Introduction

Over the years, cars have used numerous design features to effectively keep occupants safe
in the event of a collision. Some of these features include: crumple zones, seatbelts, airbags,
padded dashboards and toughened glass. These features have been developed and tested
to ensure that the vehicle is as safe as possible if a collision were to occur.

When these design features were developed one main goal was in mind; to increase the
time in which the car's momentum changes, and therefore the occupants. This ensures that
less force is applied to the object, meaning the collision won't be as harmful towards the
vehicle or occupant.

To figure out the effectiveness of a car's design features, sample calculations and diagrams
will be used to illustrate what happens during a collision. The control will be a car without any
safety features (crumple zones, seatbelts, airbags, padded dashboards and toughened
glass), and it will be used to compare what would happen if these safety features were used.

In the event of a car crash, the kinetic energy is not conserved, and is therefore an inelastic
collision. This happens as the kinetic energy is converted into other forms, such as sound or
heat energy.

In figure 1, it shows how kinetic energy

is not conserved, meaning an inelastic
collision occurred. Gravitational
potential energy can be ignored as a
car collision occurs horizontally. Final
velocity is zero as the car comes to a
stop. This means that kinetic energy is
converted into other forms of energy
during the collision.
Figure 1 shows how kinetic energy isn't conserved in a car collision

The development of design features in cars can also be used within an egg drop experiment
as a way to keep the occupant (egg) safe after being dropped at a height of 3 metres.

Crumple Zones

A crumple zone, located at the front and back of a car, is designed to deform during a
collision in a controlled way. When this happens, the force pushing on the car during the
collision does not affect the passenger as much, and is instead absorbed at the crumple
zone. Essentially, it transfers some of the kinetic energy into deformation energy as it makes
the cars front or back crumple upon impact. Although the vehicle becomes damaged, injury
to the person will reduce as less of the force is acting on them as the crumple zone has
already taken the impact.

Despite the crumple zone taking in most of the force, the passenger is still likely to
experience some of the force a collision. However, along with the crumple zones, a rigid
 passenger cell also works in preventing damage
to the occupant. This is why in car crashes, the
front and back are likely to be extremely
damaged, while the passenger cell (where the
occupant is located), is likely to be less damaged,
as shown in Figure 2

Figure 2 showing where the crumple zone and passenger

cell is located

Initially, cars were designed rigidly as not enough research was done to show that crumple
zones would increase an occupants safety. This meant that in a collision: the kinetic energy
is not redistributed, the car stops more abruptly and may rebound, and more force is acted
upon the occupant. Therefore, if a car were to crash into a wall, the force of the wall to the
car would be absorbed by all components of the car. This includes where the passenger is
located, making the force on the passenger greater than if there wasn’t a crumple zone to
take in more of the force. In some cars, the engine was also built at the front. In the event of
collision, the engine would be pushed into the passenger compartment, causing them to be
crushed. This is why both the passenger cell, and the engine compartment are now built with
a more rigid structure, as it stops the impact from reaching the occupant or the engine.

Bela Barenyi, an engineer for

Mercedes-Benz was the first to
patent the crumple zone in
1951. He realised that a
vehicle where the energy
dissipates before reaching the
passenger cell would be safer.
With this invention, the car
would crumple and fold at the
front, allowing energy to
dissipate in milliseconds as a
way to prevent it from reaching
the space of the passengers.
Therefore, the passenger cell
Figure 3 shows a the aftermath of a crash of a vehicle with a crumple zone
would remain intact even after a collision as shown in Figure 3. In 1959, the Mercedes-Benz
220 was made using Barenyi’s design. Along with the crumple zone this car also has safety
door latches, steering column hubs and a padded dashboard. (roadsense.org.au)

During a collision, the crumple zone collapses, this increases the time it takes for the car to
stop. This means the deceleration of the car also reduces. The acceleration of a car is found
by the change in velocity over the change in time. When the time of a collision increases, the
acceleration decreases as a result. As Newton's second law states that Force equals mass
times acceleration, an increase in time will decrease acceleration, causing the force applied
to become smaller.
Crumple zones also increase the time in which the momentum of the car and passenger
change, allowing the force involved to also decrease. Change in momentum is known as
impulse, and increasing the time allows the force to decrease consequently.

