CONTENTS

Sławomir Kadrow ........................................................................................................................................................................... 7

Contents ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

About Sławek ................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

Part I. Early Neolithic ................................................................................................................................................................... 15

Valeska Becker
La dolce vita. The early Neolithic in northern Italy and its connections to southeastern Europe ....................................... 17

Christian Jeunesse
Vertical social differentiation and social competition in the LBK: ‘rich’ and ‘poor’ cemeteries ........................................... 33

Thomas Saile, Martin Posselt

Diemarden in Lower Saxony: An Early Neolithic settlement and its environs ...................................................................... 43

Andrzej Pelisiak, Maciej Dębiec

Searching for siliceous marl and chert exposures as potential zones of lithic raw material acquisition in the Early
Neolithic. The case of the Dynów Foothills and the Rzeszów-Łańcut settlement region (SE Poland) ............... 65

Anna Rauba-Bukowska, Agnieszka Czekaj-Zastawny

New data on vessel production in the pre-Music Note phase of the LBK from site 2 in Gwoździec,
Zakliczyn commune ....................................................................................................................................................... 73

Paweł Valde-Nowak
Early Želiezovce site in Żerków in the West Carpathian Foothills in the light of the lithic industry .................................. 85

Marcin Szeliga, Katarzyna Gawryjołek-Szeliga

An unusual anthropomorphic vessel from a Linear Pottery culture settlement in Wólka Wojnowska
(southern Poland) ............................................................................................................................................................ 95

Aldona Kurzawska, Iwona Sobkowiak-Tabaka

Lithoglyphus naticoides – a small but significant shell of the “Danubian” communities ...................................................... 109

Janusz Budziszewski, Joanna Pyzel

Take a rest and build a house: settlement of the first farming communities on the Vistula River in the Warsaw
Basin region ..................................................................................................................................................................... 121

Katalin Sebők
Black painted pottery in the Tisza cultural complex ................................................................................................................. 133
Albert Zastawny
New radiocarbon dates for the Malice culture in western Lesser Poland ............................................................................... 151

Part II. Cucuteni-Trypillia and steppe ...................................................................................................................................... 173

Nadezhda Kotova, Sergey Makhortykh, Sönke Szidat, Ebbe H. Nielsen, Simon Radchenko, Willy Tiner
New discoveries of the Swiss-Ukrainian expedition in the western Azov Sea region ........................................................... 175

Aleksandr Diachenko, René Ohlrau, Johannes Müller

The answer is blowing in the wind: wind direction inscribed in burnt houses as chronological proxy ............................ 187

Robert Hofmann, Liudmyla Shatilo

Tripolye population aggregation and dispersal in light of regional settlement trajectories ................................................. 197

Johannes Müller, Robert Hofmann, Mykhialo Videiko, Nataliia Burdo

Nebelivka – rediscovered: A Lost City ......................................................................................................................................... 213

Dalia Pokutta, Taras Tkachuk, Peter Tóth

Strontium in pots: an experimental study on the determination of strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr)
and provenance of prehistoric vessels from Verteba Cave, Ukraine (Tripolye culture) ........................................ 223

Constantin Preoteasa
Unique Cucuteni artefacts used to the salt production by recrystallization process ............................................................. 233

Taras Tkachuk
Migrations from the west to the east. Trypillia-Cucuteni culture at stage BII ....................................................................... 241

Part III. Late Neolithic – Chalcolithic ...................................................................................................................................... 253

Pál Raczky, András Füzesi, Knut Rassmann, Hajo Höhler-Brockmann, Melani Podgorelec, Eszter Bánffy
Neolithic settlement mounds in the southern Alföld (previous research and new investigations
at Hódmezővásárhely-Kökénydomb) .......................................................................................................................... 255

Cornelia-Magda Lazarovici
Central-European influences at the end of the Copper Age in Transylvania ......................................................................... 279

Gheorghe Lazarovici
Analytical study on Central-European influences at the end of the Copper Age in Transylvania ...................................... 293

Jaroslav Peška
A remarkable hoard of copper objects in the foothills of the White Carpathians in Eastern Moravia .............................. 317

Marzena Szmyt, Janusz Czebreszuk

Before Barrows. Funnel Beaker culture settlement preceding the Early Bronze Age cemetery in Łęki Małe
(site Wilanowo 12) ........................................................................................................................................................................... 337

Kathryn M. Hudson, Janusz Kruk, Sarunas Milisauskas

Wagon trails: considering the iconographic contexts of the Bronocice vessel ......................................................................... 347
Małgorzata Rybicka
Some remarks on the Funnel Beaker culture in the area between the Ikva River and the middle Horyn River .............. 357

Anna Zakościelna, Halina Taras

Miniature pottery forms of the Funnel Beaker culture from the Polish territories ............................................................... 365

Barbara Sałacińska, Sławomir Sałaciński

From research on the shallow flint mining in Krzemionki Opatowskie in the Poland-wide context
in the Stone Age and the Early Bronze Age ................................................................................................................. 385

Part IV. Beginning of the Bronze Age ....................................................................................................................................... 399

Martin Furholt
Social worlds and collectives as alternative approaches to the concept of cultures: The example of the Late Neolithic
Corded Ware in Europe (2800-2000 BC) ..................................................................................................................... 401

Jan Turek
Sacred Mountains and Corded Ware cosmology ........................................................................................................................ 411

Justyna Baron, Bernadeta Kufel-Diakowska, Tomasz Płonka

For heroes only? The long lives of two flint daggers from western Poland ............................................................................. 423

Robert Staniuk
Accumulating distinctions: Early Bronze Age vertical and horizontal patterns of refuse disposal on both sides
of the Carpathians ........................................................................................................................................................... 433

Paweł Jarosz, Anita Szczepanek

Rzeszów Foothills in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC in light of paleodiet analyses ........................................... 447

Paweł Jarosz, Jerzy Libera

Stone battle-axes in graves of the Mierzanowice culture in the basins of the Vistula and Bug Rivers ................................ 457

