Hydrogen as an energy carrier

Although extremely abundant, hydrogen, unlike fossil fuels, is not a source of energy. Much of the
existing hydrogen is in the form of water—hydrogen ash—and considerable energy is required to
extract the desired element. Hydrogen is, at best, an excellent vector of energy.
Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, non-metallic, tasteless, highly flammable diatomic gas with the
molecular formula H2. It is also the lightest element with a molecular mass of 2.016 kg/kmol. Hydrogen
is a fuel with a higher heating value of 141,800 kJ/kg and a lower heating value of 120,000 kJ/kg. Note
however that hydrogen is not an energy source like coal, oil, and natural gas since there are no hydrogen
reserves in the earth. Although hydrogen is the most plentiful element in the universe, making up about
three quarters of all matter, free hydrogen is scarce. Hydrogen must be produced from other fuels such
as natural gas or from water through electrolysis by consuming electricity. Therefore, hydrogen should
be called an energy carrier rather than an energy source.
At present, most hydrogen is produced from natural gas through steam reforming process which is
endothermic.
𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂 + 3𝐻2
The steam reforming exothermic reaction can be followed by a water-gas shift reaction to obtain more
hydrogen:
𝐶𝑂 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2
The overall reaction is endothermic as follows:
𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 4𝐻2
One major problem with renewable energy sources is inability to store the produced energy in a viable
manner. This is not a problem with biomass since the fuels produced from biomass such as ethanol and
biodiesel can be stored and used anytime. However, the electricity produced from solar systems,
hydroelectric dams, geothermal power plants, and wind turbines cannot be stored for later use. Batteries
are not a viable option in today’s technology due to their limited capacity. One possible solution to this
problem is production of hydrogen from renewable electricity by the electrolysis of water. Once
produced, hydrogen can be stored and used anytime.

Uses of hydrogen at present:

a) Gas welding: A common use of hydrogen gas is in the gas welding process.
b) As fuel for automobiles: Hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel which burns on reaction. The
exhaust of a hydrogen engine does not contain carbon monoxide, sulphur, hydrocarbon, or
carbon dioxide emissions.
c) In petroleum refinery: Hydrogen gas is widely used in the petroleum industry to remove
sulphur.
d) Oil refineries: Hydrogen is consumed in refineries in a variety of hydrodesulphurisation (HDS)
i.e., removal of sulphur in form of hydrogen sulphides and hydrocracking operations.
e) Ammonia production: The Haber-Bosch process is the main industrial procedure to produce
ammonia today.
f) Metallic ore reduction: Hydrogen can be used to reduce metallic ores.
Fuel Cell:
Irreversibility of chemical reactions decrease the energy extraction potential of an energy source. If the
involved chemical processes are more irreversible, less amount of useful energy can be extracted from
the resource and vice versa. In chemical reactions, the irreversibility is due to uncontrolled electron
exchange between the reacting components. The electron exchange can be controlled by replacing the
combustion chamber by electrolytic cells, like car batteries. (This is analogous to replacing unrestrained
expansion of a gas in mechanical systems by restrained expansion.) In the electrolytic cells, the electrons
are exchanged through conductor wires connected to a load, and the chemical energy is directly
converted to electric energy.
The energy conversion devices that work on this principle are called fuel cells. A fuel cell functions
like a battery, except that it produces its own electricity by combining a fuel with oxygen in a cell
electrochemically without combustion and discards the waste heat. A single fuel cell produces between
0.5 and 0.9 V of electricity. The fuel cell was invented by William Groves in 1839, but it did not receive
serious attention until the 1960s, when they were used to produce electricity and water for the Gemini
and Apollo spacecraft during their missions to the moon.
A hydrogen fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy stored in hydrogen
into electricity. It does this by combining hydrogen and oxygen in a reaction that produces water and
releases energy in the form of an electric current. The process is like that of a battery, but instead of
using stored chemical energy, a fuel cell continuously converts the energy stored in its fuel (hydrogen)
into electricity if it is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen.
The basic working principle of a hydrogen fuel cell involves two electrodes (an anode and a cathode)
separated by an electrolyte. Hydrogen gas is fed to the anode where it is split into protons and electrons.
The protons pass through the electrolyte to the cathode while the electrons travel through an external
circuit, generating an electric current. At the cathode, oxygen from the air combines with the protons
and electrons to form water. The chemistry behind this process involves oxidation and reduction
reactions. At the anode, hydrogen is oxidized to form protons and electrons:
2𝐻2 → 4𝐻 + + 4𝑒 −
At the cathode, oxygen is reduced by combining with protons and electrons to form water:
𝑂2 + 4𝐻 + + 4𝑒 − → 2𝐻2 𝑂
The overall reaction in a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is:
2𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐻2 𝑂

