be very
convenient because it is confined to the fibre surface,
leaving the bulk properties unchanged [9].
There are two types of plasma which can be used for
application on textiles, namely vacuum pressure and
atmospheric pressure. While there are numerous
studies on development of atmospheric pressure
plasmas [10,11], low-pressure treatment offers much
better stability, control and reproducibility [12].
Since plasma can not be generated in a complete
vacuum the name vacuum pressure is somewhat
misleading and only refers to the low working
pressures of such systems. Many authors, however,
choose to classify vacuum pressure plasmas into sub
categories of low and medium pressures [13-15].
Both these forms are suitable for application on
textiles and progress continues to determine their
effect on textiles. More work has, however, been
documented on characterization of vacuum pressure
plasmas as compared to atmospheric pressure
plasmas for the textile treatment [16].
SIGNIFICANCE OF LOW TEMPERATURE
PLASMAS IN TEXTILE TREATMENT:
Low-temperature plasma (LTP) or cold plasma is
produced almost exclusively in glow discharges in a
gaseous environment. A key property of this type of
plasma is the lack of equilibrium between the
temperature of the electrons and the energy of the un-
ionised gas particles. This allows the creation of
conditions in which the temperature of the plasma
gas remains close to that of the environment, while
the energy of the electrons is sufficient to break
intermolecular and covalent bonds. This property of
LTP makes it useful for initiating modifications in
polymers which are not resistant to high temperatures,
that is, of almost all fibre-forming polymers [17, 18,
19]. Very high plasma densities (greater than 1013
electrons cm-3) can only exist with very high gas
temperature (Thermal Plasma). This extremely high
level of plasma density is unsuitable for textile
treatment, because the plasma's energy will burn
almost any material. Hence for textile processing, the
plasma needs to do their job at room temperature,
thus the name 'cold plasma'. Another advantage of
cold plasma is that it chemically treats fabric and
other substrates without subjecting them to damaging
high temperatures.
EFFECT OF PLASMA TREATMENT ON
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FABRICS:
Cotton Fabrics
Cotton being the most widely used amongst natural
fibers has gone through quite a bit of experimentation
in terms of plasma treatment. Atmospheric plasma
has been used to remove PVA sizing material from
cotton fibers. It has been noted that in contrast with
conventional treatment which requires hot water for
effective removal of size, plasma treated cotton could
be completely rid of PVA sizing material with a
simple cold water wash. The scouring and dyeing
behavior has been shown to improve with O2 plasma
treatment under low pressure conditions [20]. Sun et
2
al, [21] investigated on the effect of low pressure
plasma treatment on the dyeing of cotton fabrics.
They found that the attachment of surface polar
groups increases the wetability of the cotton thus
improving the scouring and adsorption of dye. Better
adsorption consequently leads to better treatment.
SEM observation of the cotton fibers reveals that the
plasma treated fabric has holes on the fiber surface
which serve as entry sites for dye molecules leading
to better dyeing rates. The ablation effect of the
plasma which is characterized by holes in could have
added to the surface area of the fiber which coupled
with the enhanced wetting due to the attachment of
surface polar groups provided better wetting and
hence cause a possible enhancement of dyeing rates.
