Stellenbosch University

S224 Civil Engineering

Geomatics
Lecture 5

Heights

2020
Mark Straughan
Professional Land Surveyor
Friedlaender, Burger and Volkmann

+27 (0)21 8864004

+27 (0)82 8940686
mark@fbvsurvey.co.za
Projected Plane co-ordinate systems cont/d
 Distances on Earth

• Straight line or direct distance (horizontal, grid,

slope, vertical)

• Curved surface distance (ellipsoidal, sea surface,

geoidal, geographic)

• Special case of depth below water surface

 Heights on Earth
• Height is the distance from a point on a datum surface measured

along the normal to the surface at that point, to another point.

• Ordinarily we understand and use height as a positive value

above a datum surface; that is to say the datum surface lies

between the heighted point of interest and the centre of the

Earth.

• A special case of heights is depth in which we are often

interested in points between the datum surface and the centre

of the Earth
 Heights and national datums
• In South Africa height datums are not defined as part of the National Co-ordinate
Reference system which is a two dimensional system

• Heights are treated as a separate “one dimensional” system.

• The datum surface for heights in SA is mean sea level (“MSL”). Mean sea level
changes over time so it is held fixed at a point in time.

• In SA mean sea level was established from observations at the beginning of the
20th century at tide gauges situated in the harbours of Durban, East London, Port
Elizabeth and Cape Town

• In each harbour is a brass benchmark close to the tide gauge which is assigned a
height value derived from the tide gauge.

• The SA height datum is often called the South African Land Levelling Datum.
Tide Gauge
 Heights and national datums cont/d

• Similar benchmarks are then surveyed

throughout SA connected to the primary
benchmarks in the harbours
 Heights and national datums cont/d
• Horizontal and height datums are crucial knowledge infrastructure
in any developing or developed part of the world.

• Well measured and well maintained datums are key economic and
social change enablers.

• In order to be useful the datums must be easily accessible.

• This is achieved by marking or “monumenting” the datums with well

made markers which are weatherproof, difficult to remove, stable
and accessible
 Heights and national datums cont/d
• In SA we have three different networks of survey monuments providing
access to the height datum. All are installed and maintained by National
Geo-spatial Information based at Mowbray in Cape Town which falls within
the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development. NGI
is colloquially referred to as “Trig Survey”.

• The networks are

– Trigonometric survey beacons

– Level bench marks

– Levelled town survey marks

Heights and national datums cont/d

Trig Beacon (Trig) Trig beacon identity

Level or height benchmark (BM) Town Survey Mark (TSM)

 Heights and national datums cont/d

• In SA we are also fortunate enough to have a fourth datum

network which provides active access to both the horizontal
and height datums

• The network is called TRIGNET

• Trignet comprises a national network of GNSS receivers

operating 24/7/365 and providing real time corrections at
survey grade accuracies to GNSS users
 Survey of heights
• Heights are usually surveyed by one of four common methods
– Trigonometrical heighting in which the height of unknown points is determined by
measurement of vertical angles from at least 3 known points

– Height traversing between successive points typically carried out by measuring

slope distances and angles between points using a total station and deriving the
height difference and starting and ending on points of known position and height.
– Levelling (spirit levelling) in which height differences are measured between
successive points, starting and ending on points of known height.

– GNSS heighting in which heights differences between points of known and unknown
height derived from observations of GNSS signals
 Survey of heights cont/d
A special height case is depth which is sub-aquatic, including sub-
marine depth

HYDROGRAPHY
is the science that measures and describes the
physical features of bodies of water and the
land areas adjacent to those bodies of water.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, US Dept. of Commerce

 Hydrographic Survey
• Sub-aquatic measurement is complex and specialised

• In its simplest form a weighted plumbline is used

• When depth is measured simultaneous position must be

recorded or derived after survey

• Nowadays depth measurement is achieved with sonar echo

sounders with simultaneous positioning and attitude sensing
of the survey vessel
Hydrography
Hydrographic Survey Vessels
Hydrographic Survey Sensors

Sidescan sonar

Multibeam sonar
Hydrographic Survey Products

• Navigation charts

Subsea artefacts
 Hydrographic survey parameters
• A variety of parameters must be considered and modelled including

– Vessel position

– Vessel speed and attitude (yaw, pitch, roll)

– Relative position of depth, position and attitude sensors

– Water temperature and salinity

– Bottom conditions and sediment penetration

– Tidal, wind swell and current effects

 Hydrographic survey systems
• Modern systems are usually integrated systems of multiple

sensors including
– Multiple GNSS receivers

– Single beam , multi beam and side scan sonar transmitters

– Inertial Navigation Sensors

– Temperature, pressure and salinity gauges

 Seismic Survey
• SEISMIC survey is a method of mapping underground structures such as
geological structures and fluid reservoirs such as fossil fuel reservoirs
containing oil or gas by using artificially induced seismic waves.

• A seismic wave is a wave in the solid material of the earth caused by

natural or artificial means.

• In Seismic survey the seismic wave is usually induced by a high energy

sound wave caused by a pneumatic vibrator, compressed air gun or an
explosive charge.

• The reflecting waves are sensed at the surface and reveal much about sub-
surface structures.
Seismic Survey Platforms

Land based seismology

Marine seismology
 Seismic Survey Applications
– Seismic survey is essential in mining and petroleum (crude oil and natural,
subterranean gas) exploration.

– Nowadays it provides mining prospectors and petroleum explorers with detailed,

three dimensional, time varied maps of underground geological structures.

– It can provide views of sudden changes in material composition caused by a layer

such as a coal seam or it can detect a reservoir of crude oil.

– In mining seismology can be used to detect faults which pose danger to

underground personnel and operations.

– In petroleum extraction it can provide progressive views of reservoir change as the

reservoir is depleted.
Thank you