Definition:

Mass wasting refers to the downslope movement of rock, regolith, and soil under the direct influence
of gravity
Role of mass wasting Slopes change through time
 Geologic process that often follows  No minimum angle is required for mass
weathering wasting to occur
 Combined effects of mass wasting and  Most rapid and spectacular mass wasting
running water produce stream valleys events occur in areas of rugged,
geologically young mountains
 Mass wasting and erosional processes
Important factors include: slowly lower the land surface
The role of water
 Diminishes particle cohesion (friction)
Classification of mass wasting processes
 Water adds weight
Generally each event is classified by:
Oversteepening of slopes slope angle
1. Type of material involved
 Stable slope angle ( angle of repose ) is
Mud
different for various materials
Earth
 Over steepened slopes are unstable
Rock
Removal of anchoring vegetation
2. Type of motion
Earthquakes as triggers
Fall (free falling pieces) (build u of talus
 May cause expensive property damage
slopes)
 Can cause liquefaction -water saturated
Slide (material moves along a surface
surface materials behave as fluid like
(joints, faults) as a coherent
masses that flow
Flow (material moves as a chaotic mixture,
Landslides without triggers
as viscous fluids, debris flows)
 Slope materials weaken over time
3. The velocity of the movement
 Random events that are unpredictable
Fast , e.g. rock avalanches
Slow , e.g. creep
Types of mass wasting
1. Slump
• Movement of a mass of rock or unconsolidated material as a unit along a curved surface
• Occurs along over steepened slopes
2. Rockslide
• Blocks of bedrock slide down a slope, debris slides when material unconsolidated
• Generally very fast and destructive
3. Debris flow (mudflow)
• Consists of soil and regolith with a large amount of water
• Often confined to channels
• Serious hazard in dry areas with heavy rains
• Debris flows composed mostly of volcanic materials on the flanks of volcanoes are called lahars
4. Earthflow
Form on hillsides in humid regions
Water saturates the soil& Commonly involve materials rich in clay and silt

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 Slow movements Submarine landslides
Creep – Submarine landslides are common and
– Gradual movement of soil and regolith widespread in occurrence
downhill
– Aided by the alternate expansion and – The most spectacular underwater
contraction of the landslides occur on the flanks of submarine
– surface material (freezing and thawing) volcanoes (called seamounts)
Solifluction (“soil flow”)
– Promoted by a dense clay hardpan or – Large slumps and debris flows scar the
impermeable bedrock layer continental slopes along the margins of
– Common in regions underlain by permafrost the United States
– Can occur on gentle slopes
– Triggered by the rapid buildup of unstable
sediments, or by forces such as storm
waves and earthquakes

– Especially active near deltas

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A slump with an earthflow at the base

Some visible effects of creep

Deep water submarine fan environment

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 The shoreline: A dynamic interface
– The shoreline is a dynamic interface(common boundary) between air, land, and the ocean
– The shoreline is constantly being modified by waves, tides, river outflow
– Today the coastal zone is experiencing intense human activity

Shoreface The coastal zone

Clarification of terms used to describe the

land sea boundary:

– Shoreline is the line that marks the

contact between land and sea

– The shore is the area that extends

between the lowest tide level and the
highest elevation on land that is
affected by storms

– The coast extends inland from the

shore as far as ocean related features
are found

Shore – Coastline marks the coast’s seaward

edge
Shore is divided into the:
– Shoreface (offshore, lower, upper)
– Foreshore area - exposed at low tide
– Backshore - landward of the high tide shoreline Beach
– The nearshore zone lies between the low tide shoreline Beach an accumulation of sediment
and the point where waves break at low tide found
– Seaward of the nearshore is the offshore zone along the landward margin of the ocean
or a lake
Waves The relatively flat platform composed of
Wind generated waves provide most of the energy that sand and marked by a change in slope at
shapes and modifies shorelines the seaward edge is a berm
Characteristics of waves Beach face is the wet sloping surface
Waves derive their energy and motion from the wind that
Parts of a wave extends from the berm to the shoreline
– Crest-top of the wave
– Trough -low area between waves
Measurements of a wave
– Wave height (amplitude )-the distance between a trough and a crest
– Wavelength - the horizontal distance between crests
– Wave period- the time interval between the passage of two successive crests
Height, length, and period of a wave depend on
• Wind speed
• Length of time wind has blown
• Fetch-the distance that the wind has traveled across open water

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 Basic parts of a wave

Waves Wave erosion

Types of waves – Breaking waves exert a great force
1. Wave of oscillation – Wave erosion is caused by
– Wave energy moves forward, not the water ○ Wave impact and pressure
itself ○ Abrasion by rock fragments
– Occur in the open sea in deep water

2. Wave of translation Refraction of waves

– Begins to form in shallower water when the
water depth is about one half the wavelength
and the wave begins to “feel bottom”
– As the speed and length of the wave diminish,
the wave grows higher
– The steep wave front collapses and the wave
breaks along the shore
– Turbulent water advances up the shore and
forms surf