Anna Lasota-Kuś, Marcin M. Przybyła, Piotr Włodarczak

Warriors with bracelets. Remarks on men’s burials from the Early Bronze Age .................................................................... 473

Jacek Górski, Przemysław Makarowicz

Absolute dating of the Mierzanowice culture cemetery in Świniary Stare in the Sandomierz Upland .............................. 491

Mateusz Jaeger
Gold Lockenring from the Middle Bronze Age multi-layered settlement at Kakucs-Turján (central Hungary) .............. 495

Aleksander Kośko, Viktor I. Klochko, Przemysław Makarowicz

The Crimea-Jutland route and fluted mace distribution (2500–800 BC). 21st-century attempts to update
the conception and suggestions for future research ................................................................................................... 505

Jacek Górski, Mikołaj Orzechowski

A new perspective on the Mierzanowice-Trzciniec transition phase in the light of finds from Tur Dolny,
Pińczów district ............................................................................................................................................................... 523
 FroM FArMerS To HeroeS? ArcHAeoLogIcAL STuDIeS IN HoNor oF SłAwoMIr KADrow
editors: Maciej Dębiec, Jacek górski, Johannes Müller, Marek Nowak, Andrzej Pelisiak, Thomas Saile, Piotr włodarczak
universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 376, Bonn 2022, 17-31

LA DOLCE VITA. THE EARLY NEOLITHIC IN NORTHERN ITALY

AND ITS CONNECTIONS TO SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE

Valeska Becker

Abstract

The paper sheds light on the earliest Neolithic cultural phenomenon in northern Italy, the Fiorano culture. It is contemporary to, or only slightly
younger than, the Linear Pottery culture of Austria and Transdanubia and characterized by a special set of pottery shapes and decorations, among
them the so-called tazza carenata, a carinated cup with a handle. Settlements are small and contain house remains mostly in the shape of various pits,
but also settlement ditches and palisades. Burials are virtually unknown. The origin of the Fiorano culture is still debated. It appears in northern
Italy fully developed, without predecessors. The paper argues for a possible origin in the late Starčevo culture of Transdanubia and close relations
with the neighbouring Sopot, Malo Korenovo, Danilo and Linear Pottery cultures.

Keywords: early Neolithic; Italy; Fiorano culture; Starčevo culture; Malo Korenovo; Danilo; Linear Pottery culture

