The Nature of Matter

Chapter 2 (2.1,2.2)
IGCSE Grade 9
Syllabus

At the end of this section you should:

1.1 understand the arrangement, movement and

energy of the particles in each of the three states of
matter: solid, liquid and gas
1.2 understand how the interconversion of solids,
liquids and gases are achieved and recall the names
used for these interconversions

1.3 be able to explain the changes in arrangement,

movement and energy of particles during these
interconversions
 What does “Kinetic Theory” mean?
Kinetic: means movement.

A Theory: is a set of ideas

that are used to explain how
things work.
Sometimes we change them
when they can’t explain a
new observation.

That’s how Science works.

 Kinetic Theory
You learned about Kinetic Theory in Years 7 & 8.

It says
● that everything is made of particles
● that all particles constantly move.

You also learned how particles are arranged in

solids, liquids and gases.
States of matter - Solids
How are particles in a
solid arranged?

How do they move?

They all touch.

They are ordered.
They don’t change
place.
But they do vibrate &
rotate on the spot.
States of Matter - Gases
How are particles in a
gas arranged?

How do they move?

They don’t touch.

They are not ordered.
They change place
quickly.
They move in random
directions.
States of Matter - Liquids
How are particles in a
liquid arranged?

How do they move?

They all touch.

They are not ordered.
They glide past each
other slowly.
 Changes of State.
You should be able to
name the change of
state from:

1. Solid to Liquid Melting

2. Liquid to Solid Freezing

3. Liquid to Gas Evaporating/Boiling

4. Gas to Liquid Condensing

 How does this explain the properties
of Solids, Liquids and Gases?
The word property means the way something behaves.

Density: A dense substance is heavy its size.

Gold is dense because a small amount weighs more

than the same amount of other substances.
Which state of matter is densest? Why?
Solids are densest because their particles are
closest together.
Gases are least dense because their particles are
furthest apart.
 Volume and Shape
If a property of Which states of matter
substance can’t change have fixed shapes or
we say this property is fixed volumes?
fixed.
 Volume and Shape - Solids
Solids have fixed volume
& fixed shape.
If you move a piece of solid
from one container to
another, because the
particles stick together the
solid gets no bigger or
This doesn’t mean you
smaller (fixed volume) and can’t break solids
stay in the same
arrangement (fixed shape).
 Volume and Shape - Liquids
Liquids have fixed volume
but change shape.
If you move a liquid from
one container to another,
because the particles
stick together the liquid
gets no bigger or smaller
(fixed volume) but
because the particles
move the shape can Liquids take the shape of the
change bottom of their containers.
Volume and Shape - Gases
Gases have no fixed
volume & change shape.
If you move a gas from
one container to another,
because the particles
don’t stick together the
gas can get bigger or
smaller. And it takes up
the shape of the whole
of its container.
Which states are compressible?

Compressible means can be

“squashed into smaller spaces?

Gases can be compressed

because their particles are far
apart & can be pushed together.

Solids and Liquids can’t be

compressed because their
particles are already touching.
Expansion - getting bigger
Why do solids, liquids &
gases expand if heated?
Heating a substance gives its
particles more energy.
In a solid this means the
particles vibrate more & push
each other apart. (Although
they still touch)
The particles don’t get
In a gas the particles move bigger.
faster and simply spread out
(diffuse) more quickly.
Diffusion - Spreading out
Solids don’t diffuse. Why?
Their particles don’t
change place.
But because gas and liquid
particles do change place,
they can diffuse.
If you open a gas tap in We can see diffusion in
one corner of the lab the Bromine because it is
gas will diffuse slowly so orange
that everyone can smell it.
 Diffusion in liquids
If we add a coloured substance
to a liquid it will diffuse (spread
out). Why?

Because the coloured particles can

move through the liquid as its
particles change place.

As it diffuses the colour gets paler.

Why is diffusion faster in hot water?

Because the particles have

more energy to move.
Evaporating
Why does even cold water evaporate?