Sand movement on the beach

Movement perpendicular to the shoreline
– Waves seldom approach the shore straight on, but rather at an angle
– When waves reach shallow water with a smoothly sloping bottom they are bent and tend to
become parallel to the shore
Wave refraction
– Bending of a wave
– Causes waves to arrive nearly parallel to the shore
– Consequences of wave refraction
○ Wave energy is concentrated against the sides and ends of headlands
○ Wave energy is spread out in bays and wave attack is weakened
○ Over time, wave erosion straightens an irregular shoreline
– Moving sand along the beach
○ Waves that reach the shoreline at an angle cause the sediment to move along a beach in a
zigzag pattern called beach drift
– Oblique waves also produce longshore currents
○ Currents in the surf zone & Flow parallel to the coast

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 zigzag pattern called beach drift
– Oblique waves also produce longshore currents
○ Currents in the surf zone & Flow parallel to the coast
○ Easily moves fine suspended sand and rolls larger sand and gravel along the bottom

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 Movement of sand by longshore current
Shoreline features
Features vary depending on several factors
including:
– The rocks along the shore
– Currents
– Wave intensity
– Whether the coast is stable, sinking, or
rising
Features caused by wave erosion:
– Wave cut cliffs
– Wave cut platform
– Features associated with headlands
○ Sea arch
○ Sea stack
Features related to beach drift and longshore
currents
– Spits
○ Elongated ridges of sand extending from
the land into the mouth of an adjacent
bay
○ Often the end of a spit hooks landward
in response to wave generated currents
– Baymouth bar- a sand bar that completely
crosses a bay
– Tombolo-a ridge of sand that connects an
island to the mainland or another island
Barrier islands
– Mainly along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts
– Low ridges of sand that parallel the coast 3
to 30 kilometers offshore
– Probably form in several ways
If the shoreline remains stable, the result of
shoreline erosion and deposition is to eventually
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Stabilizing the shore
Shoreline erosion is influenced by several
local factors including:
– Proximity to sediment laden rivers
– Degree of tectonic activity
– Topography and composition of the land
– Prevailing wind and weather patterns
– Configuration of the coastline and nearshore
areas
Three basic responses to erosion problems
Building structures:
• Jetties
○ Usually built in pairs to develop &
maintain harbors
○ Extend into the ocean at the
entrances to rivers and harbors
• Groins
○ Built to maintain or widen beaches
○ Constructed at a right angle to the
beach to trap sand
• Breakwater
○ Barrier built offshore and parallel to
the coast
○ Protects boats from the force of large
breaking waves
• Seawall
○ Barrier parallel to shore and close to
the beach to protect property
○ Stops waves from reaching the beach
areas behind the wall
Often the building of structures is not an
effective means of protection
Beach nourishment
• The addition of large quantities of sand to
the beach system
• Only an economically viable long range
solution in a few areas
Abandonment and relocation of buildings
away from the beach
 Probably form in several ways
If the shoreline remains stable, the result of
shoreline erosion and deposition is to eventually
produce a straighter coast

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 Coastal classification
1. Emergent coasts
• Develop because of uplift of an area or a drop in sea level
• Features of an emergent coast
○ Wave cut cliffs
○ Wave cut platforms
2. Submergent coast
• Caused by subsidence of land adjacent to the sea or a rise in sea level
• Features of a submergent coast
○ Highly irregular shoreline
○ Estuaries -drowned river mouths (Chesapeake and Delaware bays are examples of estuaries.
Kosi Bay and St Lucia In South Africa)

Tides
Daily changes in the elevation of the ocean surface.
Causes of tides
• Tidal bulges are caused by the gravitational forces of the Moon, and to a lesser extent the Sun
Monthly tidal cycle
• Spring tides
○ Occur during new and full moons
○ Gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun are added together
○ Especially high and low tides
○ Large daily tidal range
○ Very noticeable across Ocean View hotel in Beach Road, Strand.
• Neap tides
○ Occur during the first and third quarters of the moon
○ Gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun are offset
○ Daily tidal range is least
○ Think of Strand beach where the fishermen walk in 100 200 m on the exposed rocks.
Other factors that influence tides:
• Shape of the coastline
• Configuration of the ocean basin
Tidal patterns:
Diurnal tidal pattern = a single high tide and a single low tide each tidal day
Semidiurnal tidal pattern = 2 high tides and 2 low tides each tidal day
Mixed tidal pattern = large inequality in high water heights, low water heights or both
Tidal currents:
• Horizontal flow of water accompanying the rise and fall of the tide
• Types of tidal currents
• Flood current-advances into the coastal zone as the tide rises ( E.g. Lourens river in Strand)
• Ebb current-seaward moving water as the tide falls
• Areas affected by the tidal currents are called tidal flats Stilbaai is a good example
• Occasionally form tidal deltas