Figure 1 The operation of a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell

Fuel Cell types:
Fuel cells are usually classified according to the electrolyte used. The main types are to be briefly
described based on Hodge (2010) and Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
website (DOE/EERE, 2018).

a) Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC): It is also called polymer electrolyte membrane
fuel cell. This fuel cell contains a thin plastic polymer membrane, which is coated by platinum
particles acting as the electrolyte. An important advantage of PEMFC is its small size for a
given power output. The power output can be varied easily depending on the demand, which
makes these fuel cells best candidates for automobiles. Stationary power generation is another
good application for PEMFC.

b) Direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC): This fuel cell uses a polymer membrane as the electrolyte.
It uses methanol directly in the cell. These fuel cells can be used for powering laptop computers
and battery rechargers such as in cell phones.

c) Alkaline fuel cell (AFC): This type of fuel cells uses potassium hydroxide or an alkaline
membrane as the electrolyte. Alkaline fuel cells require pure hydrogen as the fuel, which is
expensive. As a result, their application is mostly limited to space applications to produce
electricity and water. Portable power production is a new application for alkaline fuel cells.

d) Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC): Phosphoric acid is used as the electrolyte while platinum is
used as the catalyst, which is expensive. Porous carbon electrodes are used in both cathode and
anode. PAFCs are mostly used in stationary power generation with power outputs of greater
than 400 kW. Ideal applications include hotels, stores, hospitals, and office buildings for which
rejected heat from the fuel cell can also be used for useful heating purposes.

e) Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC): The advantage of MCFC is that it can use various fuels
such as hydrogen, natural gas, propane, diesel, and gasified coal. When natural gas or biogas is
used, the conversion from natural gas or biogas to hydrogen is accomplished within the cell.
Molten carbonate salt mixtures (lithium and potassium salts) immobilized in a porous matrix
are used as the electrolyte. MCFCs are currently used in medium and large-scale stationary
applications at high efficiency.

f) Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC): Phosphoric acid and molten carbonate are highly corrosive, which
cause material problems and reduce cell life. A thin layer of solid ceramic material is used as
the electrolyte in SOFC allowing reliable design and high temperatures. They can use carbon
monoxide, hydrogen, and gasified coal as the fuel. Natural gas can also be reformed into
hydrogen within the cell. Solid oxide fuel cells are good candidates for stationary power
production and auxiliary power devices such as heavy-duty trucks.
S.N. Fuel Cell Operating temp (°C) Efficiency (%)
1. PEMFC 40-60 48-58
2. DMFC 50-120 40
3. AFC 90 64
4. PAFC 150-200 42
5. MCFC 600-700 50
6. SOFC 600-1000 60-65
Advantages of hydrogen-based energy resource:
1. Low pollution.
Hydrogen burns cleanly, producing only water. It is true that depending on the flame temperature when
burned in air, small amounts of nitrogen oxides may also be generated. Pollution, however, may be
associated with some hydrogen production processes.
2. Controllability.
At ambient temperatures, hydrogen reacts extremely slowly with oxygen. Catalysts permit adjusting the
reaction speed over a large range from very low temperature flames to intense ones.
3. Safety.
a) High diffusivity: being the lightest of all gases, it quickly rises and disperses, while liquid fuels
form pools that spread the fire.
b) Fast venting: the smallness of the hydrogen molecule causes this gas to leak easily through tiny
cracks and holes, making it difficult to accumulate in explosive concentrations.
c) Owing to its low density, a given volume of hydrogen contains little energy and thus represents
a much smaller hazard than natural gas or gasoline (the vapor of the latter contains 20 times the
energy of H2 on the same volume basis).
d) At 1 atm, the autoignition temperature for hydrogen is about 580° C, whereas that for gasoline
is around 260° C. The likelihood of accidentally starting a fire is much higher with the latter
fuel.
e) Hydrogen-air mixtures with less than 4.1% fuel (in volume) will not catch fire, while the
flammability limit for gasoline is 1%.
f) A pure hydrogen flame radiates little energy, allowing firemen to approach much more closely
the site of a fire.
g) Hydrogen is totally nontoxic and can be breathed in high concentration (of course, it can
asphyxiate you and can also cause you to explode if hydrogen-filled lungs are accidentally
ignited).
Hydrogen’s reputation as a dangerous gas stems mostly from the spectacular 1937 explosion of the
Hindenburg in Lakehurst, New Jersey, when 36 people were killed. Yet, a good case can be made that
the explosion proved how safe the gas is.