In figure 4, the car is shown moving

with an initial velocity of 20m/s. Its
final velocity is zero as it comes to a
rest after colliding with the wall. The
change in momentum, or impulse, is
calculated by subtracting the final
momentum with the initial
momentum. The impulse is
therefore -24,000 Newton second.
The reason the number is negative
is because the vehicle decelerates
after colliding with the wall.

Figure 4 shows a cars change in momentum, or impulse

The change in momentum is equal to the

force multiplied by the time. Therefore, the
force being applied can be found by dividing
the change in momentum by change in time.

Without a crumple zone, the car will come to

rest quicker. This happens because the car
comes to a stop more abruptly. A car with a
crumple zone however, would deform and
absorb the energy of the force, increasing the
time of the collision and its deceleration. This
is represented by having the change in time
of F1 be less than F2. Therefore, F1 shows
the force without a crumple zone, and F2
shows the force with a crumple zone.

Figure 5 shows the force with and without a crumple zone

240,000 Newtons > 48,000 Newtons, therefore F1 > F2. The negative sign in the calculations
indicates the direction of the force (from the wall to the car). Since F2 is less than F1, it
shows that having a crumple zone can significantly reduce the force applied on the
occupants during a collision.
 According to Newton's third law, every force has
an equal and opposite reaction force. In a car
collision, the car pushes on the wall, and the wall
also pushes back. The force of the wall onto the
car also affects the passenger. Through the use of
a crumple zone, this force is less likely to affect the
passenger because the crumple zone absorbs it
before it can reach other areas of the car.
Therefore, the compartment the passenger is in
remains relatively safe and undamaged because
the force of the wall pushing back on the car was
already taken by the crumple zone.
Figure 6 shows Newton's third law during a collision

Seatbelts

A seatbelt is used to secure a passenger to a car. During a collision, it stops the passenger
from being ejected from the vehicle and instead keeps them in their seat. It restrains the
forward movement of a passenger. When worn properly it is designed to distribute the force
to the shoulder, rib cage and pelvis. These areas are more boney, and therefore if a force
were to act on them, there wouldn't be significant harm done to the person.

An initial design for the seatbelt was made by Geroge Cayely in the late 1800’s as a way to
keep pilots inside their gliders. However, Edward J. Claghorn was the first to patent the
seatbelt in 1885. He made this design in order to keep tourists safe in taxis in New York City.
Back then, New York City would have been filled with vehicles travelling at a fast pace. A
design to keep passengers secure was needed to ensure safety, as otherwise passengers
could have easily fallen out as the vehicles did not have doors.

A more modern design for the seat belt came in 1958 when Nils Bohlin made the three-point
seatbelt. Previously, two-point seatbelts had been used to connect the lap to the sides of the
vehicle. The three-point seat belt however, helped to secure both the upper and lower body.
This design was considered to be simple and effective, so it began to be used by other car
manufacturers.

According to Newton's first law, an object at rest or uniform motion, will continue this way
unless acted upon by an external force. During a car collision, the car and passengers move
at the same velocity. When the car hits a wall, the velocity of the car abruptly stops, while the
occupants continue moving with the same velocity because there wasn't a force to stop their
movement. However, when someone is wearing a seatbelt, it makes the mass of the person
one with the car. This allows them to stop at a much similar time to the car, meaning they
also won't collide with anything, like the steering wheel, dashboard or windshield, as the
seatbelt keeps them back.
 During a collision, the person exerts a force on the seatbelt, and
the seatbelt exerts a force back on the person according to
Newton's third law (figure 7). The force exerted by the seat belt
must be great enough to stop the force at which the passenger
was going before the collision. Newton's second law, F=ma can be
used to find this (figure 8). As the person exerts a force of 120N,
the seatbelt must produce a greater force to be able to push the
passenger back.

Figure 7 showing the forces by the person and the seatbelt

Seat Belts are designed so that they lock in place when a force that is big enough to have
been caused by a collision, or sharp turns, is applied. This is done so that passengers still
have freedom of movement when wearing a seatbelt normally. When the seatbelts lock in
place, the weight of it increases.