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 Tides
• Tides and Earth’s rotation
○ Tidal friction against the ocean floor acts as a weak brake that is steadily slowing
Earth’s rotation
▪ The day is increasing by 0.002 seconds per century
▪ This small effect becomes very large over millions of years
○ Length of each day must have been shorter in the geologic past
○ “Earth’s Final Hours” movie

Tidal delta and tidal flats

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What is a datum? Spherical and Cartesian Co-
From dictionary.com ordinate Systems
“any proposition assumed or given, from which conclusions
may be drawn”
From collinsdictionary.com
“a proposition taken for granted, often in order to
construct some theoretical framework upon it”
And from merriam-webster.com
“something given or admitted especially as a basis for
reasoning or inference”
and
“something used as a basis for calculating or measuring”

Spherical or polar co-ordinate system

3-dimensional Cartesian co-ordinate system

Why are datums important in surveying and how are they defined?
1. Typically we are called upon to survey a scene or a site, comprising many objects which are
often functionally linked to each other.
2. When surveying such a site our aim is fourfold:
a. Record the relative positions and shapes of stationary objects and the terrain on the site;
b. Use this record to create a graphical depiction of the objects surveyed; and
c. Use this record to derive information about the objects, such as height of buildings, width
of roads, length of a boundary fence, distance between 2 telephone poles or the volume of
a pile of earth
d. Facilitate further survey, often by other persons for purposes of setting out new
structures in the correct positions relative to existing features on the site.
3. We achieve these aims by establishing a survey datum on the site or by adopting an existing
datum.
4. We start by either locating and verifying existing survey markers or “monuments” on or near
the site or by installing such monuments of our own. These monuments provide durable,
physical evidence of the chosen datum.

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 NGI products and the South African Projected Coordinate Reference System
• In South Africa for everyday survey and design the most used co-ordinate system is the SA
Projected Co-ordinate Reference System (SAPCRS).
• South Africa is extensively surveyed and mapped by the State to a very high standard.
• The State department responsible for national survey and mapping programmes such as
maintenance of the SAPCRS is National Geo-spatial Information (NGI) which is headquartered in
Mowbray, Cape Town and falls under the National Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and
Rural Development.
• NGI also owns and operates a nationwide network of active GNSS base stations to facilitate the
use of GNSS survey equipment by the State and the private sector throughout urban and rural
areas.
• All information produced for public consumption by NGI is freely provided and free to use for
non-commercial purposes. In other words one may us this information during one’s normal
professional work, but you may not simply take any NGI product and resell it.
• NGI charges a nominal fee for the cost of printing medium such as paper maps and for time
costs related to providing digital date to users by copying onto user supplied storage media.
These fees are very low.
• The data supplied by NGI is fundamental to the development of infrastructure and to many forms
of economic activity in South Africa.
• NGI provides a “world class” service at virtually no cost to the public. This is not the case in
developed countries such as the United Kingdom, which charges very high fees for similar
products.

Earth’s Terrain Surface, Geoid and Reference

Ellipsoid
In surveying and mapping Earth we are interested in
3 surfaces:

• Surface terrain of Earth

• Geoid

• Reference ellipsoid

Earth’s terrain surface Geoid

• Comprises topographic features eg: • The Geoid is defined as an equipotential surface of

continents, oceans, lakes, rivers, the Earth’s gravity field
valleys, mountains, etc.
• It is the gravitational equipotential surface that
• Irregular and complex would be assumed by the undisturbed surface of
the sea, continued underneath the continents by
• Not suitable as a computational surface
means of small frictionless channels

• The Geoid approximates mean sea level

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 Reference ellipsoid
The Ellipsoid is a smooth mathematical surface that
• best fits the shape of the geoid and
• is the next level of approximation of the actual shape
of the earth
Geodetic Datums
A national, horizontal co-ordinate
system such as the South African
Projected Co-ordinate Reference
System is based on two of the parts
of our National Geodetic Datum,
namely
1. A reference ellipsoid, defined in
terms of the a, b or a, f
parameters, and
2. A defined orientation, position
and scale of the reference
ellipsoid in space

Terrain, geoid and ellipsoid

South African National Geodetic Datums

For purposes of defining our horizontal, projected co-ordinate system South Africa uses a datum called
the HARTBEESHOEK 1994 DATUM (HART94) which is nominally geo-centric.
The HART94 reference ellipsoid is defined as follows:
a = 6378137.000 meters; b = 6356752.314 meters and is based on the reference ellipsoid of the
World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84) which is the reference system used by the Global Positioning
System (GPS) and by many other Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS)
For purposes of defining our vertical datum, in other words the datum on which we base the
measurement of heights, we use the South African Land Levelling Datum which is preserved in survey
monuments called levelling benchmarks which are found throughout the country alongside major and minor
roads.
The heights of all these benchmarks are nominally above mean sea-level as surveyed from benchmark BM1
in Cape Town harbor.
The height above mean sea level of BM1 was established by tide gauge measurements of mean sea level in
Cape Town harbor carried out between 1900 and 1907

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