REVIEWER: HISTOLOGY
L1: HISTOLOGY & ITS METHODS OF STUDY
HISTOLOGY- study of tissues of the body and how
these tissues are arranged to constitute organs.
histos – tissue; logia – science
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY – scientific study
of microscopic structures of tissues and organs.
2 interacting components of tissues: CELLS &
ECM
ECM consist macromolecules with complex
structures (Collagen fibrils). ECM support and
contain the fluid transporting nutrients to the cells,
carrying away waste and secretory products.
Most common procedure: the preparation of tissue
slices or “sections”
Steps in slice preparation:
FIXATION- piece of tissue- place-chem
solution- inactivates enzymes- preserve the cell &
tissue structure.
DEHYDRATION- transferred-series-increasing-
concentrated- alcohol- ‘til 100%- removes all water.
CLEARING- alcohol removed- alcohol and
paraffin are mix.
INFILTRATION- tissue-melted paraffin-
infiltrated
EMBEDDING- infiltrated tissue- mold- harden
paraffin
TRIMMING- trimmed- tissue- sectioning/
slicing on microtome.
Most common staining: H&E stains
Cell substances with a net negative (anionic)
charge, such as DNA and RNA, react strongly
with hematoxylin and basic stains; such
material is said to be “basophilic”.
Cationic substances, such as collagen and many
cytoplasmic proteins react with eosin and other
acidic stains and are said to be “acidophilic”.
Light Microscopy
Bright-field microscopy- use ordinary light;
colors are imparted through tissue staining.
Fluorescence microscopy- UV light
Phase-contrast microscopy- the differences in
refractive index; w/o staining
Confocal microscopy- 3D
AUTORADIOGRAPHY- localizes cell components
synthesized using radioactive precursors by detecting
silver grains.
HISTOCHEMICAL/ CYTOCHEMICAL- specific
enzymatic activities in lightly fixed or unfixed tissue
sections to produce visible products in the specific
enzyme locations.
Fixation and paraffin= embedding;
histochemistry= frozen tissue sectioned with a
cryostat.
IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY- specific reactions
between an antigen and antibodies.
Direct immunohistochemistry- labeled primary
antibody bind to specific antigen.
Indirect immunohistochemistry- unlabeled
primary antibody bound to secondary antibodies.
L2: THE CELL
Cell and ECM comprise tissue that make up animal
organs.
Cell- basic functional unit.
Animal cell- nucleus enclosed by cell membrane
surrounded by the cytoplasm; eukaryotic
Plant cell- prokaryotic; cell wall; lack nuclei and
membranous cytoplasmic structures.
Cytoplasm- fluid containing a system of membranous
organelles, non-membranous molecular assemblies, and a
cytoskeleton
Cell Differentiation- express sets of genes that mediate
specific cytoplasmic activities, becoming efficiently
organized in tissues with specialized functions and usually
changing their shape accordingly.
-is the process by which cells of an embryo become
specialized structurally to augment specific cytoplasmic
activities for functions at the level of tissues and organs.
Organelles- are metabolically active structures or
complexes, with or without membranes, in the cytoplasm
of eukaryotic cells.
Plasma membrane/cell membrane/ plasmalemma-
selective barrier; protection
Function: keep ion content of cytoplasm constant;
signaling functions. Physical barrier; Selective
Permeability; Electrochemical gradients;
communication.
Integrins- linked the cytoskeleton and ECM
components; exchange of influences bet. the two.
Integral proteins= lipid bilayer; Peripheral
proteins= cytoplasmic side.
Diffusion- transports small, nonpolar molecules
directly through the lipid bilayer. Lipophilic (fat-
soluble) molecules diffuse through membranes
readily, water very slowly.
Channels- are multi-passages of proteins forming
transmembrane pores through which ions or small
molecules pass selectively. Aquaporins- water
channel.
Carriers- are transmembrane proteins that bind
small molecules and translocate them across the
membrane via conformational changes.
