SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL, ELECTRONIC AND

COMPUTER ENGINEERING

FINAL REPORT

The Design, Simulation, and Implementation of

Buck converter

Lindokuhle Cebekhulu
219012035
ENEL4EAH1

Supervisor : Dr Remy Tiako

Date : 23 May 2022
Abstract

A DC-DC buck converter is designed in this work to step down the voltage. The output
voltage is 6 V with a 10% ripple voltage for an input voltage of 12 to 16 V. With a ripple
current of 10% and a frequency of 500kHz, the power output is 12 W. The continuous
conduction mode is used by the buck converter. To keep the output voltage of a buck
converter at 6 V, a PID controller is used to govern the switching of the switching device.
The P, I, and D gains can be fine-tuned to produce a satisfactory output voltage. In MATLAB
Simulink software, the entire converter circuit is developed and built. The assessments are
conducted by comparing the output voltage and load variations for each controller. A further
extended simulation work was done on PSCAD and the result are compared with that of
MATLAB, for both simulations the specified result of 6V was achieved to meet the
specifications.
 Table of Contents
Abstract.................................................................................................................................................1
Table of figures.....................................................................................................................................3
List of Tables.........................................................................................................................................3
1. Introduction...................................................................................................................................1
2. Literature Review & Working Principle........................................................................................2
2.1 Literature review..........................................................................................................................2
2.2 Working Principle..................................................................................................................3
2.2.1 Continuous conduction mode and discontinues conduction mode................................3
3. Design, Simulation & Results........................................................................................................5
3.1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................5
3.1.2 Design................................................................................................................................5
3.1.3 CALCULATIONS FOR THE DESIGN/SIMULATION...................................................6
3.2 Simulation and Result............................................................................................................7
3.2.1 Simulation..........................................................................................................................7
3.2.2 Result Analysis.........................................................................................................................8
4. Extended Simulation Work............................................................................................................9
5. Work Plan & Budget Management..............................................................................................12
4.1 Work Plan..................................................................................................................................12
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................15
References...........................................................................................................................................16
Appendices..........................................................................................................................................17
Appendix A.........................................................................................................................................17
 Table of figures

Figure 1: basic circuit of a buck converter [2]………………………………………………………. 3

Figure 2: two modes of operation of a buck converter [5].....................................................................4

Figure 3: Buck converter system diagram.............................................................................................4

Figure 5: Output Voltage vs Time.........................................................................................................7

Figure 6: current vs time........................................................................................................................8

Figure 7: PSCAD Buck converter simulation model.............................................................................9

Figure 8: Transient Response of Output voltage on PSCAD.................................................................9

Figure 9: Inductor current PSCAD......................................................................................................10

Figure 10: Output current PSCAD.......................................................................................................10

Figure 11:Gantt chart...........................................................................................................................12

List of Tables

Table 1: Design Specifications..............................................................................................................5

Table 2: Summary of Calculated result in CCM....................................................................................6

Table 3: Final circuit values..................................................................................................................6

Table 4: Comparison of simulation results with design calculations.....................................................8

Table 5:components cost.....................................................................................................................13

Table 6:labour cost..............................................................................................................................13

Table 7: break even analysis................................................................................................................13

 1. Introduction

A buck converter is a DC-DC converter that converts/bucks an input  voltage to a lower voltage level,
with the output voltage magnitude being less than the input voltage magnitude. MATLAB Simulink is
used as the main simulator and PSCAD as an extended simulator. To drive the converter's switch, a
PID controller is used to govern the switching of the switching device. The P, I, and D gains can be
fine-tuned to produce a satisfactory output voltage. The switch will then alternately turn on and off
the converter to create controlled voltage.
We will use MATLAB and PSCAD to create a Buck Converter Circuit in this project. Because of the
functionality identified in the literature review, a MOSFET will be employed for switching action;
nevertheless, the resistance will be variable if a MOSFET is used. We are going to reduce 12 volts
DC to 6 volts DC. Using a closed loop PID control and tweaking the values, we can control the output
value. A buck converter is a DC-to-DC converter that reduces the voltage of DC. DC-DC converters
are now widely used in industries such as industry, electrical devices, electrical machinery, aerospace,
portable systems, distributed generation, power factor correction, and voltage regulation.  If the load
varies, the converter employs feedback to adjust the output. It has a 92 percent efficiency rating. Buck
converters are like transformers, except that instead of lowering AC voltage, they lower DC voltage.
Buck converters have a lower efficiency than transformers.
The growing demand for low-cost, high-performance circuitry, increased adoption in technology, and
advancements in devices for digital power management and control are increases . As
outlined voltage buck converter steps down DC voltage. Buck converters have a lower efficiency than
transformers. The feasibility study and economic was done for the buck converter for the selection of
components and they functionality with the external components of a buck being the diode, resistor ,
capacitor . Among the selection of transistors it is seen that MOSFETs are switches that have
these qualities and are commonly used in power switching converters, and they cheap, so for
switching action a MOSFET was used.
 2. Literature Review & Working Principle