1. Introduction gers and fingernails. This Impressa pottery seems to be

The spread of the Neolithic way of life from its origins in
the Near East to southeastern, central and western Eu-
rope is considered to have occurred along three different
main routes: one from Anatolia and the Turkish west
coast across the Aegean and Greece to the north, and the
other across Turkish Thrace to southeastern Europe. Red,
white, and black painted pottery can be found in the set-
tlements in these areas, among other typical early Neo-
lithic artefacts such as stamp seals, anthropomorphic and
zoomorphic figurines, so-called “cult tables”, and a cha-
racteristic lithic inventory.
The third main route ran along the coasts of the Me-
diterranean. The pottery made on the eastern and the
western Adriatic Sea, in southern Italy, on Sicily and Sar-
dinia, on the Tyrrhenian Sea coasts, and in Liguria, south-
ern France, and Spain differs from that of southeastern
Europe with respect to decoration, since the main deco-
ration technique is imprints from various objects such as
bivalves, flint implements, bone or wooden tools, or fin-
a counter-concept to the painted wares of southeastern
Europe.
The scope of the following paper, however, will deal
with neither of these two aspects; it will instead shed light
on a cultural phenomenon lodged in between them: the
Fiorano culture, located in northern Italy. After a brief
presentation of the material culture, its connections to
the west and especially the east will be outlined to gain an
understanding of its possible origin and to propose a hy-
pothesis of its emergence.
2. The Fiorano culture (Cultura Fiorano)
Even though rather unknown outside of the country, the
Fiorano culture is probably the most important early Neo-
lithic culture of northern Italy as far as the number of sites
and the distribution are concerned (Fig. ). It was named
 The following is based on parts of my Habilitationsschrift: Becker
208, 38-47 and 2-247.
18 LA DoLce VITA. THe eArLy NeoLITHIc IN NorTHerN ITALy AND ITS coNNecTIoNS To SouTHeASTerN euroPe
Fig. 1. cultural phenomena in early Neolithic Italy (c. 5600–4900 cal Bc)
after the eponymous site of Fiorano Modenese in the re-
gion of Emilia-Romagna.
Absolute dates have been rare in the past, and most of
the older dates have high standard deviations. New exca-
vations, mainly at Lugo di Grezzana, have, however,
yielded new high-quality AMS data2. The oldest dates go
back to the years between 5600-5300 calBC, albeit with
charcoal as a source material, which may be subject to an
old wood effect; all the newer dates, originating from
charred grains or caryopses of hazelnuts, are younger,
dating to 5300-4800/4600 calBC3.
2 Dates according to Skeates 994; Improta/Pessina 998, 09; Rosini/
Sarti/Silvestrini 2005; Ferrari/Mazzieri/Steffè 2006, 9-20; Pedrotti/
Salzani 200, 9; Starnini/Biagi/Mazzucco 207, 3; Pearce 203, 79-8.
3 Pedrotti/Salzani 200, 9.
2.1. Distribution and history of research
Fiorano sites can be found mainly in Emilia-Romagna,
but also in the neighbouring regions of Veneto and northern
Tuscany, although certain pottery types occur as single
finds as far ranging as Friuli and central Italy, and possibly
even France (cf. below). The Po Plain is seemingly devoid
of sites, but this is most likely due to settlements and finds
being buried under large alluvial layers, like Fiorano Mode-
nese itself, which was found under 0 metres of sediments4.
The first Fiorano finds were made as early as the late
9 century, when G. Chierici analyzed structural features
th
and called them fondi di capanne (pit houses)5. During
4 Friendly reminder by Prof. P. Biagi.
5 Chierici 875; id. 877.
VALeSKA BecKer
the 1940s and 1950s, F. Malavolti described finds and fea-
tures of the Fiorano culture and named it the oldest cul-
ture of the Po Plain6. New excavations, for example at
Lugo di Romagna and especially Lugo di Grezzana, have
yielded large numbers of AMS dates and enriched the
corpus of the known find material.
2.2. Settlements
Settlements of the Fiorano culture can be found on low
terraces and small hills on the Po Plain as well as in the
foothills of the Apennines. It is certain that a large number
of settlements has been lost due to the meandering of the
Po and its tributaries. Well-known sites in Emilia-Ro-
magna are Lugo di Romagna, Savignano sul Panaro, and
Fiorano Modenese itself; in Veneto, Lugo di Grezzana,
Santa Giustina di Baldaria, and Le Basse di Valcalaone
can be mentioned, and for northern Tuscany, typical Fio-
rano finds occur at Casa Querciolaia and Poggio di Mezzo7.
These sites are open-air settlements, but Fiorano materi-
als have also been found in caves and abris such as Grotta
del Leone and Riparo La Romita8 in Tuscany, where they
are intermingled with finds from the Ceramica a linee in-
cise, a neighbouring cultural phenomenon9.
In his PhD thesis, F. Cavulli recently shed light on set-
tlement structures from the early Neolithic in northern
Italy, which is very helpful when assessing Fiorano sites10.
However, since many settlements had already been exca-
vated at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th
centuries and were not always published in extenso, and
since large areas were not often excavated, it is not easy to
gain an overview of structures on Fiorano sites.
Still, some insights are possible. A Fiorano house was
unearthed at Lugo di Romagna; it burned down and was
then covered by sediments and thus preserved. The
house measures 0 x 7 metres and is oriented NNW-SSE;
the floor is made of packed earth, and the building is se-
parated into two rooms by a row of posts and a small
ditch. The walls are made of posts with wattle-and-daub
in between; a fireplace was found within the structure.
A similar house was found at Lugo di Grezzana2. From
these two sites, ditch systems with accompanying wooden
palisades are also known3.
6 E.g. Malavolti 953.
7 Pessina/Tiné 2008, 56.
8 Iacopini 2000, 53.
9 Iacopini 2000, 72, 73.
0 Cavulli 2008a.
 Degasperi/Ferrari/Steffè 998; Cavulli 2008b, 77-78.
2 Cavulli 2008b, 78.
3 Cavulli/Pedrotti 2002; Degasperi/Ferrari/Steffè 998, 8-20.
19
Unfortunately, more often than not, such easily iden-
tifiable and readily interpretable settlement structures are
missing from Fiorano sites. Instead, pits of various sizes
and depths can be found, such as post-holes, but also
storage pits, clay extraction pits and pits used for the
processing of materials4.
One group of pits stands out due to its odd shape, re-
sembling a figure eight. These double pits measure about
0 x 4 metres and sometimes contain traces of ovens or
hearths as well as post-holes and large quantities of finds
such as charcoal, animal bones, pottery fragments, flint
and grinding stones5. Concluding from their inventories,
they seem to have been used as houses or shelters, much
like other larger pits from settlements that lack the curious