The effects of DC air plasma and cellulase enzyme
treatments on the hydrophilicity of cotton fabric
samples were investigated and it was found that DC
air plasma and cellulase enzyme treatments were
found to be effective in improving the hydrophilicity
of cotton fabrics. This increase in hydrophilicity is
attributed to the physico- chemical changes due to
plasma and enzyme [22]. The effect of radio-
frequency inductively coupled plasma on the surface
characteristics of cotton fabric was studied by
Kamlangkla et al., [23]. The effect of argon/oxygen
atmospheric dielectric barrier discharge (DBD)
treatment on desizing and scouring of polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA) on cotton fabric was studied by
Shujing Peng et al., [24]. Wickability analysis
indicated that the capillary heights of plasma treated
fabrics increased significantly as the plasma
treatment duration increased. In a study on the
dyeability of corona-treated cotton fabrics, Carneiro
et al. [25] evaluated the influence of the number of
passages through their reactor on the fabric
hydrophilicity for raw and desized fabrics. They
showed that an increase of hydrophilicity strongly
depended on the pre-treatment state of the fabrics:
while raw fabrics require four passages before
wettability is considerable, a desized fabric has a
comparable wettability after only two passages. Ryu
et al. [26] evaluated the wettability of successive
corona treatments by measuring the time required to
adsorb 0.6 μl of distilled water. The cotton fabric was
given a RF air plasma treatment to improve its
hydrophilicity. The process parameters such as
electrode gap, time of exposure and RF power have
been varied to study their effect in improving the
hydrophilicity of the cotton fabric and they were
optimized based on the static immersion test results
[27]. Navaneetha et al., [28] investigated on the
hydrophilic improvement of the grey cotton fabric by
low pressure dc glow discharge air plasma and it was
concluded that the increase in hydrophilicity of the
cotton fabrics was due to the formation polar groups
on the surface of the fabrics.
By varying the application gasses, plasma treatment
can be used to achieve hydrophobization in the cotton
fabrics. Treatment of cotton fabric with
hexamethyldisiloxane gas can be used to smooth the
surface of the fibers and is capable of increasing the
contact angle on the fiber till up to 130°. Similarly,
by using hexaflouroethane plasma, a strong effect of
hydrophobization can be achieved by introducing
fluorine groups on the surface of the fibers. Neither
of these methods reduces the water vapor
transmission ability of cotton [29]. It was also
reported that plasma treatment can also be used to
achieve the lotus effect on cotton fabrics. The
underlying principle is etching of the fiber to create
nano sized peaks and then covering them with a
hydrophobic layer using an appropriate gas such as
hexafluoroethane.
The effects of air and argon atmospheric plasma
treatments on various physical properties of bleached
cotton fabrics, such as, pilling tendency, friction
coefficient, thermal comfort, water vapour
permeability and surface properties were investigated
[30]. The research group of McCord at the North
Caroline State University used CF4 and C3F6 on
cotton denim fabrics with a low-pressure low
temperature plasma system to increase hydrophobic
properties of the surface [31].
Wool Treatment
In wool, the surface character of plasma treatment is
limited to a small part of the fibre, in relation both to
its mass and volume. Physical properties such as the
fibre friction coefficient, dye diffusion, etc. depend
on the highly-networked layer known as the
epicuticle. Modifying this layer, without causing
changes in the wool cortex, facilitates and accelerates
some technological processes, including the dyeing
of fibres [32]. Dorota Biniaś, [33] worked on the
effect of LTP on the dyeing process of woolen fabrics
and found that LTP-treated samples proved to have
bound the dye better than in the unmodified sample.
In addition, LTP damages an ultra-thin hydrophobic
layer on the protective surface of the fibre. This
process occurs only on the surface, and does not
damage the inner structure of keratine.
Wool fibres were treated with LTP with different
gases, namely oxygen, nitrogen and a mixture of
gases (25% hydrogen, 75% nitrogen) and it was
shown that the surface composition of the LTP-
treated wool fibre was found to vary differently with
different plasma gases [34]. The results have been
similar to the previous reports [35, 36], in which it
was explained that the concentration of the functional
groups influences the properties of the wool fibre.
3
The effects of using either radiofrequency or
microwave power sources on the generation of
plasma, different plasma gases and treatment times
on the surface of wool fabrics and fibres were
analyzed by means of SEM [37]. Ar, O2 and air
plasma drastically improved the wettability of wool
knitted fabric. Additionally, plasma treatment
brought about enhanced swelling of wool fibres.
Swelling was the most pronounced in case of oxygen
plasma, whereas air plasma performed swelling
degree of the same order as conventionally
chlorinated sample [38]. Improved wettability and
swelling of wool are attributed to plasma
modification of layer of covalently bound fatty acids
known as F-layer, which is mostly responsible for
natural hydrophobicity of wool fibre surface [39, 40].