2.1 Literature review

The basic function of a buck converter is to step down a DC input voltage into a lower output DC
voltage, the selection of components and operation of a buck convert is critical for the design of a
buck converter. In order to obtain understanding inside the mechanism, it is necessary to have a
thorough understanding of the DC-DC buck converter theory. A basic explanation of a DC-DC buck
converter's operational philosophy is described, as well as a literature review that outlines several
research efforts in converter design to reduce component stresses and switching losses while
achieving high power density and better performance.

In a study done by Herman Wiegman presented the design and construction of a simple charge pulse
circuit-based resonant pulse gate drive. Because the user can control the charging and discharging of
the pulses, their circuit can be used in both pulse width modulation and resonant converters [6]. Then
Guichao Hua and Fred Lee suggested several soft switching approaches with the goal of integrating
the desirable characteristics of both traditional Pulse width modulation and resonant converters while
avoiding their respective drawbacks. They looked at three different forms of zero voltage soft
switching Pulse width modulation converters and two different types of zero current soft switching
Pulse width modulation converters to see what benefits and downsides they could find [7].

In another study by Trevor Smith analysed the control of a DC-DC using a MOSFET. A DC-DC
converter control technique based on an upgraded resonant switch model was developed. The model
recognizes that a converter's power switch has a finite resistance in the ON state. This resistance will
be variable if a MOSFET is utilized. When current travels through a switch with a limited resistance,
a voltage is created across it. This value is comparable to an inverter's threshold voltage, which
governs when the switch changes state. This technology allows a converter to self-oscillate and has
built-in overload protection. The variable resistance of a MOSFET can be utilized to change how long
it takes the switch voltage to reach the inverter threshold voltage. This changes the ON time and
functions as a voltage and power regulator [8].
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg operated a study to improve light load
efficiency, a methodology that uses the duty cycle signal was created. Due to the lack of current
sensors, excellent density and efficiency can be attained. As a result, the entire circuit is ready for
integration. Synchronous rectifier methods are commonly employed in low voltage, high current
applications. It was suggested that the converters should operate in discontinuous conduction mode to
reduce conduction loss and at a reduced switching frequency to reduce gate drive loss to improve
performance at light loads [10].
Pit Leong Wong implemented integrated coupling inductors in multichannel interleaving voltage
regulator modules. coupling inductors have different equivalent inductances for steady-state and
transient responses. Inverse coupling inductors can reduce steady-state current ripple while preserving
the same transient responsiveness if they are designed properly. As a result, the MOSFET's
conduction losses are minimized. The air gap in the centre leg distributes the flux more evenly,
perhaps reducing the centre leg's core loss. The coupling inductor core topologies, they concluded,
make core manufacturing easier and improve core mechanical stability [11].
The concepts of zero voltage switching were implemented in synchronous buck converters by
Patnaik .Additional voltage and current pressures on the primary components do not occur in their
converter, and the allowable voltage and current values are applied to auxiliary devices. Furthermore,
the converter has a straightforward design, a low cost, and is simple to operate.

2.2 Working Principle

A step-down DC to DC converter is known as a buck converter. The input and output voltages of a
DC–DC converter are both DC. It turns on and off the DC supply to the load using a power
semiconductor device as a switch. A BJT, a MOSFET, or a transistor can perform the switching
action [1]. A simplified circuit diagram of a buck converter is shown in Figure 1 that accepts a DC
signal and modulates the switching frequency using pulse-width modulation (PWM). the switch
should be controlled. A diode, inductor, and output capacitor are all external components.