By increasing the weight of the seatbelt, it allows it to apply a greater

force on the passenger when a collision occurs, allowing it to restrict the
movement of the passenger.

Figure 8 showing the force of the person onto the seatbelt

The seat belt also links back to momentum,

as having a seatbelt increases the time in
which the collision occurs by having the
passenger and seat belt come into contact.
The change in momentum of the person is
1,200 Ns.

Without a seatbelt (F1), the person

experiences a force of 12,000 Newtons
backwards. But with a seatbelt, the person
experiences a force (F2) of 2,400 Newtons
backwards. As F2<F1, it shows that having
a seatbelt reduces the force acting on the
person.

Figure 9 showing momentum of a person, and sample calculations

of the force exerted on the person with and without a seatbelt
Airbags

Airbags are designed to stop the upper body, or head, from hitting interior areas of the car,
such as the steering wheel or dashboard, during a collision. It's essentially a bag that inflates
rapidly during a collision to stop the passenger from striking the interior of the car. Sensors
are needed for this to work as something is needed to tell the airbag when it is appropriate to
inflate. When a crash is severe, the sensors will send a signal to the inflators to fill the
airbags with gas in a very short period of time. Airbags can be built anywhere in the car: the
steering wheel, dashboard, side doors or on the roof of the car. However, they all provide the
same purpose of reducing injury to the passenger by stopping their movement before they
hit something hard in the interior of the car.

In 1968, Allen Breed had the patent for a crash-sensing device, as well as a sensor and
safety system designed using an electromechanical automotive airbag. Even before this,
around 1951, Walter Linderer had also created an airbag using a compressed air system
that could be released by the driver or bumper contact. Another compressed air design was
made by Hetrick in 1953 specially for use in vehicles. However, most of these designs were
found to not be effective as they did not inflate the airbags quickly enough during a collision.
However, in 1964, Yasuzaburou Kobori developed an airbag safety net system that allowed
the airbag to be deployed by an explosive device. This invention inspired car manufacturers,
such as Ford in 1971, to create an airbag that can inflate in milliseconds during a collision.

The force of the person towards the airbag, and the

force of the airbag to the person is shown in Figure
10. The force of the airbag is greater than the force
of the person to the airbag because the airbag is
designed to push the person back. Because the
airbag and person come into contact, the time in
which the collision occurs increases as the person
takes longer to come to rest.

Figure 10 showing forces of an airbag and occupant

Since it takes more time for the person to come to rest

with an airbag, sample calculations can be done to
compare it to a collision without an airbag. Without an
airbag, the collision happens in a shorter period of time,
making the change in time 0.1 seconds. With an airbag,
the collision time can be estimated to be 0.4 seconds.

(Figure 11 showing sample calculations of the force with and without an airbag)
F1, for a collision without a seatbelt is 12,000 Newtons. While F2 is 3,000 Newtons with an
airbag. As F2<F1, this shows that having an airbag decreases the force applied towards the
person, and therefore reduces the risk of fatal injuries

Newton's first law explains that during a collision, a person will continue to move with its
velocity unless acted upon by an external force. The airbag is the external force that is able
to stop the motion of the passenger in this case.

An airbag does not only soften the impact of the person onto the car, but it also stops the
motion of the person. According to Newton's second law, the mass multiplied by the
acceleration of the airbag provides a force towards the person. This force is greater than that
of the person towards the airbag, since the airbag stops the person's motion. Developments
in airbags, like how an explosive is used to deploy the airbag faster, is what allows this. This
explains why old airbag designs that didn't deploy fast enough couldn't be used, as they did
not provide a great enough force to stop the passenger during a collision. Figure 10 shows
an instance where the airbag is able to provide a force greater than the passenger. This
makes the contact between the passenger and the airbag longer, increasing the overall time
of the collision. Figure 11 shows this as the time of a collision with an airbag is 0.4 seconds,
while it's 0.1 seconds without an airbag.