At any temperature some water

molecules have a lot of energy and
some have very little.
It takes energy for a particle to
escape the pull of the surface, so
only the ones with the most
energy successfully escape.
Particles with very little energy So the hotter the water, the
can’t escape the surface, some more particles have
have enough energy to almost enough energy, & the
escape but then fall back because faster the water
they haven’t quite enough evaporates.
 Ammonium Chloride Diffusion
The IGCSE exams love this experiment.

Ammonia solution (NH3) diffuses as a gas from one side.

Hydrogen Chloride gas (HCl) diffuses from the Hydrochloric acid on the other
Where the HCl gas and the NH3 gas meet they combine.
Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) is made - a white solid.

HCl + NH3 → NH4Cl

The white solid appears closer to the HCl side.
The NH3 diffuses faster because it is a lighter gas
Melting and boiling points of pure
substances and mixtures

● melting point is the

temperature at which a solid
changes into a liquid.
● boiling point is the
temperature at which a liquid
changes into a gas.

Pure substances have specific

melting and boiling points.
Mixtures melt and boil over a
range of temperatures.
The graphs show the cooling
curves for a pure sample of a
compound called salol
(C13H10O3) and an impure
sample.
We can use these differences
between melting and boiling
points to distinguish between
pure substances and mixtures.
 Chemical Mixtures
One of the main aspects of chemistry is combining different substances. Sometimes combining substances can cause a
chemical reaction and bonding which creates an entirely new substance called a compound. However, sometimes there is no
chemical reaction or bonding. In this case, a mixture is formed from the combined substances.

Mixture

A mixture is made when two or more substances are combined, but they are not combined chemically.

General properties of a mixture:

● The components of a mixture can be easily separated

● The components each keep their original properties
● The proportion of the components is variable

Types of Mixtures

● There are two main categories of mixtures: homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous mixtures. In a homogenous
mixture all the substances are evenly distributed throughout the mixture (salt water, air, blood). In a heterogeneous
mixture the substances are not evenly distributed (chocolate chip cookies, pizza, rocks)
Within the categories of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures there are more specific types of mixtures including
solutions, alloys, suspensions, and colloids.
Viscosity of fluids.
Viscosity of often referred to as the thickness of a fluid. You can think of water (low viscosity) and
honey (high viscosity). However, this definition can be confusing when we are looking at fluids with
different densities.

At a molecular level, viscosity is a result the interaction between the different molecules in a fluid.This
can be also understood as friction between the molecules in the fluid. Just like in the case of friction
between moving solids, viscosity will determine the energy required to make a fluid flow.
What is Volatility?
A substance is said to be volatile if it boils at a low temperature, changing from the
liquid to the gas phase.

Substances that are gases at room temperature are extremely volatile: they have
high volatility. They can only be seen as liquids when exposed to low temperatures
or high pressures.

Gasoline, acetone (often found in nail polish remover), butyl acetate (the source
of the fruity smell in a lot of coatings formulations), and alcohol (ethanol and
isopropyl) are all everyday examples of volatile fluids. A fluid is volatile when it has
a high vapor pressure.
Solutions (homogeneous)

A solution is a mixture where one of the substances dissolves in the other. The substance
that dissolves is called the solute. The substance that does not dissolve is called the
solvent.

An example of a solution is salt water. These components can be easily separated

through evaporation and they each retain their original properties. However, the salt is
dissolved into the water to where you can't see it and it is evenly distributed in the water.
In this example the water is the solvent and the salt is the solute.

What is the difference between a solution and a mixture?

In chemistry a solution is actually a type of mixture. A solution is a mixture that is the same
or uniform throughout. Think of the example of salt water. This is also called a
"homogenous mixture." A mixture that is not a solution is not uniform throughout. Think of
the example of sand in water. This is also called a "heterogeneous mixture."

Alloys (homogeneous)

An alloy is a mixture of elements that has the characteristic of a metal. At least one of
the elements mixed is a metal. One example of an alloy is steel which is made from a
mixture of iron and carbon.
Suspensions (heterogeneous)

A suspension is a mixture between a liquid and particles of a solid. In this case the
particles do not dissolve. The particles and the liquid are mixed up so that the
particles are dispersed throughout the liquid. They are "suspended" in the liquid. A
key characteristic of a suspension is that the solid particles will settle and separate
over time if left alone.