Membrane pumps - enzymes engaged in active
transport, utilizing energy from the ATP to move
ions and other solutes across membranes, against
often steep concentration gradients. Because they
consume ATP pumps, they are often referred to as
ATPases.
Endocytosis- Movement of small molecules from
outside to inside the cell.
Phagocytosis (“cell eating”)
Pinocytosis (“cell drinking”)
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Exocytosis- Movement of large molecules from
inside to outside the cell.
 REVIEWER: HISTOLOGY
Cells in a multicellular organism communicate with
one another –
a. to regulate tissue and organ development
b. to control their growth and division, and
c. to coordinate their functions
Signaling Process:
Endocrine signaling- hormones- blood to target
cells.
Paracrine signaling- rapid metabolized= target
near cell.
Synaptic signaling- neurotransmitter; synapses.
Autocrine signaling- signal binds the same cell.
Juxtacrine signaling- physical contact in
binding.
Organelles- positioned in the cytoplasm by
movements along the polymers of the cytoskeleton,
which also determines a cell’s shape and motility.
Ribosomes- structural support but also position
transfer RNAs.
Endoplasmic reticulum- a major site for vital
cellular activities, including biosynthesis of
proteins and lipids.
RER- specialized for protein secretion
SER- detoxification of potentially harmful
exogenous molecules such as alcohol, barbiturates,
and other drugs.
Golgi Apparatus/Golgi Complex- packages
and addresses these proteins to their proper
destinations.
Lysosomes- sites of intracellular digestion;
proteasomes- degrade denatured.
Lysosomes= digest organelles; Proteasomes=
Free proteins.
Mitochondria- production of ATP.
The number of mitochondria is related to the
cell’s energy needs: cells with a high-energy
metabolism have abundant mitochondria,
whereas cells with a low-energy metabolism have
few mitochondria.
Peroxisomes- are spherical organelles enclosed
by a single membrane.
Cytoskeleton- determine the shapes of cells, play
an important role in the movements of organelles
and cytoplasmic vesicles, and also allow the
movement of entire cells.
Microtubules- fine tubular structures.
Microfilaments- composed of actin subunits and
allow motility and most contractile activity in cells.
Intermediate filaments- stable; for structure.
Keratins- protection.
Vimentin- support CNS.
Neurofilaments- form the filaments of neurons.
Lamins- structural framework.
Nucleus- command center of a cell.
Nuclear envelope- double set of membranes with a
narrow perinuclear space.
Nuclear pores- large assemblies of nucleoporins.
Chromatin- combi. of DNA and associated
proteins.
Nucleolus- basophilic; electron dense area.
Cell Cycle:
Mitosis stages:
Prophase- chromosomes condense, the nuclear
envelope disassembles, and the micro- tubular
spindle forms;
Metaphase- when chromosomes are aligned.
Anaphase- begin to separate toward the two
centrosomes.
Telophase- nuclear envelope re-forms around the
separated chromosomes; ends with cytokinesis.
Meiosis-two successive cell divisions produce cells
called gametes.
Mitosis is a cell division that produces two diploid cells.
Meiosis involves two cell divisions and produces four
haploid cells.
Apoptosis- the process by which redundant or defective
cells are rapidly eliminated in a manner that does not
provoke a local inflammatory reaction in the tissue.
L3: TISSUES
Epithelial Tissue- bound tightly together structurally and
functionally to form a sheetlike or tubular structure with
little extracellular material between the cells.
Apical side facing the sheet’s free surface and a
basal side facing a basement membrane.
Basement membrane- thin extracellular layer of
specialized proteins.
Microvilli are small membrane projections.
Stereocilia are long microvilli with specialized
mechanosensory function.
Cilia are larger projecting structures with a well-
organized core of microtubules.
Morphological Types of Epithelia:
Simple- One cell layer
Squamous- Height; thin.
Cuboidal- rough.
Columnar- tall.
Stratified- two or more cell layers.
Squamous- thin and flat.
Pseudostratified epithelia- thick with several
layers.
Transitional Epithelium- urinary system.
