Vygotsky and Language

For Vygotsky, that language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes.
According to him, language is man’s greatest tool, a means for communicating with the outside
world.
According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays two critical roles in cognitive development:
1: It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.
2: Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.
Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: social speech which is
external communication used to talk to others (typical from the age of two); private speech
(typical from the age of three) which is directed to the self and serves an intellectual function;
and finally private speech goes underground, diminishing in audibility as it takes on a self-
regulating function and is transformed into silent inner speech (typical from the age of seven).
For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of
life, merging at around three years of age. At this point speech and thought become
interdependent: thought becomes verbal, speech becomes representational. When this happens,
children's monologues internalized to become inner speech. The internalization of language is
important as it drives cognitive development.
Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist to document the importance of private
speech. He considered private speech as the transition point between social and inner speech, the
moment in development where language and thought unite to constitute verbal thinking.
Thus private speech, in Vygotsky's view, was the earliest manifestation of inner speech.
Indeed, private speech is more similar (in its form and function) to inner speech than social
speech.
Private speech is 'typically defined, in contrast to social speech, as speech addressed to the self
(not to others) for the purpose of self-regulation (rather than communication).' (Diaz, 1992, p.62)
Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one
year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.

At this stage, an infant is dependent and develops its trust on the dependability and quality of its
caregiver. An infant will be completely dependent for whatever it needs to survive (food,
warmth, safety, love, nurture). If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child
will come to feel that he or she cannot trust or depend upon the adults in his or her life.

On the other hand, if the infant feels that he can trust its caregiver, he or she will feel safe and
secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will
result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

However, there is no development of a 100% sense of trust or even doubt. For Erikson,
successful development requires a balance between the two opposing side. When this happens,
children acquire hope, described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that
danger may be present.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

At this point in psychosocial development, children are just starting to gain a little independence.
They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what
they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy.

Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's
reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's
bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important
events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not
are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance
between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can
act with intention, within reason and limits.
Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years.

In this stage, children begin to assert their power and control through directing play and other
social interactions. Successful children at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those
who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved,
the ego quality known as purpose emerges.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately age
5 to 11.

Through social interactions, children at this stage begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities. When they are encouraged and commended by parents and
teachers, they develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little
or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.

Successfully finding a balance at this stage helps one develop the strength known as competence,
in which children develop a belief their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often-turbulent teenage years. This is the
stage where developing a sense of personal identity plays an essential role which will continue to
influence one’s behavior and development for the rest of one’s life.

Adolescence is the period children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Those
who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge
from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who
don’t, remain unsure of their beliefs and desires as well as feel insecure and confused about
themselves, especially their future.

When psychologists talk about identity, it refers to all the beliefs, ideals, and values that help
shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which
Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

Erikson also placed emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is
the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central
focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we
also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other
people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and
secure.

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a
strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies
have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self do tend to have less committed
relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability
to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.

Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by
being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel
unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with
your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.

At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they
are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will
experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction.
These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

He created a device known as an operant conditioning chamber, most often referred to today as
a Skinner box. The chamber was essentially a box that could hold a small animal such as a rat or
pigeon. The box also contained a bar or key that the animal could press in order to receive a
reward.

In order to track responses, Skinner also developed a device known as a cumulative recorder.
The device recorded responses as an upward movement of a line so that response rates could be
read by looking at the slope of the line.

Reinforcement Schedules and How They Work

Examples of Operant Conditioning

We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider the case of
children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees finishing
projects to receive praise or promotions.

Some more examples of operant conditioning in action:

 If your child acts out during a shopping trip, you might give him a treat to get him to be
quiet. Because you have positively reinforced the misbehavior, he will probably be more
likely to act out again in the future in order to receive another treat.
 After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from the audience.
This acts as a positive reinforcer inspiring you to try out for more performance roles.
 You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head whenever he
performs the behavior correctly.
 A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then they do
not have to take the final comprehensive exam. By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the
final test) students are negatively reinforced to attend class regularly.
 If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates your
performance in front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive punisher making it less
likely that you will finish projects late in the future.

 A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take away her
phone for the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative punishment in which a
positive stimulus is taken away.

In some of these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior,
but operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of a desirable
outcome or negative outcome application can be used to decrease or prevent undesirable
behaviors. For example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of
turn in class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

A Word From Verywell

While behaviorism may have lost much of the dominance it held during the early part of the
20th-century, operant conditioning remains an important and often utilized tool in the learning
and behavior modification process. Sometimes natural consequences lead to changes in our
behavior. In other instances, rewards and punishments may be consciously doled out in order to
create a change.

Operant conditioning is something you may immediately recognize in your own life, whether it
is in your approach to teaching your children good behavior or in training the family dog to stop
chewing on your favorite slippers. The important thing to remember is that with any type of
learning, it can sometimes take time. Consider the type of reinforcement or punishment that may
work best for your unique situation and assess which type of reinforcement schedule might lead
to the best results.

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely
on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do," Bandura explained in his 1977
book Social Learning Theory. "Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally
through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are
performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action."

Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

1. As you can see, observational learning does not even necessarily require watching
another person engage in an activity. Hearing verbal instructions, such as listening
to a podcast, can lead to learning. We can also learn by reading, hearing, or
watching the actions of characters in books and films.

As you can imagine, it is this type of observational learning that has become a lightning rod for
controversy as parents and psychologists debate the impact that pop culture media has on kids.
Many worries that kids can learn bad behaviors such as aggression from violent video games,
movies, television programs, and online videos.

A Few Applications for Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory can have several real-world applications. For example, it can be used to
help researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted through
observational learning. By studying media violence, researchers can gain a better understanding
of the factors that might lead children to act out the aggressive actions they see portrayed on
television and in the movies.
But social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviors. Researchers can use
social learning theory to investigate and understand ways that positive role models can be used to
encourage desirable behaviors and to facilitate social change.

A Word From Verywell

In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had important
implication in the field of education. Today, both teachers and parents recognize how important
it is to model appropriate behaviors. Other classroom strategies such as encouraging children and
building self-efficacy are also rooted in social learning theory.

As Bandura observed, life would be incredibly difficult and even dangerous if you had to learn
everything you know from personal experience. So much of your life is rooted in your social
experiences, so it is no surprise that observing others plays such a vital role in how you acquire
new knowledge and skills. By better understanding how social learning theory works, you can
gain a greater appreciation for the powerful role that observation can play in shaping the things
we know and the things we do.