2.steels and Alloy

Materials For Engineering-20ME11T
UNIT-2
STEELS AND ALLOYS
SYLLABUS
SESSION-1
Introduction
The making of cast iron begins with a combination of raw materials. Iron is rarely
found in its pure form. Only meteorites contain pure iron. The iron in use for centuries is
found in the combination of iron and other elements. These combinations are known as
iron oxides. Mining pulls most of the iron from iron ores which are rocks found on the
outer layers of the earth that contain iron. This iron ore is then converted into various
types of iron but first it is processed in a blast furnace to produce pig iron. Used by itself,
Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 1
pig iron has few uses due to its brittle nature. Alloyed with other metals, pig iron takes on
new uses.
The term cast iron is generally used to describe grey cast iron, but it can also
describe a whole group of alloys too. The surface colour of the cast iron is often used to
identify it. Cast iron begins its life as pig iron, which is remelted and often combined with
large amounts of scrap iron and sometimes with steel. Contaminants are removed from
the melted pig iron and the iron once melted is then cast. Casting is the process of
pouring the iron into a mold thus giving it a shape.
After the iron is cast, it is allowed to solidify. If performed incorrectly, the solidification
process can destroy the effort and the metal is then re-used as scrap metal thus being recycled and
living again as pig metal ready for casting. Quick cooling produces fine grain construction and
slow cooling produces coarse grain construction.
Cast iron is one of the oldest ferrous metals in commercial use. It is primarily
composed of iron (Fe), carbon (C) and silicon (Si), but may also contain traces of sulfur
(S), manganese (Mn) and phosphorus (P). It has a relatively high carbon content of 2% to
5%. It is typically brittle and nonmalleable and relatively weak in tension. Cast iron,
however, has excellent compressive strength and is commonly used for structures that
require this property.
Cast irons can be divided into six groups, based on composition and metallurgical
structure:
Cast irons have been used extensively in many industrial applications, such as water
industry, for more than 150 years. As a result, a large proportion of water transport and
distribution pipes were predominantly made of cast iron in the past although they are
being phased out by the introduction of new materials.

WHITE CAST IRON

The name white cast is derived from its white surface, which is caused by carbide
impurities that allows cracks throughout the metal. When fractured it exhibits a silver-
like (white) fracture.
A lower silicon content combined with faster cooling makes it possible for white cast iron
to precipitate metastable phase cementite, Fe3C, as a product instead of graphite. The
cementite that precipitates when it melts creates large particles in the form of
a eutectic mixture, whereas the other phase is austenite that may transform
to martensite upon cooling.
Figure 2.1- Microstructure of White Cast Iron

Characteristics
 White cast iron derives its name from the fact that it‟s freshly broken surface
shows a bright white fracture
 Unlike gray iron white cast iron has almost all its carbon chemically bonded with
the iron as iron carbide which is very hard and brittle constituent.
 White cast iron possesses excellent abrasive wear resistance
 White cast iron under normal circumstances is brittle and not machinable
 By using a fairly low Silicon content cast iron may be made to solidify as white
iron
 If iron of proper composition is cooled rapidly the free carbon will go in the
combined form and give rise to White iron casting
 White cast iron contains
1.8 - 3.6% carbon(C)
0.5 - 2% silicon (Si)
0.2 - 0.8% manganese (Mn)
0.18% phosphorus(P) and

0.1% sulphur (s)
 The solidification range of white cast iron is 2550o – 2065o F
Application
(1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)

1. Ball mills liners
2. Impellers
3. Jaw crusher liners
4. Milling crusher parts
5. Roller crusher
6. Nozzle
Descriptive Questions
1. Briefly classify the types of ferrous metal

2. Briefly explain cast iron
3. Briefly classify the types of cast iron
4. Briefly explain the characteristics of white cast iron
5. Write down the composition of white cast iron
6. Write down the application of white cast iron

References
1. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 8th Edition by William D
Callister Jr. And David G Rethwisch
2. Physical Metallurgy2nd Edition Willam S Hosford
3. https://nptel.ac.in/
*****