Disadvantages of hydrogen-based energy resource:

a) Storage and Transportation: Due to its low density, hydrogen must be compressed or liquefied
for storage and transportation, which can be expensive and energy intensive. The storage of
hydrogen in liquid form requires very low temperatures (about 20 K or −253°C) which are
expensive to achieve and maintain.
b) Hydrogen can be combusted with air with concentrations ranging from 4 to 75 percent. Due to
this wide flammability range, hydrogen must be handled with care.
c) Infrastructure: The current lack of infrastructure for hydrogen production, storage, and
distribution presents a significant challenge to the widespread adoption of hydrogen fuel cells.
d) Cost: Hydrogen fuel cells and the associated infrastructure can be expensive. While costs have
decreased in recent years, they remain higher than those of traditional fossil fuel-based
technologies.
e) Durability: The durability of fuel cell systems can be a concern, particularly in automotive
applications where they must withstand vibrations and temperature changes.
f) Currently most hydrogen is produced from natural gas reforming, which releases greenhouse
gases.
Despite these challenges, there is significant interest in the potential of hydrogen fuel cells as a clean
and renewable source of energy. Research and development efforts are ongoing to address these
challenges and improve the technology.

Types of hydrogen fuel

Hydrogen can be made from natural gas, coal, or biomass, but these energy sources have
associated greenhouse gas emissions. Hydrogen can also be made using an electrolysis process to split
water into oxygen and hydrogen.

Figure 2 Shades of Hydrogen

Grey hydrogen
Grey hydrogen is hydrogen produced using fossil fuels such as natural gas or coal. Grey hydrogen
accounts for roughly 95% of the hydrogen produced in the world today. The two main production
methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification. Both processes release carbon dioxide. If
the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, then the hydrogen produced is referred to as grey
hydrogen. Grey hydrogen is not considered a low-carbon fuel.
Blue hydrogen
Blue hydrogen is similar to grey hydrogen, except that most of the CO2 emissions are sequestered
(stored in the ground) using carbon capture and storage (CCS). Capturing and storing the carbon dioxide
instead of releasing it into the atmosphere allows blue hydrogen to be a low-carbon fuel. The two main
production methods are steam methane reforming and coal gasification, both with carbon capture and
storage. Blue hydrogen is a cleaner alternative to grey hydrogen but is expensive since carbon capture
technology is used.
Green hydrogen
Green hydrogen is hydrogen produced using electricity from clean energy sources. Green hydrogen is
considered low or zero-emission hydrogen because it uses energy sources such as wind and solar which
don’t release greenhouse gases when generating electricity. It is considered a clean and sustainable
source of energy. Green hydrogen is made when water is split into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2).
Water splitting is also known as electrolysis and requires an energy input. The method of supplying
electricity to split water is an expensive process, but much more environmentally friendly compared to
the production of grey hydrogen.
There are several techniques that can be used to produce green hydrogen. These include:
 • Electrolysis: This process uses an electric current to split water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen. If the electricity used for electrolysis is generated from renewable sources such as
wind, solar, or hydropower, then the resulting hydrogen is considered green. The efficiency of
a typical electrolyzer is about 80 percent.

• Pyro-gasification: This process involves heating organic matter (such as wood biomass or crop
residue) to high temperatures in the presence of a small amount of oxygen. This produces a gas
that contains hydrogen.
• Biological production: Some microorganisms, such as algae and bacteria, can produce
hydrogen through biological processes such as fermentation or photosynthesis.
While these techniques can produce green hydrogen, they are currently more expensive than traditional
methods of hydrogen production that rely on fossil fuels. However, research and development efforts
are ongoing to improve the efficiency and reduce the cost of green hydrogen production.

Other shades of hydrogen

Turquoise hydrogen
An upcoming colour of hydrogen is turquoise hydrogen, although it has yet to be proven at a large scale.
Turquoise hydrogen is made using a process called methane pyrolysis to produce molecular
hydrogen and solid carbon. In the future, turquoise hydrogen may be valued as a low-emission
hydrogen, dependent on the thermal process being powered with renewable energy and the carbon being
permanently stored or used.
In the energy industry, other colours may be used to differentiate between the types of hydrogen.
Although grey, blue, and green are most common colours, black, brown, red, pink, yellow, turquoise
and white exist as colours for molecular hydrogen.
Figure 3 How green hydrogen can be produced, converted, and used across the energy system. (International Renewable
Energy Agency)