Figure 1: basic circuit of a buck converter [2]

There are two ways of operation for a buck converter. When the switch is closed, and when the switch
is open. When the switch is closed, current flows from the supply voltage Vs via the inductor and into
the load, charging the inductor and increasing the output voltage in the process. The diode will be
reverse biased, obstructing the current route. The output voltage will have less ripple content because
the current flowing through the load resistor and the current flowing through the inductor are
identical. While the energy stored in the inductor increases, the current across the inductor grows.
When the output voltage reaches the desired level, the switch is opened, and the diode is turned on.
[3].
The inductor acts as a source when the switch is turned on, keeping the current flowing through the
load resistor. The inductor's energy storage drops and its current decreases during this time. Current
continues to flow in the inductor through the diode as the magnetic field is reduced and the inductor
drop in current. Before the inductor completely discharges, the diode is open, and the switch is closed,
and the cycle continues, continuous conduction through the load is crucial for this circuit. [1] [3].
2.2.1 Continuous conduction mode and discontinues conduction mode

Continuous conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) are the two modes
in which the buck converter can work . The difference between the two is that the inductor current
does not approach 0 in continuous conduction mode. If the current across the inductor never drops to
zero throughout the commutation cycle, the buck converter is in continuous mode. The current
through the inductor decreases to zero throughout part of the period in discontinuous conduction
mode. In practice, the converter can be used in any mode of operation [1] [4].

Figure 2: two modes of operation of a buck converter [5]

Among the MOSFET, IGBT, JFET, or BJT transistors can be used as the power switch in a buck
converter [5] , because converters typically work at a frequency of a few kilohertz to a few megahertz,
the switch desired for use in the converter should have low switching losses and rapid switching
times. From the literature review section 2.1 it is seen that MOSFETs are switches that have these
qualities and are commonly used in power switching converters. According to equation 1 below, the
switches allow the buck converter to step down voltage. As a result, the output voltage is a function of
both the input voltage and the switch's duty cycle.

Figure 3: Buck converter system diagram

The block diagram in figure 3 shows the systems operation of a buck converter for our design. The
buck circuit's power stage consists of the switch, diode, and capacitor. The voltage sensors, which are
normally a series of resistors forming a voltage divider, are where the feedback starts. The error
amplifier and the pulse width modulator work together to regulate the duty ratio such that the output
remains constant regardless of load or input faults.
 3. Design, Simulation & Results

3.1.1 Introduction
In this section we will look at the design of a buck converter, the block diagram in figure 3 shows the
systems operation of a buck converter for our design. Different values/parameters that we need for the
design were calculated using different equations that were discussed in the working principal section.
The simulation was made using MATLAB/Simulink.

Analog controlled Synchronous buck converter, digitally controlled Synchronous buck converter,
Analog controlled Asynchronous buck converter, and digitally controlled Asynchronous buck
converter were the four potential methods evaluated for this design. A digitally controlled buck
converter was chosen for installation after considering costs and performance. The digitally controlled
buck converter has several advantages, including being less expensive due to the use of only one
MOSFET, and being easier to adapt to satisfy design standards by changing the programme loaded on
the microcontroller rather than changing hardware. It is unaffected by component limitations since
parameters such as frequency are controlled by the programme rather than the analogue chips'
resistors and capacitors.

3.1.2 Design
The goals of this design project are to create and implement a DC-DC buck converter with a low cost,
steady power output for the input and output parameters listed below. In the working principle we
discussed there are two modes of operation of a buck converter, the continuous conduction mode, and
the discontinuous conduction mode for this design, it will operate in continuous conduction mode, and
all calculations for continuous mode are in appendix A.

Table 1: Design Specifications

Parameter Value

Power output of the converter 12 W

Input and output voltage levels Input: 12 V – 16 V

Output: 6 V

Current and voltage ripples Current : 10%

Voltage : 10%

Switching frequency of the converter 500 kHz

 3.1.3 CALCULATIONS FOR THE DESIGN/SIMULATION

The values of the inductor and capacitor are the initial steps in designing the Buck Converter because
they are the centre of the design. Equation 1 shows how to determine output current using the output
voltage and power relationship.
P
I= ………………………………………. (1)
Vo

For design purposes, inductance is commonly stated as a function of ripple current, as illustrated in
equation 2. The calculation of the inductor can be seen on appendix A.