figure eight shape but contain typical household rubbish
as well6. Fireplaces, hearths and ovens were also found in
the open, not within structures7.
2.3. Finds
The Fiorano culture was defined mostly through its pot-
tery, as is common for many prehistoric cultures. One
peculiar characteristic is the presence of the so-called
tazza carenata, a carinated cup made from fine clay with
a lug, and often decorated with incised and impressed
decoration; the motifs encompass angles, rhombs, gar-
lands, bundles of parallel lines, and rows of small impres-
sions. Other common vessel shapes are flasks, carinated
and smoothly profiled bowls, and large vessels usually
with four lugs and a decoration of clay bands8.
Flint implements consist of blades, scrapers, drills,
points, and trapezes9. Also typical are so-called Ripa-
bianca burins (bulini Ripabianca), tools with lateral re-
touched notches having no parallels north of the Alps. An
important region for source materials are the Lessini
Mountains (Monti Lessini) east of Lake Garda in the Vene-
to. They yield easily accessible high-quality flint. Adzes
and axes are rather rare, as are grinding stones20. Stone
bracelets were made from local sources but also from
green stone variants such as omphalites and eclogites
4 Bernabò Brea/Steffè 990, 78, 8, 89; Cavulli 2008b, 8-86.
5 Cavulli 2008a, 3, 4-6, 2.
6 E.g. Fiorano: Cavulli 2008a, 9, 20; Rivaltella: Cavulli 2008a, 8,
9; Savignano: Bernabò Brea et al. 990, 88, 90; Chiozza: Bagolini
972b, 33-37 and Manfredini 970, 48, 49; Le Basse di Valcalaona:
Cavulli 2008a, 32, 33.
7 Cavulli 2008b, 87-, 88.
8 Pessina/Tiné 2008, 92; Cocchi Genick 994, 02; Pedrotti et al. 205,
00-04.
9 Cocchi Genick 994, 02, 03; examples: Ferrari/Mazzieri/Steffè
2006, 04, fig. : B; Ferrari/Mengoli/Steffè 2006, 42 fig. ; Cupitò 2006,
492, fig. 4; Pedrotti et al. 205, 03, fig. 7 and 04, 05.
20 Bagolini 972, 59; Cupitò 2006, 492, fig. 4.
20 LA DoLce VITA. THe eArLy NeoLITHIc IN NorTHerN ITALy AND ITS coNNecTIoNS To SouTHeASTerN euroPe
from the western Alps21. Bracelets were also made from
spondylus22. Points were made from animal bones23.
2.4. religious beliefs
Some finds and features can be tied directly to sets of be-
liefs within the Fiorano culture. Here we can mention fi-
gural finds such as a small number of anthropomorphic
figurines, unfortunately all in a rather fragmentary state24,
and an incised anthropomorphic depiction on a carinated
cup25. They tie into the almost universal European Neo-
lithic modus of making anthropomorphic objects such as
figurines, vessels, lugs, handles and incised depictions26,
although their meaning is still debated.
Possible foundation rites are feasible at Lugo di Ro-
magna and Lugo di Grezzana. In Lugo di Romagna, a cup
was placed upside down above a dismembered dog’s paw
at the bottom of a trench of a palisade, close to the en-
trance; another such foundational sacrifice – an upside-
down vessel – was found in a post-hole27. At Lugo di
Grezzana, it was not a dog’s paw but the leg and foot of
a figurine that was placed in a post-hole at the entrance
of the enclosure, and in the vicinity, a phalanx of a sheep
or goat was found28.
Burials are virtually unknown, so burial rites must
have consisted of modes that did not include the inter-
ment of the body. There is a burial in a flexed position,
lying on the left side, from San Ilario d’Enza, although its
attribution to the Fiorano culture is uncertain29. This is
also true for another burial from Calerno30.
2.5. Subsistence
Besides keeping domestic animals (extensive analysis of
faunal remains in the Fiorano culture is still lacking),
plant remains are numerous, and they shed light on cereals,
legumes and fruit. Evidence for barley, emmer, einkorn,
and free-threshing wheat were found alongside peas and
fruit such as cornel cherries, apples, acorns, blackberries,
sloe berries, hazelnuts, elderberries, and grapes3. Some
2 E.g. Bernabò Brea et al. 990, 07; Bagolini 972, 59; Cavulli/Pedrotti
2002, 3, 4; Barfield/Broglio 965, 339.
22 Ferrari/Mengoli/Steffè 2006, 420; Micheli 2006, 438, 439.
23 E.g. Bernabò Brea/Steffé 990, 08.
24 Becker 2009, 53, 72, 73, figs. 5-6.
25 Pessina 998, 99, fig. 5.
26 Becker 20.
27 Cavulli/Pedrotti 2002, 2, 22
28 Cavulli/Pedrotti 2002, 2.
29 Barfield 972, 90.
30 Malavolti 953, 7.
3 Casteletti/Rottoli 998 passim, especially 2, Table III.
plants, such as bittersweet nightshade, may have been
used for medicinal purposes.
3. Origins of the Fiorano culture
The origins of the Fiorano culture have been intensely
discussed in the literature. It appears on the Po Plain as
the first fully Neolithic phenomenon without any prede-
cessors, and the other Neolithic cultures surrounding it,
such as the cultural groups of Vhò and Gaban, are younger.
The Friuli early Neolithic, however, is at least as old as the
Fiorano culture, and further to the east, some successors
of the Transdanubian Starčevo culture can be found, such
as the Linear Pottery culture in Styria and Burgenland in
Austria, the Malo Korenovo culture in eastern Croatia,
the Sopot culture in Slavonia, and the Danilo culture
along the Croatian coast and parts of Bosnia. One idea
has it that the Starčevo culture may have been the source
of the Fiorano culture, with people migrating to the Po
Plain over the course of time, much as they migrated to
large parts of central Europe in a short amount of time.
Another possible origin could be the Impressa pottery
which constitutes the oldest Neolithic culture in Italy; it
reached the country around 6000/5900 calBC in the south
(Sicily, Apulia, Calabria) and spread rapidly along the
coasts. The Ligurian Impressa is of special interest since it
dates to the beginning of the 6th millennium calBC32;
however, Impressa sites in central Italy and along the
Adriatic are younger than the Fiorano culture and can
hardly be considered as an origin33.
3.1. ceramica impressa / cardial
Contacts between the Fiorano culture and the Ligurian
Impressa as well as the French Cardial have been identi-
fied as rather early, just like connections between the
Ligurian Impressa and southern France; for example, the
doyen of Neolithic research during the early 20th century,
L. Bernabò Brea, pointed out these relations in terms of
similar pottery shapes and decorations34. In the 970s,
B. Bagolini and P. Biagi returned to these observations
and found that various caves in Liguria such as the fa-
mous Arene Candide contained pottery very similar to
that of the Fiorano culture regarding shape and decora-
tion35. Among them were the typical carinated cups and
large jars with applications in the shape of clay bands.
32 Ferrari/Mengoli/Steffè 2006, 9; Biagi/Starnini 206, 38 and 4.
33 Pearce 203, 24-44; Ferrari/Mengoli/Steffè 2006, 9 and Rosini
et al. 2005, 234, 235.
34 Bernabò Brea 946, 266.
35 Bagolini/Biagi 973; eidem 974.
VALeSKA BecKer 21