The dye fastness of the wool fabrics were improved
significantly after plasma treatment [41]. The effect
of pressure on colour yield increased in following
order: 0.50 mbar>0.75 mbar>0.25 mbar that is
explained by the pressure dependent efficiency of the
production of active plasma particles. Felting of wool
occurs primarily because of the specific scale-like,
hydrophobic surface of fibre. In addition to increase
in fibre surface hydrophilicity, plasma treatment
induces the morphological and frictional changes,
reducing the felting shrinkage of wool [42-46].
Plasma treatment significantly reduced the tendency
of wool to shrink. The changes of fibre frictional
coefficients, oxidation of the fibre surface and
modification of fibre surface F-layer are claimed to
be the main reasons for the improvement of
shrinkproofing of plasma treated wool [47]. Recently
Mahmood Ghoranneviss et al., [48] investigated on
the effect of plasma sputtering treatment on natural
dyeing and antibacterial activity of wool fabrics. The
results show that the plasma treatment has improved
the natural dyeing properties of wool as a good
substitution for mordant treatment and has also
increased the efficiency of its antibacterial activity.
Flax and Hemp Fabrics:
The observed increase in water retention and wetting
rate of flax is attributed to better susceptibility of
fibre to water molecules as a result of plasma etching
and plasma oxidation i.e. the formation of new
carboxyl groups [49].
The effect of low-temperature plasma (LTP) of
hemp has been studied [50-52]. Radetic, [53] studied
the influence of low-temperature air plasma and
enzymatic treatment on the dyeing properties of
hemp. In addition to the determination of dyeing
kinetics, colour yield and colour fastness, assessment
of weight loss, water retention and whiteness degree,
as well as SEM analysis of differently treated
samples was carried out. Low-temperature plasma
treatment of hemp fabric caused an increase in the
dyeing rate, final dye exhaustion and colour yield of
dyed samples. The positive effect of plasma
treatment was explained by plasma etching and
oxidation effect on the hemp fibre surface. The study
concluded that Low-temperature plasma+enzyme
treated samples showed a further decrease in final
exhaustion and reduction of dyeing rate compared to
all other investigated samples. This could be
attributed to more a pronounced digestion of the
amorphous areas of the fibre that became
considerably more accessible to enzymes after
plasma etching.
It is likely that plasma etching increased fiber
porosity and induced minor topographical changes
that make hemp fiber more susceptible to dye and
water molecules. Easier diffusion of dye into the fiber
caused by plasma treatment is not sufficient for an
increase in dye exhaustion as it is also considerably
influenced by the structure, molecular weight and
state of dye in dyeing bath. Therefore, direct dye as a
dye with high substantivity and rate of diffusion is
easily bound to active sites of the fiber and
consequently it is poorly affected by prolongation of
plasma treatment time. On the contrary, acid dye
exhibits low substantivity and dyeing is mainly
controlled by diffusion, which is remarkably
promoted by plasma treatment [54].
Synthetic Fabrics/Fibres:
Atmospheric pressure DBD has been used to control
surface wettability and dyeability, and to improve
capillarity of synthetic fabrics. Polyester fabric is a
system with micro and macro-pores. Plasma consists
of various active particles (e.g. electrons, radicals,
ions, photons etc.). These species can attach or react
with polyester (PES) surfaces, changing the nature of
the functional groups present, capillary-porous
structure and, as a result, the properties of the
surfaces[55]
are considered to be high-performance fibers;
unfortunately, they are prone to hydrolysis. Thus, the
application of a diffusion barrier to the surface should
reduce the tendency to hydrolyze in respective media.
Hexafluoroethane/hydrogen plasma is highly suitable
to apply such a diffusion-barrier layer to the surface.
The resistance to 85 % H2SO4 (20 h at room
temperature) leaves the fibers completely intact while
conventional fluorocarbon finishing under the given
conditions produces significant shrinkage of the
fibers in combination with loss of properties [56].
When polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) fibers are
used as an enforcing material for a polyethylene (PE)
matrix, the hydrophobization of the PET fibers using
ethylene plasma is quite impressive since the
adhesion strength can be increased from 1 to 2.5
4
N/mm. The fracture morphology of these composite
materials clearly shows the tight adhesion of the
matrix to the fiber.
The usability of the atmospheric dielectric barrier
discharge (DBD) for polyester surfaces (PES) fabric
modification was studied with particular focus on
effect of the treatment time on surface wettability. It
was shown that the most stable modification was
achieved with the modification time of 360s. The
stable of modification effect was observed in 17 days
after the treatment [57]. Polyester-cotton blended
fabrics were treated with oxygen plasma. The effect
of plasma treatment on water absorption behavior of
polyester-cotton blended fabrics was analyzed and
the results indicated that the water absorption
behavior was significantly improved [58]. The barrier
discharge or corona treatment of polypropylene
significantly increases the hydrophilicity of the
surface, the contact angle of water being decreased
from 90° to 55°. Even after two weeks a sustained
effect is observed, the contact angle of water being
60°. Instead of the contact angle of water, the
oxygen/carbon ratio of the atomic composition of the
surface can be used to follow the influence of a
plasma treatment, in particular for polypropylene
fleeces with layered-structure. The oxygen/carbon
ratio for the first layer is highest; but even at the tenth
layer a significant effect is observed [56].
To impart soil resistance and to improve dyeability,
poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) and polyamide
(PAm) fabrics were treated in low-temperature
plasmas. Five different modification types were
applied. Fabrics were directly treated in acrylic acid,
water, air, O2 and argon plasma. All in situ plasma
polymerization types improve wettabilities, and
therefore dyeability and soil resistance of the fabrics
[59]. Investigations on the surface modification of
non-fabricated polypropylene textiles by means of
plasma treatment at atmospheric pressure to improve
their hydrophilic properties were studied. Strong
influence of the power supply to hydrophilic
properties of PP textiles was observed. The
permeability exponentially increases with increasing
supplied power, however the water contact angle
decreases linearly [60]. Very recently Xuming et al.
[61]. studied the influence of He/O2 atmospheric
pressure plasma jet (APPJ) treatment on subsequent
wet desizing of polyacrylate on PET fabrics. The
percent desizing ratio (PDR) results showed that
more than 99% PDR was achieved after 65 s plasma
treatment followed by a 5 min NaHCO3 desizing. It
was concluded that, compared to conventional wet
desizing, plasma treatment could significantly reduce
desizing time in PET fabrics.
Nonwovens:
In experiments at the UTK (University of Tennessee
at Knoxville's ) Plasma Sciences Laboratory on the
surface energy, wettability, and wickability of
meltblown polymeric fabrics exposed to inert gas
OAUGDP (One Atmosphere Uniform Glow
Discharge Plasma) plasmas (helium and argon), it
was found that durations ranging from 30 seconds to
5 minutes were required to produce significant
improvements to these characteristics [62]. The
nonwoven fabric Sontara, commonly used for
surgical gowns, is treated with antimicrobial finishes
and a plasma containing fluorocarbon gas. Treated
samples are evaluated for changes in physical and
functional characteristics. The plasma treatment does
not alter the weight, thickness, stiffness, air
permeability, and breaking strength and elongation.
Plasma-treated and water-repellent Sontara samples
show higher blood and water resistance compared to
other treatments. Plasma-treated samples also show a
zone of inhibition for Staphylococcus aureus, thus
providing a barrier against microbes. There is no
zone of inhibition for the water repellent Sontara,
untreated and wet control samples. This implies that
the nonwoven fabric treated with plasma can provide
a better barrier against microbes than commonly
available surgical gown fabric with a fluorocarbon
finish [63].
Silk:
The morphology, aggregation structure and
properties of Bombyx mori silk treated by low
temperature oxygen plasma was studied [64]. The
weight of B. mori silk yarn decreased after low
temperature oxygen plasma treatment and decreased
more with increasing treatment time. It was a result
of etching by oxygen plasma. Slight flutes appeared
on the surface of treated fiber and fibrillar units
became more evident on the section of treated fiber.