Connective tissue- physically support and connect other
tissues and maintain the water required for metabolite
diffusion to and from cells.
All adult connective tissues are derived from an
embryonic form of connective tissue called
mesenchyme.
Cells of connective tissue:
Fibroblast- elongated; secrete components of
ECM.
Adipocytes- fat cells; storage of triglycerides.
Macrophages- are short-lived cells.
Mast cells- filled with granules during
inflammation.
Plasma Cells- abundant secretion of specific
antibodies.
Collagen- most important and abundant fibers of
connective tissue.
 REVIEWER: HISTOLOGY
Types of Connective tissue: Inorganic BM- hydroxyapatite crystals- calcium
Loose connective tissue/ areolar- more ground phosphate salt.
substance than collagen, and it typically surrounds Periosteum- dense, fibrous connective tissue
small blood vessels. membrane (outer surface of bone).
Dense irregular connective tissue- random Endosteum- thin, delicate connective tissue
distributed collagen I. (internal surface).
Reticular tissue- collagen III; abundant in Types of bones:
lymphoid organs. Woven bones- primary bones; immature &
Mucoid tissue- gel-like connective tissue. unorganized.
Adipose tissue- energy storage in lipid droplet(s) with Lamellar bones- mature & organized.
triglycerides. Compact bone- dense outer layer of
bones; solid and smooth.
L4. CARTILAGE & BONE Cancellous bone- spongy; inner region
Cartilage- nerveless; flexible and resilient composed of ends of long bones.
chondrocytes. Osteogenesis/ Ossification- development and
Functions: formation of bone.
Providing structural support Sixth or seven week of embryonic life- bone
Facilitating smooth movement (joints) development.
Enabling growth and development Intramembranous ossification- making bone in
Types: between connective tissue membranes.
Hyaline cartilage- most common; translucent and Endochondral ossification- making bones
glassy; Collage II and aggrecan; chondrocytes & within the cartilage.
chondroblast; articular surface.
Elastic cartilage- elastic fibers; elasticity and
flexibility; Collagen II, aggrecan; chondrocytes &
chondroblast; external ear; transmit electrical
signals.
Fibrocartilage- strength and resilience; Collagen II,
dense connective tissue with collagen I;
Chondrocytes, fibroblasts; intervertebral discs.
Appositional Growth- additional growth of layer. Bone remodeling and repair- matrix is resorbed
Intersitial Growth- grow from w/in preexisting on one surface of a bone and deposited to another.
chondrocytes.
Osteoarthritis- degenerative joint disease; breakdown of
articular cartilage.
Chondrosarcoma- malignant tumor from cartilage cells.
Cartilage transplantation- Autologous chondrocyte
implantation (ACI) healthy cartilage.
Cartilage has a limited capacity for self-repair due to its
avascular nature.
Perichondrium- contributes in appositional growth.
Bones- living tissue that has complex and dynamic Metabolic role of bones: Reservoir of calcium
collagen fibers, calcium phosphate minerals, and various Parathyroid Hormone- raises low blood
cells. calcium level (breakdown of Ca from bone to
Functions: blood).
Support and protect the body Calcitonin- reduced elevated blood calcium
Facilitate movement thru muscles levels.
Storing materials: Ca and Phosphorus Joints- regions where adjacent bones are and
Reservoir for energy held together firmly by other connective tissues.
Adult= 206; Baby= 350
Types of bone cells:
Osteoblast- bone builder/maker; cuboidal with
single nucleus; surface of bones; mainly for bone
matrix synthesis (mineralization/ calcification) &
regulation of bone remodeling.
Osteocytes- Bone cell; mature cell; bone tissue;
dendrites/canaliculi- establish contact; for bone
remodeling response & regulation of bone
remodeling.
Osteoclast- bone breaker/ destroyer; multinucleated
cells; ruffled boarder; Bone resorption &
attachment and sealing zone formation.
Osteoporosis- weakening of the bones.
Bone matrix- specialized ECM forming the structural
framework of a bone tissue.
Organic BM- collagen fibers and other proteins.