Fig. 2. Ligurian (1-3), Thyrrenian (4–6) and Adriatic Impresso (7–10), as well as pottery of the Fiorano culture (11–17). Not to scale (after Pessina/Tiné 2008;
Ferrari/Pessina/Steffè 2002)
22 LA DoLce VITA. THe eArLy NeoLITHIc IN NorTHerN ITALy AND ITS coNNecTIoNS To SouTHeASTerN euroPe
On the French side, S. van Willigen recently dealt with
the relations between the Impressa and the Cardial. He
thought that the Impressa tirrenica (Impressa along the
west coast of Italy), also named facies Basi-Pienza, gave
impulses to the Cardial franco-ibérique36 and can be
viewed as its origin37.
From this, we can draw the important conclusion that
the early southern French Neolithic demonstrates close
relations to the northwestern Italian early Neolithic, and
contacts persisted in later times. The large vessels deco-
rated with clay bands of the Fiorano culture especially
have parallels in the Cardial of southern France, where
they relate to the so-called Le Baratin and Lombard
types38. Thus, these vessels are part of a more recent de-
velopment of the Cardial. Most likely they originated in
the Fiorano culture, and they were probably either im-
ported to France or copied locally; analysis of the clay
could prove this theory.
On the other hand, Impressa pottery is rather rare at
Fiorano sites. A comparison of vessel shapes does not
yield many similarities (Fig. 2): Impressa pottery shapes
are hemispheric or globular, whereas flasks or bowls typi-
cal of the Fiorano culture are rare at Impressa sites. The
same is true for lugs and handles that appear first in Fio-
rano and later in Impressa.
Similar observations can be made regarding decora-
tions. Impressa pottery is, as the name implies, decorated
with impressions in various techniques, whereas Fiorano
pottery is decorated with incised lines. Motifs on Impres-
sa vessels comprise repeating zigzags, ladder motifs, and
parallel and vertical lines of impressions; Fiorano motifs
encompass rhombs, arches, triangles, and diagonal lines.
As far as a comparison of settlements is concerned,
the landscape must be taken into consideration, which
makes it difficult to outline similarities and differences. In
any case, Impressa sites, some of which are located in
caves, have not yielded the peculiar pits in the shape of
the figure eight.
To conclude, parallels are rare between the Impressa
and the Fiorano cultures, which makes it unlikely that
Fiorano originated in Impressa. However, people some-
times act much more dynamically than their material cul-
ture implies, so it could thus be possible that, in the course
of the neolithization of northwestern Italy, a single group
of Impressa people gave up their traditions and broke
new ground. Still, we should take a look at possible influ-
ences from southeastern Europe as well.
36 van Willigen 2006, 209; Pessina/Tiné 2008, 89.
37 van Willigen 2006, 24.
38 van Willigen 2006, 73-79: type Baratin: 5300-5000 calBC; type
Lombard: 5200-4600 calBC.
3.2. Danilo culture
Sites along the coasts of the eastern Adriatic can be at-
tributed to the Danilo culture. There is to date only one
summarizing publication regarding the pottery39. In 966,
Š. Batović attempted to design an inner chronological
classification of Danilo material based on the vertical
stratigraphy from Smilčić40. As was already pointed out
by J. Müller, this classification differs from the one J. Ko-
rošec published in 964 with the material from Danilo4.
The few absolute dates point to a range of 5500-4800 cal-
BC for the Danilo culture42.
Thus, the Danilo culture can hardly be the origin of
the Fiorano culture, although there may have been con-
tacts and influences between the two. Contacts between
Danilo and the so-called Vlaška group of the Caput Adriae
and Istria definitively exist; L. Barfield defined Vlaška as
an ‘impoverished’ variant of Danilo43.
In Fiorano there are, however, no imports or imita-
tions of vessels of the Vlaška group or the Danilo culture;
likewise, there is no pottery in Danilo which can be at-
tributed to the Italian early Neolithic. Even if flint arte-
facts show some universal commonalities, typical Ripa-
bianca burins do not occur either in Danilo or Vlaška.
However, axes made from green stone may be evidence of
contacts44: Their raw material possibly originates from
the western Alps, and the way from there to the east side
of the Adriatic is hardly imaginable without the involve-
ment of the Fiorano culture.
3.3. Linear Pottery culture and Fiorano
As early as the 960s and 970s, similarities between the
Fiorano and the Linear Pottery cultures were noted45. The
idea that Fiorano decoration, especially music note-like
impressions, was influenced by the Linear Pottery culture
was voiced until the 990s46. More recent publications,
however, no longer agree. Commonalities are interpreted
to be coincidental, and especially the vessel shapes do not
display any similarities; moreover, a direct geographical
link is lacking47. Since the chronological framework was
unclear, some authors also thought that the Linear Pottery
39 Batović 979.
40 Batović 966, 27.
4 Müller 994, 90; Korošec 964, 93-98.
42 Dates according to Moore et al. 2007, 2; Forenbaher/Miracle 2006,
95 Table 3.
43 Barfield 972.
44 Burić 2000.
45 Radmilli 967; idem 974.
46 Cocchi Genick 994, 07.
47 Pessina 998, 0.
VALeSKA BecKer
culture in Austria was much younger than the Fiorano
culture; this, however, has been refuted in more recent
studies48. Still, influences from the Danube regions on the
Fiorano culture are now rejected49.
This is probably due to the geographical situation and
the long distances between the cultural phenomena in
Friuli and the Po Plain and the Linear Pottery culture
sites. Settlements of the older and younger Linear Pottery
culture which are relevant for the following remarks can
be found in southwest Hungary, mostly around Lake Bala-
ton, as well as in Zala county. Further to the north, Linear
Pottery culture sites are known in Styria and Burgenland,
Austria, with typical Keszthely pottery appearing both in
Hungary and in Austria50. The way from Friuli to Lake
Balaton or Burgenland is around 350 km, and it is 150 km
further to the Po Plain. This does not seem all that long if