UNIT-2
STEEL AND ALLOYS
SESSION-2
GRAY CAST IRON

Gray iron, or grey cast iron, is a type of cast iron that has
a graphitic microstructure. It is named after the gray color of the fracture it forms, which
is due to the presence of graphite. It is the most common cast iron and the most widely
used cast material based on weight.
Figure 2.2- Graphite Flakes in Gray Cast iron
Figure 2.3-Photomicrograph of Gray Cast iron

Characteristics
 Gray iron basically is an alloy of carbon and silicon with iron
 It is marked by the presence of flakes of graphite
 Gray cast iron is characterized by its graphitic microstructure which causes
fractures of the material to have a gray appearance

 It is most commonly used cast iron and the most widely used cast material based
on weight
 It contains
2.5 - 3.8% Carbon (C)
1.1 - 2.8% Silicon (Si)
0.4% Manganese (Mn)
0.15% Phosphorus(P) and
0.1 Sulphur (s)
 Gray cast iron has a solidification range of 2400 to 2000oF
 It has high resistance to wear
 It possesses high vibration damping capacity
 Gray cast iron possesses high compressive strength
 Gray cast iron possesses excellent casting qualities for producing simple and
complex shapes
Applications
(1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)

1. Pressure Valve
2. Bushings

3. Gear Blank
4. Cylinder Block
5. Coupling Plates
6. Hydraulic Parts
NODULAR /SPHEROIDAL /DUCTILE CAST IRON
Ductile iron, also known as ductile cast iron, nodular cast iron, spheroidal
graphite iron, spheroidal graphite cast iron and SG iron, is a type of graphite-rich cast
iron discovered in 1943. While most varieties of cast iron are weak in tension and brittle,
ductile iron has much more impact and fatigue resistance, due to its nodular
graphite inclusions.
Figure 2.4 - Nodular Cast Iron and the spherical carbon embedded into the matrix.
Figure 2.5-Photomicrograph of Nodular Cast iron

Characteristics
 Unlike long flakes has in Gray cast iron graphite appears as rounded particles or
or nodules or spherodial in nodular cast iron
 The properties of nodular cast iron depends upon the metal composition and the
cooling rate
 Nodular cast iron possesses very good machinability

 Soft annealed grades of nodular cast iron can be turned at a very high feeds and
speeds.
 Nodular cast iron contains
3.2 - 4.2% Carbon (C)
1.1 - 3.5% Silicon (Si)
0.3 – 0.8% Manganese (Mn)
0.08% Phosphorus (P) and
0.2% Sulphur (s)
 It possesses excellent damping capacity cast ability and wear resistance
Application
(1) (2)
(3) (4) (5)

1. Crank Shaft
2. Pipes
3. Spindle
4. Hypoid axle gears
5. Tractors
MALLEABLE CAST IRON
Malleable iron is cast as white iron, the structure being a metastable carbide in a
pearlitic matrix. Through an annealing heat treatment, the brittle structure as first cast is
transformed into the malleable form.

Figure 2.6 - Malleable Cast Iron and the spherical carbon embedded into the matrix.
Figure 2.7 - Ferritic Malleable Cast iron

Characteristics
 Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting that is then heat treated at about
900oC
 Malleable cast iron is obtained from the hard and brittle white iron through a
controlled heat conversion process
 Malleable cast iron is one which can be hammered and rolled to obtain different
shapes
 Malleable cast iron possesses high yield strength
 Malleable cast iron contains
2.3% Carbon (C)
0.6 - 1.3% Silicon (Si)
0.2 - 0.6 % Manganese (Mn)
0.15% Phosphorus (P) and
0.1% Sulphur (s)
 Solidification range of 2552o to 2065o F

Application
(1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)

1. Transmission Gears
2. Railway track
3. Pipe fittings
4. Power trains
5. Wheels
6. Steering components in car
Descriptive Questions
1. Write down the composition of Grey cast iron
2. Write down the composition of Nodular cast iron
3. Write down the composition of Malleable cast iron
4. Briefly explain the characteristics of Grey cast iron
5. Briefly explain the characteristics of Nodular cast iron
6. Briefly explain the characteristics of Malleable cast iron
7. Write down the applications of Malleable cast iron