The β-sheet conformation increased and crystallinity
decreased after plasma treatment. Demura et al., [65]
studied on the Bombyx mori silk fibroin fabrics
treated with low-temperature-plasma using various
gases. The strength of silk yarn changed little after
short-time plasma treatment. Plasma treatment for the
improvement of the hydrophobic of the silk fabrics
was investigated by Shen Li and Dai Jinjin [66] and
the results showed much improved hydrophobic
properties.
Denim Finishing:
Recently, low-pressure plasma and corona treatments
for obtaining “worn look” effect on denim fabrics are
proposed [67, 68]. In a study by Radetic et al., [69]
CIE Lab colorimetric system was used for
determination of colour difference between untreated
5
and plasma treated denim fabrics. The lightness
difference between untreated and corona and low-
pressure argon plasma treated denim fabrics are
demonstrated. Apparently, the higher the power and
number of passes in case of corona treatment, the
higher the lightness. Similarly, in case of argon
plasma treatment, the prolongation of treatment time
and increase in power brought about increase in
fabric lightness. In both cases, under severe treatment
conditions samples became more yellow (higher
values of b*), but yellowness disappeared after
washing. Mechanical properties of the material were
not changed after plasma treatments. The
decolourization of denim fabrics after plasma
treatment in oxygen or argon was studied by
Ghoranneviss et al., [70]. The results showed a better
decolourized output for Ar than O2 after a 15 min
treatment. However, after washing the treated denims,
the O2 treated samples looked better than those
treated by Ar.
MODE OF ACTION OF PLASMA ON TEXTILE
SUBSTRATE:
In the plasma, reactive species (positive and negative
ions, atoms, neutrals, metastables and free radicals)
are generated by ionization, fragmentation, and
excitation [71]. These species lead to chemical and
physical interactions between the plasma and the
textile substrate surface depending on plasma
conditions such as gas, power, pressure, frequency,
and exposure time.
Physical Interactions
Etching/Re-Deposition
Plasma etching is the key process for the removal of
surface material from a given substrate. This process
relies on the chemical combination of the solid
surface being etched and the active gaseous species
produced in the discharge. The resulting etched
material will have a lower molecular weight and the
topmost layer will be stripped. In previous methods,
such as chemical wet processing, plasma has shown
much more controllability and a much finer
resolution [72]. The four basic plasma etching
processes are sputtering, pure chemical etching,
reactive ion etching, and ion inhibitor etching.
Surface Morphology and Roughness Changes
Due to the etching mechanism on polymer surfaces,
morphological and topographical changes will occur.
These changes are visible through atomic force
microscopy (AFM) or scanning electron microscopy
(SEM). Since most polymers are semi-crystalline,
that is, they contain both crystalline and amorphous
regions; they produce very distinctive morphology
changes due to selective etching.
Chain Scission
Chain-scission is defined as any event that results in
the breakage of one polymer molecule into two or
more parts. This can occur through a direct
rearrangement of the backbone into two separate
entities, or by the loss of side groups and consequent
rearrangement, which inherently results in molecular
division [73].
Chemical Interactions
Radical Formation
The formation of radical sites occurs through
ionization or excitation of the polymers through
electrostatic interaction between fast moving
electrons and the orbital electrons in the polymers.
The consequent ionization leads to molecular
fragmentation and the formation of a free radical. If
the free radicals formed are unstable, they will
rapidly undergo recombination. Stable radicals,
however, will remain in the polymer as living
radicals. These radical sites can then “catalyze” the
next steps for further chemical processing such as
initiation of grafting, cross-linking, or functional
group attachment [74].
Grafting:
Plasma grafting, often referred to as plasma graft-
copolymerization can occur either by the creation of
active species on the polymer surface, followed by
contact with the monomer or direct grafting of the
polymer with common or unconventional monomers
under “monomer”-plasma conditions [75].