we keep in mind that during the oldest phase of the Linear
Pottery culture, people migrated in a short amount of time
from Transdanubia to the Rhine in the west and Ukraine
in the east.
3.4. Malo Korenovo culture and the Friuli early Neolithic
The Malo Korenovo culture is distributed mostly in
Croatia, but also in Somogy County in Hungary. It can be
viewed as the south-westernmost extension of the Linear
Pottery culture. Sites are known in northwestern Croatia,
mostly in the area between the Sava and the Drava, and in
southwestern Hungary. It was first defined by St. Dimitri-
jević, who recognized similarities between the Malo Ko-
renovo culture and the Linear Pottery culture regarding
vessel shapes and decorations5. During the 960s, 970s
and 980s, only a few excavations were conducted, and
they uncovered further remains of the Malo Korenovo
culture. In 978, Dimitrijević described the fine and
coarse ware of the Malo Korenovo culture, listed typical
shapes and decorations, provided an overview of settle-
ments, and compared the pottery with that of the Linear
Pottery culture. The first great synthesis of finds was pub-
lished in 993 by T. Težak-Gregl. Recently, new finds were
published, which extended the distribution to the west,
east and especially the north, where Malo Korenovo finds
are mixed with Keszthely material of Transdanubia52.
It is ca. 350 km between the north-easternmost sites
of the Fiorano culture and the Linear Pottery culture of
Hungary and Austria, while it is ca. 300 km between Fio-
48 Stadler 999; Lenneis/Lüning 200, 87-90; Lenneis/Stadler 2002;
Stadler 203.
49 Pessina/Tiné 2008, 34.
50 Lenneis 2003.
5 Dimitrijević 96.
52 Tokai 2006; Barna 2005; Horváth/Kalicz 200.
23
rano settlements and those of the Malo Korenovo culture.
However, it is only 60-80 km from the Malo Korenovo
culture to the sites of Friuli.
These absolute distances, however, must be viewed
with regard to the topography. At first glance, the foothills
of the Dinaric Alps seem to be a border dividing the
southwestern fringes of the Pannonian Plain with the set-
tlements of the Malo Korenovo culture from the eastern
hilly regions of Friuli. River valleys, however, especially
the Sava valley, facilitate the connection between the re-
gions so that higher areas can be avoided. Following the
Sava and then the Ljubljanica, it is easy to access the
Ljubljana basin and from there, following smaller rivers
like the Malenščica and the Nanoščica, the region around
Trieste.
There is evidence that these routes were, in fact, used
in prehistoric times: in the Grotta degli Zingari in Italy,
a vessel from the Malo Korenovo culture was found53.
Furthermore, vessel fragments of the Malo Korenovo cul-
ture were found in Danilo strata in Smilčić.
Unfortunately, actual Linear Pottery culture vessels or
their fragments have not yet been found in Friuli. How-
ever, there are typical ‘Danube tools’ like adzes uncovered
in Sammardenchia-„Cûeis” in Friuli. These are thought to
be imports since they do not occur in Neolithic Italy54.
Furthermore, Carpathian obsidian was found in Sammar-
denchia and in the Grotta della Tartaruga55. This is re-
markable since obsidian from the islands of Lipari and
Palmarola played a significant role throughout Italy du-
ring the Neolithic and is present also at the two sites men-
tioned above. Furthermore, the raw material used for
disk-butted axes of the fifth millennium calBC was found
to originate in the northern Bohemian massif56. Although
younger than the Linear Pottery culture, these contacts
still clearly indicate the long-distance connections be-
tween Friuli and the regions north of the Alps.
Without a doubt, contacts between the Fiorano cul-
ture and the early Neolithic in Friuli existed, since copious
numbers of typical Fiorano vessels were found in many
settlements. However, there are no direct contact finds
between the Fiorano and the Malo Korenovo cultures or
the Linear Pottery culture respectively. Thus, contacts
may only be manifest indirectly, via similarities regarding
vessel shapes or decorations, which will be addressed
below.
Malo Korenovo pottery consists of fine and coarse
ware. The coarse ware is reddish, while the fine ware is
53 Gilli/Montagnari Kokelj 996, 75, fig. 2, 48.
54 Pessina/D‘Amico 999, 77.
55 Pessina/D’Amico 999, 77; Pessina 999.
56 Bernardini et al. 202.
24 LA DoLce VITA. THe eArLy NeoLITHIc IN NorTHerN ITALy AND ITS coNNecTIoNS To SouTHeASTerN euroPe
grey or dark brown with a smoothed surface. Clay analy-
sis proved the local origin of the raw material57. The vessel
shapes comprise globular and biconical vessels, vessels
with bell-shaped feet, conical bowls with rounded bot-
toms, and flasks with short cylindrical necks and globular
bodies58. Apart from very rare impressions, the main deco-
ration techniques are fine incised lines arranged to form
zigzags, v-shaped motifs, meanders, spirals, and simple
and double garlands which run around the largest dia-
meter of the vessel or the upper third. Unfortunately,
there are no absolute dates for the Malo Korenovo cul-
ture. In 1979, Dimitrijević suggested a classification with
three phases based on stratigraphical observations59. The
oldest Malo Korenovo pottery can be found in associa-
tion with late Starčevo; for the latest phase, M. Težak-
Gregl suggested to investigate relations between Malo
Korenovo and the Sopot culture which can be found in
Slavonia (cf. below) as well as possible influences from
Želiezovce or Szakálhát since red incrustation can be oc-
casionally found on Malo Korenovo pottery as well60. In-
deed, a late local variant of the Sopot culture can be found
in northwestern Croatia (Sopot-Brezovljani), although
the relations between Malo Korenovo and Sopot are still
unclear. At any rate, the few oldest remains of the Malo
Korenovo culture can be dated to 5400/5300 calBC and
its end runs parallel to the beginning of phase II-A of the
Sopot culture as well as with the regional Sopot-Brezovl-
jani variant. The early start of Malo Korenovo can also be
verified by material found at Kaniška Iva and Kapelica,
which encompasses a mixture of Starčevo and Malo Ko-
renovo; however, this pottery does not belong to the old-