References
4. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 8th Edition by William D
Callister Jr. And David G Rethwisch
5. Physical Metallurgy2nd Edition Willam S Hosford
6. https://nptel.ac.in
*****

UNIT-2
STEEL AND ALLOYS
SESSION-3
Definition of Steel:
Steel is fundamentally an alloy of iron and carbon. Iron with the carbon content varying
up to 1.5% . Besides Carbon there are other elements present in the steel. It may also
contain other metals like sulphur, silicon, manganese, phosphorus, etc
Classification of Steel
1) Unalloyed steels, commonly called as Plain Carbon steels.
2) Alloy Steels.
Unalloyed Steels OR Plain Carbon Steel
 Carbon is the principal determinant of many performance properties.

 It has strengthening and hardening effect.
 Rise in carbon content lowers machinability and decreases weldability.
 With the increase in carbon content, thermal and electrical conductivity decline,
magnetic permeability decreases drastically and corrosion resistance is lowered.
 These steels are relatively low cost steels.
 Poor corrosion resistance
 They are not deep hardenable.
Alloy Steel
Steels to which elements other than carbon are added in sufficient amounts to produce
improvements in the properties are called Alloy steels. The most common alloying
elements added to steel are chromium, nickel, manganese, silicon, vanadium,
molybdenum, tungsten, phosphorus, copper, titanium, zirconium, cobalt and aluminium.
 Better wear resistance

 Better abrasion resistance.

 Higher hardenability.
 Higher impact strength.
 High resistance to grain growth.
Classification of Steel
Low carbon steel or Mild steel:
Low carbon steel or mild steel is further classified in to three types based on their
composition, i-e percentage of carbon.
 Dead mild steel or mild steel containing 0.05 to 0.15% of carbon.
 Mild steel containing 0.15 to 0.2% of carbon.
 Mild steel containing 0.2 to 0.3% of carbon.
 Most abundant grade of steel is low carbon steel - greatest quantity ; least
expensive.
 Not responsive to heat treatment; cold working needed to improve the strength.
 High Strength, Low Alloy (HSLA) steels - alloying elements (like Cu, V, Ni and
Mo) up to 10%; have higher strengths and may be heat treated.
Properties
 They possess good machinability.
 They possess excellent weldability.
 They are relatively soft and weak.

 They have outstanding ductility.
 They have outstanding toughness.
Application of Mild Steel:
 Dead mild steel is used for making steel wire, sheet, rivets, screws, pipe, nail,
chain, etc.
 Mild steel containing 0.15 to 0.2% carbon is used for making camshafts, sheets,
strips for blades, welded tubing, forgings, drag lines, etc.
 Mild steel containing 0.2 to 0.3% carbon is used for making valves, gears, crank
shafts, connecting rods, railways axles, fish plates and small forgings, etc.
FORGINGS
CAM SHAFTS
GEARS
Components made of Low Carbon steel

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UNIT-2
STEEL AND ALLOYS
SESSION-4
Medium Carbon Steel

 Steel containing 0.3 to 0.7% carbon is known as Medium carbon steel.
 Can be heat treated - austenitizing, quenching and then tempering.
 Most often used in tempered condition – tempered martensite
 Medium carbon steels have low hardenability.
 Addition of Cr, Ni, Mo improves the heat treating capacity.
 Heat treated alloys are stronger but have lower ductility.
Properties
 It is ductile.
 It is stronger than low carbon steels.
 It is less tougher than low carbon steels.
 It has good wear properties.
Applications
 Connecting rod, wires & rod, spring clips, gear shaft, key stock, shafts & brakes
lever, axle, small & medium forgings, etc.
 Railways coach axles, axles & crank pins on heavy machines, shafts, crank shafts,
etc.
 Forging die & die blocks, clutch discs, plate punches, set screws, valve springs,
cushion ring, thrust washers, etc.