L=
( )
V ¿−V o
∆ IL F
D ………………………….(2)

The capacitance value is calculated as a function of the voltage ripple. Equation 3 below can be used
to calculate the capacitance necessary for the specified voltage. The calculation of the capacitance is
shown in appendix A.
1−D
C=
∆Vo 2 ………………………………. (3)
8 L( )F
Vo
The computed result in CCM is summarised in Table 2 and Table 3 shows the final calculated values
for the buck converter circuit. The appendix page contains detailed calculations of the result.

Table 2: Summary of Calculated result in CCM

For V min =12 V For V max =16 V

D max 0.5 D min 0.375
I Lmax 2 .1 A I Lmin 1.9 A
L 30 μH L 37.5 μH

Table 3: Final circuit values

Circuit parameters Values

L 37.5 μH
C 83.33 nF
R 3Ω
 3.2 Simulation and Result
3.2.1 Simulation
The simulation results for the buck converter with the controller were generated using SIMULINK in
MATLAB. Figure 4 shows the circuit schematic for a step-down converter with a 12 V input voltage
and a 6 V desired output voltage. The graphic depicts how the MOSFET switching frequency is
managed by a PI controller.

Figure 4: buck converter closed loop MATLAB simulation

The step-down output voltage versus time is depicted in the graph below. This graph depicts a
sinusoidal output voltage with a constant input voltage. V maximum =6.22 V ∧V minimum=5.81 V , with
ripple voltage which is 0.401 V. The ripple voltage can be minimized by increasing the capacitor's
value.

Figure 5: Output Voltage vs Time

 the graph below depicts the inductor current versus time graph, which shows that I maximum=2.1 A and
I minimum=1.911 A , respectively. This graph shows that all of the computed values are correct. and the ripple
current is 0.189 ≈ 0.2 A. The average current of the inductor is the same as the two Amperes output current.

Figure 6: current vs time

3.2.2 Result Analysis

From figure 4 we can see the average output voltage value of 6 V which is our target value
for this buck converter, values correspond with the values from SIMULINK simulation, the
maximum and minimum current was calculated to be 2.1 and 1.9 respectively and the
simulated result shows a maximum and minimum current of 2.1 A and 1.911 A, respectively,
which validate our calculations

Table 4: Comparison of simulation results with design calculations

Parameter Calculated/Specified Simulation

Input Voltage 12 Volts 12 Volts
Output Voltage 6 Volts 6.015 Volts
I I max 2.1 A 2.1 A
I min 1.9 A 1.911 A
Output Power 12 W 12.063 W
 4. Extended Simulation Work

The design of the buck converter was done in this section of extended simulation utilising a new way
of managing the average output voltage from the previous section and a different simulator, PSCAD,
to achieve the desired results. On PSCAD, we will create a buck converter using a PID controller. The
buck converter's simulated circuit is shown in Figure 7. The error between the desired and actual
output voltage was determined using a PID controller. The controller's output is supplied into the
comparator, which compares it to the sawtooth impulse, and the comparator's output is fed to the
switch.

Figure 7: PSCAD Buck converter simulation model

The needed output voltage, according to the design parameters, is 6 V, and figure 8 depicts a 5.99 V
average output voltage. Figure 8 shows that the ripple is bigger than that of a PI controller simulated
in MATLAB and the output voltage graph on fig. 8 is smoother.
 Main : Graphs
Output Voltage
8.0
0.000
0.000
7.0
0.000
6.0 Min 0.000
V(Volts)

Max 0.000
5.0 Diff 0.000

4.0

3.0

2.0
sec 0.000 0.050m 0.100m 0.150m 0.200m 0.250m 0.300m 0.350m 0.000
0.000
---

Figure 8: Transient Response of Output voltage on PSCAD

Figure 9 illustrates the results of inductor current vs. time. the highest and minimum currents for both
approaches are around 2.1 A and 1.9 A, respectively. Which match with the values calculated from
design specifications.