Polymerization
Plasma-induced polymerization can be defined as a
film-forming process by which thin films are
deposited directly onto the surface of a given
substrate without any fabrication. The elemental
reactions occurring during this process include
fragmentation of monomer molecules, the formation
of reactive sites (radicals), and recombination of the
activated fragments [74].
Cross-linking:
Cross-linking occurs when two polymer molecules
join to form one large molecule/ network. This occurs
when radical sites are created in the polymer,
resulting in the formation of H or Y-links.
Crosslinking can result in improved mechanical
properties, decreased solubility, elimination of the
melting point, and increased resistance to corrosive
attack, all of which are desirable properties [73].
6
Surface Functionalization:
Surface functionalization by plasma exposure occurs
via the chemical interactions between gas phase
species and activated radicals on the substrate surface.
For this reason, functionalization is directly
dependent on the type of working gas. By using an
inert gas such as helium or argon, functionalization
and modification of the surface will occur by the
chemically reactive species created on the polymer
surface by the irradiation effect of the plasma.
Although helium has drastic morphological effects
due to sputtering, there is no direct reaction with the
surface. As a result, the broken polymer chains of the
surface will recombine to form new structures,
limiting the amount of new functional groups [76]. In
the case of reactive gases such as oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and fluorcarbons, however, atoms or
molecular portions are added to the polymer surface.
For most polymer substrates treated in an oxygen
plasma regime, there will be a visible increase in the
O:C ratio as new oxygen-containing functional
groups are introduced. These groups include, but are
not limited to –OH and –COOH, which dramatically
increase the surface energy of the substrate [77]. In a
similar manner, polymers treated in a fluorine gas
such as CF4 will show an increase in the F: C ratio as
surface fluorination occurs [78].
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PLASMA
APPLICATION TO TEXTILES:
Plasma treatment became a negligible part of many
industrial processes. Despite the obvious intrinsic
effects and environmentally friendly approach, it is
still claimed as “potential” or “promising” treatment
in textile industry. It might be due to too traditional
and rigid textile industry, which finds an excuse in
expansive vacuum pumps required for plasma
processing at low pressures. However, treatments at
atmospheric pressures are available as well. The
substantial shortcoming of plasma treatment of
textiles is that it cannot replace all wet processes, but
it can be a viable pretreatment, which provide plenty
of environmental and economical benefits. Therefore,
textile industry should consider the concept of higher
initial investments in equipment that will be paid off
quickly with respect to environment-related savings
and the profit of the sale of high added value
products [53]. The environmental benefits of plasma
treatment were (i)reduced amount of chemicals
needed in conventional processing, (ii) better
exhaustion of chemicals from the bath, (iii) reduced
BOD/COD of effluents, (iv) shortening of the wet
processing time, (v) decrease in needed wet
processing temperature and (vi) energy savings.
The comparative cost analysis of conventional
chlorination and plasma processing of wool was
worked out [79-80] and they demonstrated that
energy costs for chlorination are 7 kWh/kg wool
whereas for low-pressure plasma treatment only 0.3-
0.6 kWh/kg wool. The application of low-pressure
plasma for the modification of 120 t/year of wool can
save 27000 m3 of water, 44 t of sodium hypochlorite,
16 t of sodium bisulphite, 11 t of sulphuric acid and
685 MWh of electrical energy [80].
CONCLUSION:
Plasma processing is a dry and environmentally
friendly practice. It does not require immense
supplies of water, heating and drying, and only
infinitesimal amounts of chemicals are necessary to
reach the preferred functionality. Because the desired
material behavior is accomplished by modifying only
the surface of fibers, bulk characteristics of the
material, such as its mechanical strength, are
unchanged. Further, plasma treatment allows
achieving surface characteristics that are ahead of the
reach in the field of textiles.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors express their sincere thanks to the
Management of PSG Institutions for providing the
necessary facilities. They also thank the Africa city of
Technology (ACT) and the Sudan Academy of
Sciences (SAS) for their support.
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