Padded Dashboard

Dashboards are commonly padded with polyurethane foam, and the surface is usually
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), or leather. The padded dashboard was generally designed to
protect passengers in the scenario that the airbag doesn't deploy. It's better to collide with
the padding, instead of directly hitting the dashboard as it reduces the force that acts on the
body during a collision. This is especially important as it reduces the likelihood of head
injuries, since the padding decreases the force the head would sustain.

A dashboard without padding creates a force that directly impacts the passenger. In
comparison, a dashboard with padding absorbs some of the force when the passenger
collides into it. This increases the time of the impulse, allowing less force to be transmitted to
the passenger.

As cars evolved, the dashboard was still used as a barrier between the heat and oil of the
engine. This protective nature of the dashboard was meant to keep the heat and oils of the
engine separate to the passengers in the car. As cars become more complex, however, the
dashboard becomes a good location for gauges and minor controls. In 1948, the Tucker was
the first car to be situated with a padded dashboard. By the 1970’s, padded dashboards
became the norm to protect passengers in the case of a collison.

Nowadays, although padded dashboards are still commonly seen in cars, it's generally seen
as something that's needed in case other safety features aren't present. However, they still
serve an important purpose in protecting passengers in the case that airbags don't deploy,
as this significantly decreases the chances of a head injury from occurring.
 The force between the person and the padded
dashboard is shown in figure 12. The equal and
opposite force between the person and padded
dashboard is shown, as represented in Newton's third
law. However, the force exerted by the padded
dashboard is slightly greater as it is needed to push the
person back.

Figure 12 showing the forces between a person

and a padded dashboard during collision

Padded dashboards, similarly to other safety features, increase the time in which the
collision occurs to reduce the overall force the
occupant goes through. Since the passenger makes
contact with the padded dashboard, the time during
which the force is absorbed by the dashboard
increases the total time of the collision. Figure 13’s
calculations show this, and as a result F2<F1. This
proves that a padded dashboard is effective in
reducing the force the person experiences.

Figure 13 showing sample calculations of force with and without a padded dashboard.

Toughened Glass

Toughened, or tempered glass, is a lot stronger than ordinary glass. It is much harder to
break, and therefore better to use in vehicles to avoid glass related injuries.

Windshields weren't originally even present in cars, simply because vehicles didn't move as
quickly back then and were not needed. In 1904, when windshields were first introduced,
ordinary glass was used. It is composed of a top and bottom half, so that the top half could
be folded down. These windshields were likely to shatter and were unsafe, so laminated or
tempered glass was introduced. This was usually only done with luxury cars, but it is now
common to see tempered glass in every vehicle. Laminated glass is also designed to bend
when under pressure, making it less likely to shatter. It also reduces the amount of UV rays
the occupants receive. Tempered glass is similar to laminated glass, except that it's slightly
stronger and breaks differently. Tempered glass shatters into small pieces, so that the
occupants of the car are less likely to be hit by a massive shard of glass. It was only in 1934
that laminated glass was introduced in cars, and 15 years later tempered glass also made
an appearance.

Figure 14 shows the reaction between a person and toughened

glass. As the glass is toughened, the person won’t go through
the glass, and will instead be pushed back with an equal and
opposite force according to Newton's third law.

Figure 14 showing the force between

a person and toughened glass during a collision

Figure 15 shows sample calculations of the force applied

on the person with and without toughened glass. Without
toughened glass, the force is 12,000 Newtons (F1). This
means that the person may be likely to crash through the
glass since there's nothing to stop the movement of the
person. F2 is 6,000 Newtons, which means less force is
applied to the person, making it likely that they will still
remain in the car after the collision.

Figure 15 showing sample calculations of

the force with and without toughened glass.

Use of Safety features in Egg Drop Device

Crumple zone: In the device, the crumple zone area is represented by the bubble wrap. The
bubble wrap is the first thing to touch the ground upon impact, therefore making it receive
more of the force from the ground. This stops the force from reaching the styrofoam, and
therefore the compartment where the egg is located.

Seatbelt: As the egg falls with the device, making sure the egg is properly secured ensures
that it isn't damaged. Without it, it would collide with the styrofoam compartment and break.
Paper is used to do this as different amounts of paper can be used to enclose an egg of
differing sizes.