GEARS
CLUTCH PLATE
COUPLING
SGS

CRANKSHAFT
High carbon steel

 Steel containing 0.7 to 1.5% carbon is known as high carbon steel.
 High C content provides high hardness and strength.
 Used in hardened and tempered condition
 Strong carbide formers like Cr, V, W are added as alloying elements to from
carbides of these metals.
Properties
 High hardness.
 High strength.
 Least ductile.
 High wear resistance property.
Applications
 Chisels, wrenches, jaws for vice, pneumatic drill bits, wheels for railway service,
wire for structural work, shear blades, automatic clutch disc, hacksaws, etc.
 Rock drills, railway rail, circular saws, machine chisels, punches & dies, clutch
discs, leaf springs, music wires, etc.
 Machine tools, mandrels, taps, etc.

 Thread metal dies, twist drills, knives, etc.

 Files, metal cutting tools, reamers, etc.

*****

UNIT-2
STEEL AND ALLOYS
SESSION-5
Alloy steel
Definition:
Alloy steel is a type of steel alloyed with other elements such as molybdenum,
manganese, nickel, chromium, vanadium, silicon, and boron etc, to enhance the material
properties. The amounts of alloying elements may vary between 1 and 50%.
Purpose of alloying:
 High strength
 Improved corrosion resistance
 Better hardenability
 Grain size control
 Greater strength
 Improved machine ability
 Improved high or low temperature stability
 Improved ductility
 Improved toughness
 Better wear resistance.
Effect of alloying elements on alloy steel:

Alloy steels can contain a wide variety of elements, each of which can enhance
various properties of the material, such as mechanical thermal and corrosion resistance.
The effects of adding various elements to steel is given in the table below.
Element properties
Aluminium Alloying element in nitriding steels
Bismuth Improves machinability
Boron Improves hardenability
Chromium Improves hardenability

Corrosion resistance
Copper Corrosion resistance
Lead Improves machinability
Manganese Prevents brittleness in combination with sulphur
Increases hardenability
Molybdenum Inhibits grain growth

Increases toughness
Nickel
Improves corrosion resistance
Increases strength and hardenability
Silicon Increases yield strength
Increases magnetic properties
Sulphur Improves machinability
Titanium Reduces martensitic hardness in Cr steels
Tungsten Increases hardness at high temperatures
Vanadium Increases strength while maintaining ductility, promotes fine grain structure
Application:
 Military vehicles
 Construction equipment
 Ships
 Pipelines
 Structural components
 Structural components
 Automotive applications
 Chemical processing
 Power generating equipment.

List of Software/Learning Websites:

1) https://matmatch.com/learn/material/alloy-steel
2) https://www.amardeepsteel.com/blog/SpecificBlog/1/
3) https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/alloy-steel
References:
1) Groover, M. P., 2007, p. 105-106, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing:

Materials, Processes and Systems, 3rd ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken,
NJ, ISBN 978-0-471-74485-6.
2) Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2001), Foundations of Material Science and
Engineering (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill, p. 394, ISBN 0-07-295358-6
*****

UNIT-2
STEEL AND ALLOYS
SESSION-6
Tool steel
Tool steels are high-quality, carbon and alloy steels that are commonly used to
make cutters, reamers, bits etc used for machining metals, plastics, and wood.
The Carbon content in tool steel in the range of 0.1 -1.6%. Tool steel also contain
alloying elements like, Chromium, Molybdenum and Vanadium. Tool steel offers better
durability, strength, corrosion resistance and temperature stability, as compared to the
Construction & Engineering.
The primary properties of tool steels are listed below:

 Toughness
 Wear resistance
 Hardness
 Heat resistance
Classification of tool steels:

1) Cold work tool steels
a) Oil-hardening cold-work steels

b) Air-hardening cold-work steels
c) High-carbon, high-chromium cold-work steels
2) Hot work tool steels
a) Chromium hot work steels

b) Tungsten hot work steels
c) Molybdenum hot work steels
3) High-speed tool steels

a) Molybdenum high-speed steels
b) Tungsten high-speed steels

4) Other types of tool steels include:

a) Water-hardening tool steels
b) Shock-resistant tool steels
c) Low-carbon tool steels
d) Low-alloy special purpose tool steels.
Cold work tool steels:

Cold work tool steels are high carbon steels containing smaller amounts of
manganese, tungsten, molybdenum, and chromium. They have good dimensional stability
and hardenability.
Cold work tool steels are used for making tools for cold work applications when
the tool surface temperature does not rise more than 200°C.
These steels are also called “Non- distorting Steels”, as they show little change in
dimension during heat treatment.
The primary properties of cold work steels are listed below,

 very high abrasion and wear resistance,
 higher toughness
 impact resistance.
Cold work tool steels are classified into
1) Oil-hardening cold-work steels

2) Air-hardening cold-work steels
3) High-carbon, high-chromium cold-work steels
1) Oil-hardening cold-work steels (Symbol O):
 Oil-hardening cold-work steels are hardenable by oil-quenching.