An example of a suspension is a mixture of water and sand. When mixed up, the
sand will disperse throughout the water. If left alone, the sand will settle to the
bottom.

Colloids (heterogeneous)

A colloid is a mixture where very small particles of one substance are evenly
distributed throughout another substance. They appear very similar to solutions, but
the particles are suspended in the solution rather than fully dissolved. The difference
between a colloid and a suspension is that the particles will not settle to the bottom
over a period of time, they will stay suspended or float.

An example of a colloid is milk. Milk is a mixture of liquid butterfat globules dispersed

and suspended in water.

Colloids are generally considered heterogeneous mixtures, but have some qualities
of homogeneous mixtures as well.
Interesting Facts about Mixtures
● Smoke is a mixture of particles that are suspended in the air.
● Tap water is a mixture of water and other particles. Pure water or
H2O is generally referred to as distilled water.
● Many of the substances we come into contact with every day are
mixtures including the air we breathe which is a mixture of gases like
oxygen and nitrogen.
● Blood is a mixture that can be separated by a machine called a
centrifuge into its two main parts: plasma and red blood cells.
● Mixtures can be liquids, gases, and solids.
Separating mixtures

The substances in a mixture are relatively easy to separate, because they are not chemically
joined to each other.
The components of a mixture can be separated without chemical reactions

We will look at different ways of separating mixtures:

● Filtration/ vaccum filtration

● Crystallisation
● Paper Chromatography
● Simple Distillation
● Fractional Distillation
● Separation funnel
● centrifugation.

T
 The following terms are useful to know when thinking about separating mixtures.

● a solute is the substance that dissolves in a solvent.

● a solvent is the liquid in which a solute dissolves.
● a solution is a solute dissolved in a solvent.
● a soluble substance is one which will dissolve in a solvent.
● an insoluble substance is one which does not dissolve in a solvent.
● a filtrate is a filtered solution.
● a residue is a solid left behind after filtration.
● a distillate is a liquid produced by distillation.
● miscible liquids are ones that can mix together.
● immiscible liquids cannot be mixed together.
● evaporation is when a liquid is heated and changes state into a gas.
● condensation is when a gas cools and changes state into a liquid.
Choosing a method of separation

You’ll have to choose the best separation technique when you’re asked to separate the components
of a mixture. This table can help:

Insoluble solid and liquid

Filtration

Sand and water

Soluble solid and liquid (solution)

Crystallization (by evaporation)

Salt water (sodium chloride solution)

Two miscible liquids

Distillation

Ethanol and water

Soluble solids dissolved in a solvent

Paper chromatography

Food colourings, dyes and inks

Methods of Purification

The choice of the method of separation depends on the nature of the substances being separated.
All methods rely on there being a difference of some sort, usually in a physical property such as b.p.,
between the substances being separated.

Mixtures of solids

● Differences in density, magnetic properties, sublimation and solubility can be used

● For a difference in solubility, a suitable solvent must be chosen to ensure the desired substance
only dissolves in it and not other substances or impurities

For example salt and sand,sugar and salt,carbon and sulphur,iron and sand,iodine and salt.
Mixtures of liquids

● Immiscible liquids can be separated using a separating funnel or by decanting (pouring

carefully)
● Examples include when an organic product is formed in aqueous conditions
Filtration

● Used to separate an undissolved solid from a mixture of the solid and a liquid / solution ( e.g. sand from a mixture of sand and
water). Centrifugation can also be used for this mixture
● Filter paper is placed in a filter funnel above another beaker
● Mixture of insoluble solid and liquid is poured into the filter funnel
● Filter paper will only allow small liquid particles to pass through as the filtrate
● Solid particles are too large to pass through the filter paper so will stay behind as a residue
Crystallisation

● Used to separate a dissolved solid from a solution, when the solid is much more soluble in hot solvent than in cold (e.g. copper
sulphate from a solution of copper (II) sulphate in water)
● The solution is heated, allowing the solvent to evaporate to leave a saturated solution behind
● Test if the solution is saturated by dipping a clean, dry, cold glass rod into the solution. If the solution is saturated, crystals will form
on the glass rod
● The saturated solution is allowed to cool slowly and solids will come out of the solution as the solubility decreases, and crystals
will grow
● Crystals are collected by filtering the solution
● They are then washed with cold, distilled water to remove impurities and allowed to dry
Simple Distillation