Padded Dashboard: The padded dashboard is represented through the styrofoam as it is a

material that absorbs the force that the bubble wrap doesn't. In cars, padded dashboards are
used as a soft surface for the person to collide into. This way, the dashboard absorbs more
of the force, so that the person is impacted less by it. Similarly, in the device, the styrofoam
is a soft material for the egg to be in, and it absorbs the force being applied to it so that it is
less likely to affect the egg itself.

Logbook

Date Activity Resources Evaluation

used

17th Trial at Styrofoam Although the egg didn't completely break, small
Wednes making and tape cracks were visible and the device easily fell
day device + was used to apart after the drop.
testing by construct
dropping it the device. Something to ensure the egg is better fitted in
over a An egg and the styrofoam should be used to stop it from
balcony. sandwich moving as much from the drop. This would be
bag was similar to how a seatbelt functions in a car as it
Research into also used secures the person in their seat.
how safety when
features are dropping A way to make sure the device also doesn't fall
used in cars: the device. apart should be used, either through more tape
crumple or the addition of another material. This is
zones, similar to how the crumple zone works in cars,
seatbelts and as it stops the passenger compartment from
padded being affected.
dashboards

19th Modifications Styrofoam, The styrofoam device still fell apart easily as the
Friday to the device tape and device was only held together by tape.
+ more testing paper was However, the egg stayed fully intact as the tape
used to was enough to secure the egg to the device.
construct
the device. The egg staying intact is also likely due to paper
An egg and being added to the compartment where the egg
sandwich is to ensure it is properly fitted and unlikely to
bag was move as much during the collision. This is
also used similar to a seatbelt, as it keeps the position of
when the occupant in one place.
dropping
the device. Improvements could still be made to ensure the
device is more sturdy, as numerous drops of the
device would likely lead to the egg breaking.

21st Final trial Styrofoam, Adding bubble wrap allowed the device to
Sunday using more tape, paper remain fully intact after the drop. The egg was
materials + and bubble also not impacted after the drop.
testing wrap was
used to Similarly to crumple zones, the bubble wrap
construct takes most of the force before it reaches the
the device. styrofoam compartment. This makes it so that
the egg remains fully intact as the force of the
fall dissipates before it reaches the egg.
Conclusion

The use of numerous safety features is important in the construction of a vehicle safe for
passengers to ride. Crumple zones are important as they ensure less force reaches the
passengers by absorbing more of it at the front and back of the car. Seatbelts are also vital
in ensuring the passenger stops, as otherwise they would likely fly out through the
windshield. The use of airbags, padded dashboards and toughened glass also aid in this.
Since those three safety features aren't all used (if an airbag is deployed, a padded
dashboard becomes less necessary), the effectiveness of each can be evaluated. For
example, the airbag is likely to absorb more force as it has a greater force due to how
quickly it inflates during a collision. Padded dashboards do something similar, but can be
seen as less effective since the head, and body, would still experience a greater force due to
the person travelling a greater distance to collide with the dashboard. Similarly, the person
travels an even greater distance when colliding with the windshield, making it less effective.
This is seen in how the time in which the collision occurs decreases by 0.1 seconds from the
seatbelt, airbag, padded dashboard, and toughened glass. Subsequently, the force exerted
to the person also increases as time decreases.

The use of toughened glass still helps to ensure the passenger experiences less cuts as the
glass is more likely to shatter into tiny pieces, or not shatter at all. Padded dashboards are
still necessary in case the airbag didn't deploy, as it would still decrease the force the head
experiences. Overall, it is better to have numerous safety features available in vehicles as
they serve different purposes. With this in mind, an egg drop device should also include
numerous safety features in case something happens. For example, tape and paper can be
used together to ensure the egg is secured within the drive. Furthermore, styrofoam and
bubble wrap can be used together to absorb the force of the fall, and therefore ensure the
egg experiences less of it. With this, the safety of occupants in a vehicle or egg drop device
can be ensured as multiple safety features are used to keep the occupants intact after a
collision for drop.

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