Main : Graphs
Inductor current
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
I (A)

1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
sec 0.000 0.020m 0.040m 0.060m 0.080m 0.100m 0.120m 0.140m 0.160m

Figure 9: Inductor current PSCAD

Figure 10 depicts the output current as a function of time. When comparing the output current to the
inductor current, it can be seen that the output current has less ripple, and the inductor current has
more. Because the inductor opposes the rate of change of current flowing, this is the case.
 Main : Graphs
Output current
2.50
2.25
2.00
1.75
1.50
I (A)

1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
sec 0.000 0.020m 0.040m 0.060m 0.080m 0.100m 0.120m 0.140m 0.160m

Figure 10: Output current PSCAD

The current in the inductor does not go to zero throughout the period when the switch is off,
indicating that this converter functions in the continuous conduction mode. The specified output
voltage for the design was also reached. When comparing the findings, it is clear that the designed
circuit meets the design parameters. When the inductor is increased, the voltage and current ripple are
reduced. Low ripple is desirable because it expands the range of currents at which the buck converter
may run without switching to a discontinuous mode and exceeding design specifications. The cost of
the design rises as the inductor value rises because high-inductance inductors are more expensive.
 5. Work Plan & Budget Management
4.1 Work Plan
4.1.1 Gantt Chart

A Gantt chart is a simple and effective approach to schedule and arrange your work. Figure 4 displays the Gantt
chart for this design, which shows the various activities to be completed as well as the time required for each
activity. The blue chart shows the date to begin the tasks, while the grey chart shows the days required to finish
each task.

14-Mar 24-Mar 3-Apr 13-Apr 23-Apr 3-May 13-May 23-May 2-Jun

First progress report

Interim report

Simulation 30 Mar

start Date
Interim presentation Days to complete

Final report

Final presentation

Extra time presentations

Figure 11:Gantt chart

4.2 Budget management/Economic plan

The cost of the buck converter was calculated using component costs, labour costs, and a breakeven analysis, as
shown in the tables below. It also calculated how much profit would be made if 100 devices were sold.
 Table 5:components cost

Component Quantity Cost (rands)

MOSFET 1 18.50

Diode 1 2.90

Inductor 1 5.00

Resistor 1 3.50

Power Supply 1 300

Controller 1 48.50

Total 378.40

Labour cost

Table 6:labour cost

No. Task Time Cost/hr Cost (rands)

(hrs.)

Feasibility study 10 120 1200

Budget plan 3 100 300

Design specification analysis 3 110 330

Component selection and calculation 6 100 600

Design simulation 11 100 1100

Report writing and simulation 12 150 1800

Total 45 680 5330

According to the data in the table above, the total time to design a buck converter will be 45 hours, with a total
cost of R 5330.
Breakeven analysis
This buck converter will cost 680 rands, and there will be 100 of them available. An estimated profit of R16
989 is to be achieved from total cost to entire sales.

Table 7: break even analysis

Tasks Per Unit Cost Number of Units Cost

Manufacturing 400 100 40000

Research and design 1500 1 1500

 Travelling fee for 150 1 150
component

Components costs 140 100 14000

Total 55650

total sales :680 rands ×100 buck converter devices=68000 rands

profit made=68000−55650=R 12350
Conclusion

The step-down converter was designed using simulations, and attaining specific buck converter properties, two
simulators were used MATLAB Simulink and PSCAD, both we compared, and the result obtained in both
simulators and they both gave us the desired values. Different values of a buck-converter were calculated and
validated by the result found when we simulated the buck converter schematic, it was found that at a constant
input voltage of 12 V – 16 V we had an output of 6 V, the buck converter's closed-loop circuit was used to
manage the MOSFET's switching period to achieve the appropriate output voltage using Pulse width
modulation and three different PID controllers. Because of its steady state faults, the PI controller is a better
controller for designing a buck converter, according to the design. The labour cost was computed hourly from
the core portion of budget management, quotations of various materials and components were acquired online,
and utilizing breakeven analysis, a profit of R16 989 was made after 100 converters were sold.
References

[1] H. Wiegman, Energy and power savings assessment in buildings via conservation voltage reduction,
1992.