est phase stylistically. Thus, absolute dates are urgently
needed to understand the chronological frame of the
Malo Korenovo culture and its relations to Fiorano.
3.5. Sopot culture
As far as we know today, the Sopot culture developed in
Slavonia on the basis of the late Starčevo and it was also
influenced by early Vinča. It is divided into three main
and several subphases (I-A, I-B; II-A, II-B; III )6. There
are no absolute dates for the oldest phase (I-A), while
phase IB dates to 5480-5070 calBC. Local variants seem
to develop during this phase, like the so-called Ražište
type62. Phase II-A can be parallelized to the formative stage
of the Tisza culture (500-4700 calBC), whereas phase II-B
57 Spataro 2003.
58 Težak-Gregl 993, 68.
59 Dimitrijević 979, 37-322; Težak-Gregl 993, 7-73.
60 Težak-Gregl 993, 73.
6 Dimitrijević 968; Krznarić Škrivanko 2002.
62 Marković 203.
is synchronous with the Prototiszapolgár63. Newer dates
from the eponymous Sopot site that were, however, not
connected to the above-mentioned phases, are rather
young64; 7 new AMS dates from the Hungarian site Al-
sónyék fall between 5200/5000-4800/4700 calBC65.
3.6. Starčevo culture and early Linear Pottery culture
The common origin for the Malo Korenovo, Sopot, and
Linear Pottery cultures is the Starčevo culture, although
strong Mesolithic influences are under discussion66. The
region around Lake Balaton is where the Linear Pottery
culture supposedly originated. The discussion of absolute
dates of the latest Starčevo culture and the earliest re-
mains of the Linear Pottery culture in Transdanubia sug-
gest a beginning of around 5600/5500, with the late
Starčevo and the early Linear Pottery culture overlapping
and running parallel for some time67. Unfortunately, only
a few 4C dates exist for the late Starčevo settlements in
Transdanubia (Becsehely I, Vörs-Máriaaszony-sziget; the
settlements from Barbarc, Rezi, Sármellek, Gellénháza-
Városrét and Tihany-Apáti are undated68). A longer series
of dates exists for Szentgyörgyvölgy-Pityerdomb; how-
ever, this settlement is located in Zala county and not on
Lake Balaton69. The pottery found here can be related to
Starčevo pottery, and it is decorated with incised lines,
finger impressions and black paint70.
The Starčevo settlements in Croatia are more difficult
to assess than those in Hungary due to the state of re-
search. Still, the well-known monograph ”Starčevačka
kultura u sjevernoj Hrvatskoj“ [“The Starčevo culture in
north Croatia“] by K. Minichreiter gives a good over-
view7. Thanks to her newer research, especially at Sla-
vonski Brod-Galovo and Zadubravlje, we now have a good
overview of the distribution, settlements, and the mate-
rial culture72. Again, new absolute dates prove that stylis-
tic developments can last for longer or shorter periods of
time, depending on the region73. Although they correlate
with the Linear A horizon of the Starčevo culture, they
date relatively late, and this has to be stressed even more
since they were taken from charcoal and we will have to
once again consider the old wood effect.
63 Obelić et al. 2004.
64 Krznarić Škrivanko 20; Burić 205.
65 Oross et al. 206, 73-78.
66 Bánffy/Oross 2009, 220.
67 Bánffy/Oross 200, 263.
68 Bánffy/Oross 200, 257, 258.
69 Bánffy 2004.
70 Bánffy/Oross 200, 258, 259.
7 Minichreiter 992.
72 Minichreiter 20; Minichreiter/Krajcar Bronić 2007.
73 Minichreiter/Krajcar Bronić 2007, 4, fig. 5.
VALeSKA BecKer
4. Synthesis
The above shows how complicated and complex the net-
work of Neolithic cultural settlements is in these regions
(Fig. 3). At the same time, it is obvious that it is extremely
important to look closely at microregions which may dif-
fer greatly from each other. Unfortunately, for many re-
gions and sites, absolute dates are still lacking, such as for
central Croatia. Furthermore, many older dates were re-
covered from charcoal, so possible old wood effects may
distort the view.
As far as we can evaluate the situation today, around
5600/5500 calBC changes occurred not only in Italy but
also in the neighbouring eastern regions of Croatia and
Hungary, which results in the formation of new cultural
phenomena. These changes are well-researched in Trans-
danubia, where the Linear Pottery culture forms on the
basis of the Starčevo culture and under possible late Me-
solithic influences. Similar developments can be assumed
in Slavonia, although absolute dates for the formative
phase of the Sopot group are still absent. The situation in
central Croatia is harder to assess since absolute dates are
missing for the beginning of the Malo Korenovo culture.
We can be sure it is already established around 5300 cal-
BC, since Malo Korenovo pottery can be found alongside
Keszthely pottery in Transdanubia. On the eastern side of
Fig. 3. communication networks of the Neolithic cultural phenomena in northeastern Italy, croatia, southwestern Hungary and southeastern Austria between
5500/5300 and 4900 cal Bc
25
the Adriatic, the Danilo culture succeeds the youngest
Impresso groups. The first Neolithic groups in Friuli and
on the Po Plain are, however, without direct predecessors
from Starčevo or Impresso in these regions. Mixed inven-
tories and imports sketch networks of communication
among the cultural phenomena of north Italy, Croatia,
and Transdanubia.
Imports:
– Malo Korenovo pottery was found in the Danilo
culture and its more northern variant, the Vlaška group
of the Trieste Carst;
– In Friuli, “Danubian“ stone tools and evidence for
possible Carpathian obsidian were found;
– Within the Fiorano culture, in Friuli and in Croatia,
artefacts made from green stones originating from the
western Alps were discovered.
Mixed inventories:
– At sites in southwest Transdanubia, material from
the Malo Korenovo culture and the Transdanubian
Keszthely group occurs at the same sites;
– In southeast Austria, sites with mixed materials
from the Keszthely group and the Austrian Linear Pottery
culture can be found;
– In Friuli, remains of the Fiorano culture, the Friuli
early Neolithic and the northernmost variant of the
Danilo culture are known.
26 LA DoLce VITA. THe eArLy NeoLITHIc IN NorTHerN ITALy AND ITS coNNecTIoNS To SouTHeASTerN euroPe