● Used to separate a liquid and soluble solid from a solution (e.g. water from a solution of saltwater) or a pure liquid from a
mixture of liquids
● The solution is heated and pure water evaporates producing a vapour which rises through the neck of the round-bottomed flask
● The vapour passes through the condenser, where it cools and condenses, turning into pure liquid H2O which is collected in a
beaker
● After all the water is evaporated from the solution, only the solid solute will be left behind
Fractional distillation

● Used to separate two or more liquids that are miscible with one another (e.g. ethanol and water from a mixture of the two)
● The solution is heated to the temperature of the substance with the lowest boiling point
● This substance will rise and evaporate first, and vapours will pass through a condenser, where they cool and condense, turning
into a liquid that will be collected in a beaker
● All of the substance is evaporated and collected, leaving behind the other components(s) of the mixture
● For water and ethanol: ethanol has a boiling point of 78 ºC and water of 100 ºC. The mixture is heated until it reaches 78 ºC, at
which point the ethanol boils and distils out of the mixture and condenses into the beaker
● When the temperature starts to increase to 100 ºC heating should be stopped. Water and ethanol are now separated
Paper Chromatography
● This technique is used to separate substances that have different solubilities in a given solvent (e.g. different
coloured inks that have been mixed to make black ink)
● A pencil line is drawn on chromatography paper and spots of the sample are placed on it. Pencil is used for this
as ink would run into the chromatogram along with the samples
● The paper is then lowered into the solvent container, making sure that the pencil line sits above the level of the
solvent so the samples don´t wash into the solvent container
● The solvent travels up the paper by capillary action, taking some of the coloured substances with it
● Different substances have different solubilities so will travel at different rates, causing the substances to spread
apart. Those substances with higher solubility will travel further than the others
● This will show the different components of the ink / dye
Assessing Purity

● Pure substances melt and boil at specific and sharp temperatures. Eg water has a boiling point of 100°C and a melting point
of 0°C
● Mixtures have a range of melting and boiling points as they consist of different substances that melt or boil at different
temperatures
● Melting and boiling points data can therefore be used to distinguish pure substances from mixtures
● An unknown pure substance can be identified by experimentally determining its m.p and b.p and comparing to data tables
● Mixtures melt over a range of temperatures as they contain two or more substances

Retention Factor (Rf) Values

● These values are used to identify the components of mixtures

● The Rf value of a particular compound is always the same
● Calculating the Rf value allows chemists to identify unknown substances because it can be compared with Rf values of known
substances under the same conditions

Calculation

● Retention factor = distance moved by compound ÷ distance moved by solvent

● The Rf value is a ratio and therefore has no units
Locating Agents

● For chromatography to be useful the chemist needs to be able to see the components move up the paper, which is not the
case for invisible samples such as proteins
● Locating agents are substances which react with the sample and produce a coloured product which is then visible
● The chromatogram is treated with the agent after the chromatography run has been carried out, making the sample runs
visible to the naked eye
What is centrifugation ?
Centrifugation is a technique used for the separation of particles from a solution
according to their size, shape, density, viscosity of the medium and rotor speed.

The particles are suspended in a liquid medium and placed in a centrifuge tube. The
tube is then placed in a rotor and spun at a define speed.

Separation through sedimentation could be done naturally with the earth gravity,
nevertheless, it would take ages. Centrifugation is making that natural process much
faster.

Rotation of the rotor about a central axis generates a centrifugal force upon the
particles in the suspension.

Which factors have an influence on centrifugation :

● Density of both samples and solution
● Temperature/viscosity
● Distance of particles displacement
● Rotation speed
In a solution, particles whose density is higher than
that of the solvent sink (sediment), and particles that
are lighter than it float to the top.

The greater the difference in density, the faster they

move. If there is no difference in density the particles
stay steady.

To take advantage of even tiny differences in

density to separate various particles in a solution,
gravity can be replaced with the much more
powerful “centrifugal force” provided by a
centrifuge.