[2] F. L. Guichao H, An Overview of Soft-Switching Techniques for PWM Converters, 1995.

[3] T. S, Controlling a DC-DC converter by using the power MOSFET, 2000.

[4] X. ZD, “A Low Power Single-stage LED Driver Operating between Discontinuous Conduction Mode and
Critical Conduction Mode,” 2000.

[5] P. Wong, “Performance Improvements of Multi-Channel Interleaving Voltage Regulator Modules with
Integrated Coupling Inductors,” 2001.

[6] M. H. Rashid, in Power electronics , 2014.

[7] January 2014. [Online]. Available:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270122337_Design_and_implementation_of_an_observer_cont
roller_for_a_buck_converter. [Accessed 04 April 2022].

[8] “Electronics coach,” [Online]. Available: https://electronicscoach.com/buck-converter.html. [Accessed 04

2022].

[9] [Online]. Available: https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/the-difference-between-ccm-and-dcm-

explained. [Accessed 10 04 2022].

[10 R. N. Ali SA, “Design of a Non-Ideal Buck Converter,” 2016.

]

[11 D. Hart, DC-DC converters, in power electronics, New York : McGraw Hill, 2011.
]
Appendices

Appendix A

Po =V o I o =12=6 × I o

∴ I o =2 A

VO 6
R= = =3 Ω
Io 2
FOR 12 V:
Vo 6
Dmax = = =0.5=50 %
V ¿ 12
Minimum inductance is determined as shown below :

R ×(1−D max ) 3×(1−0.5)

Lmin = = 3
=1.5 μH
2f 2(500 ×10 )
Choose a 25% larger inductance for CCM:

L=1.25 Lmin =1.5 ×1.25=1.875 μH

( V ¿ −V o ) D (12−6)×0.5
Lmin = = =30 μH
f sw ∆ I o 500 ×10 3 × 0.1× 2

1−D 1−0.5
C= = =83.33 nF
2 ∆Vo
8 Lf (
Vo
−6 3 2 0.6
) 8 ( 30 ×10 ) ( 500 ×10 )
6 ( )
FOR 16 V:
Vo 6
Dmin = = =0.375=37.5 %
V ¿ 16
Critical inductance:
 R ×( 1−Dmin ) 3(1−0.375)
L= = =1.875 μH
2f 2× 500× 103
Maximum inductance :

( V ¿ −V o ) D min (16−6)(0.375)
L= = =37.5 μH
f sw ∆ I o 3
500 ×10 × 0.1× 2
Output capacitance :
1− D 1−0.375
C= = =83.33 nF
8 Lf
2 ∆Vo
Vo ( ) 3 2 0.6
8 ( 37.5 ×10 )( 500 ×10 )
−6
6 ( )
Switching period:
1 1
T sw = = =2× 10−6 s
f sw 500× 10
3

CALCULATIONS FOR SIMULATION :

For an ideal buck converter, the following can be deduced :
P¿ =Po=V ¿ × I ¿=V o × I o

∴ 12=6 I o

I O=I L =2 A
Load resistance for the buck converter:

V 2o 6 2
R= = =3 Ω
Po 12
The value that will result in the specified voltage ripple for the output capacitance:
1−Dmin 1−0.375
C= = =83.33 nF
8 Lf
2
( ) ∆Vo
Vo
3 2
8 ( 37.5 ×10 )( 500 ×10 )
−6
6( )
0.6

The minimum and maximum inductor current under ideal conditions is calculated as shown:

I L =I L =V out
peak max ( 1 1−Dmin
+
R 2 Lmin f ) (
1
=6 +
1−0.375
3 2 ( 37.5 ) (500 ) )
=2.1 A

I L =V out
min ( 1 1−Dmin
−
R 2 Lmin f
1
=6 ( −
) 1−0.375
3 2 ( 37.5 )( 500 )
)=1.9 A

Actual maximum and minimum inductor current:

∆ IL 0.2
I max=I L + =2+ =2.1 A
2 2
 ∆IL 0.2
I min =I L − =2− =1.9 A
2 2
Inductor RMS current is :

√
I Lrms = I 2L +
( )
∆L 2
√3
=2.0033 A