Fig. 4. comparison between vessel shapes and decorations of the Fiorano culture (left) and the Sopot group and the Malo-Korenovo cultures (right).
a, d, h–k Sopot vessels. b, c, f, g Malo Korenovo vessels. Not to scale (after Dimitrijević 1968; id. 1978; id. 1979; Težak-gregl 1993; Marković 2013; Ferrari/Pessina/
Steffè 2002; Tokai 2006)
VALeSKA BecKer
Western influences, for example from the Ligurian or
Tyrrhenian Impressa, did not become manifest in the
Fiorano culture. The pottery is clearly distinguishable in
terms of shapes, decoration techniques, motifs and styles.
Thus, possible eastern influences may have to be consid-
ered. The cultural phenomena of Croatia and Transdanu-
bia (Danilo, Malo Korenovo, Transdanubian Linear Pot-
tery culture, Sopot) originate, at least partly, in the
Starčevo culture as their common ancestor. This becomes
visible in the continuously developing material culture
and also partly in continuously used settlement sites.
These cultures and the Fiorano culture do bear some
similarities, but there are no imports or mixed invento-
ries. The similarities are the following:
– Settlements: Although there are no long-houses
like in the Linear Pottery culture, ditches do occur in the
Fiorano culture. They have some traits similar to the
ditches of the Linear Pottery culture such as accompany-
ing palisades, layouts, and depositions. We have to men-
tion that there are also large ditch systems in southern
Italy, although they differ distinctly from those of the
Fiorano culture in terms of size, layout and construction.
– Burials: The burial rites of the Fiorano culture did
not include interment of the dead. This also seems to be
true for the cultural phenomena further to the east, like
Malo Korenovo and Danilo, among others. Cemeteries
do occur within the Linear Pottery culture, but they are
not evenly distributed either geographically or chrono-
logically. Burials from the oldest phase are almost com-
pletely absent, and in Transdanubia there are several set-
tlement burials but thus far no real cemeteries74.
– Vessel shapes (fig. 4: ): The carinated cup (tazza
carenata) is a typical Fiorano vessel, complete with a roun-
ded bottom and a handle. The shape is an oddity in Italy,
since vessels with such profiles do not exist in the Impressa
culture. They can be found, however, in the Starčevo,
Sopot, Malo Korenovo and Linear Pottery cultures, al-
though the handles are unique to Fiorano. Flat bowls from
Malo Korenovo are extremely similar to those of Fiorano.
– Vessel decoration: In contrast to the Impressa cul-
ture, all of the cultural phenomena mentioned above use
incised decoration, with the exception of the Danilo cul-
ture and the oldest Linear Pottery culture of Transdanubia,
where, rarely, painted decoration can be found75.
– Motifs (fig. 4: 2): The earliest Linear Pottery culture
of Transdanubia features incised decoration and motifs
like single and double lines, spiral meanders, zigzags, and
filled-in fields. In later phases, several local variants of
decoration can be found. Malo Korenovo pottery is deco-
74 cf. the settlement of Balatonszárszó: Bánffy/Oross 2009, 228.
75 e.g. Bánffy 2004, 247, 248.
27
rated almost exclusively with angles and arches running
around the vessel body; lines with hook-like endings are
especially common. The earliest phase of the Sopot cul-
ture is characterized by pottery with rare incised lines in
the shape of angles, zigzags, fishbone patterns, and single
and double lines. Certain motifs of the Ražište type can
be very well compared to Fiorano decoration, such as an-
gles and arches.
– Figural finds: Figural finds are completely absent
from the Ligurian, Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Impressa (al-
though a few figurines are known from southern Italy).
However, they can be found in the Fiorano culture and in
Friuli. In Malo Korenovo, so-called “cult tables“ with an-
thropomorphic ends are known. Figurines and other fi-
gural finds are also an integral part of the Linear Pottery
culture. The oddly shaped, broad and enlarged upper
parts of the heads of Fiorano figurines and also of the
neighbouring Vhò group look similar to heads of Linear
Pottery culture figurines. In both cultures, these heads are
decorated, albeit with different motifs.
When seen separately, these similarities, mixed inven-
tories, and imports may seem random. Viewed all together,
however, they indicate contacts between these different
cultural phenomena on various levels.
Like the Malo Korenovo, Sopot and Transdanubian
Linear Pottery cultures, the Fiorano culture may have
originated in late Starčevo (fig. 5). Evidence for this is
provided by vessel shapes and decorations as well as the
fact that the motifs do indeed display similarities to the
regions further to the east. At the same time, the Fiorano
culture is characterized by distinctive traits, maybe due to
the long distance between its distribution and its possible
origin. Since the final Mesolithic ends – at least as far as
research today is concerned – several hundred years be-
fore the beginning of the Fiorano culture and since mi-
gration is, on the basis of aDNA analysis, also true for
other Neolithic phenomena of central and southeast Eu-
rope, it is quite possible that the people of the Fiorano
culture were also immigrants who came from the area of
the Starčevo culture. They may have followed the Sava
valley, crossed the Ljubljana Basin and travelled along the
valleys of some smaller rivers to access Friuli and finally
the Po Plain.
The transition between the late Starčevo culture and
its successors can be clearly seen only for the Linear Pot-
tery culture. The transition to the Malo Korenovo and the
Sopot cultures has not yet been analysed in detail.
The relations between all these cultural phenomena
are certainly not restricted only to their origin. Rather,
figural finds, vessel shapes and decorations indicate that
connections were upheld in later times as well. The figural
28 LA DoLce VITA. THe eArLy NeoLITHIc IN NorTHerN ITALy AND ITS coNNecTIoNS To SouTHeASTerN euroPe
Fig. 5. Schematic representation of the distribution of the Starčevo culture and its successors
finds are especially important since they are associated
with religious beliefs spanning wide areas.
Friuli may have served the function of a hub, receiv-
ing influences from Fiorano and Danilo on the one hand
and the Danube regions on the other. Its position between
the Po Plain and the river valleys to Slovenia and Croatia
gave the people living here the ability to act as interme-
diaries between east and west. The mixed pottery of many
settlements featuring imports and influences from the Po
Plain and Croatia is distinctive evidence for contacts and
lively exchange.
Without a doubt there were also relations with the cul-
tural phenomena to the west, in which the Fiorano culture
seems to have been on the giving and not on the receiving
end. Fiorano pottery has been found as far as the Massif
Central in France76, and Fiorano may have been the dis-
tributor for the green stone tools from the western Alps.
The vessel shapes and decorations in Malo Korenovo,
the Linear Pottery culture, Sopot and Danilo are without
a doubt specific and unique, just like the material remains
of the Fiorano culture; however, imports, mixed invento-
ries, parallels in figural finds – and thus maybe also in reli-
gious beliefs – connected northern Italy, Croatia and Trans-
danubia in an exchange of goods, thoughts and people.
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