 These steels contain high carbon with manganese, chromium & molybdenum.
 These are characterized by high machinability, wear resistance & non-distorting
properties.
 Tempering temperature for these steels varies from 100- 425°C.

 Applications are Taps, Blanking & forging dies, Threading dies, Expansion
reamers.
2) Air-hardening cold-work steels (Symbol A):
 Air-hardening cold-work steels are hardened by air cooling.

 These steels contain Carbon (1.0%) with manganese, chromium & molybdenum
& tungsten.
 These are characterized by high wear resistance & high hardenability, fair red
hardness, good toughness & resistance to decarburization.

 Applications are Knives, Blanking & trimming dies and coining dies.
3) High-carbon, high-chromium cold-work steels (Symbol D):
 High-carbon, high-chromium cold-work steels are hardened by oil- or air-

hardening.
 These steels contain Carbon is 1.4-2.3% & Chromium is 12-14%, with
molybdenum, cobalt, vanadium.
 These are characterized by high hardness, wear & abrasion resistance.
 Applications are Mandrel for tube rolling by Pilger rolls, Blanking & piercing
dies, coining dies, Drawing dies.
Hot work tool steels:

Hot work tool steels are having carbon content 0.3-0.5%. These steels are used for
high temperature metal forming operation (except cutting), where the temperature is
around 200-800°C.
These are characterized by high yield strength, high red hardness, wear resistance,
toughness, erosion resistance, resistance to softening at elevated temperatures, good
thermal conductivity.
Hot work tool steels are classified into
1) Chromium hot work steels

2) Tungsten hot work steels

3) Molybdenum hot work steels
1)Chromium hot work steels:
 Chromium hot work steels contains chromium greater than and equal to 3.25%,
and small amounts of Vanadium, Tungsten and Molybdenum.
 These are characterized by high hardness & high hardenability.
 Oil quenching is required when dimensional stability is not of prime importance.
Tempering temperature for these steels varies from 550-675°C.
 Applications are Hot dies for extrusion, forging, mandrels, punches, Highly
stressed structural parts of supersonic aircrafts.
2) Tungsten hot work steels:

 Tungsten hot work steels contains tungsten equal to 9.00% & chromium is 2.0 -
12.0%, and low Carbon %.
 These are characterized by resistance to high temperature softening.
 Applications are punches, mandrels, extrusion dies for brass, steel & nickel
alloys.
3) Molybdenum hot work steels:

 Molybdenum hot work steels contains molybdenum is 8.00% & chromium is 4.0 -
12.0%, and some tungsten and vanadium.
 These are characterized by high toughness & high heat check resistance.
 Applications are die casting, forging, piercing, heading, extrusion, and trimming
purposes and punching blades.
High-speed tool steels:

 High-speed tool steels contain 0.6 % carbon, 4% Chromium, 5-12% Cobalt.
 These are characterized by high hardness (60-65 HRC at 600-650°C), high red
hardness, wear resistance, reasonable toughness and good hardenability.
 High-speed tool steels are high alloyed tool steels developed initially to do high
speed metal cutting. Now, they used in a wide variety of machining operations.

 Applications involving complicated tool geometries, such as drills, taps, milling

cutters, and broaches
High-speed tool steels are classified into

a) Molybdenum high-speed steels (M - Grade)
b) Tungsten high-speed steels (T – Grade)
 Molybdenum High speed steel [GRADE „M‟] contain Molybdenum, Tungsten,

Chromium, Vanadium & sometimes cobalt.
 Tungsten High Speed steels [GRADE „T‟] contain high amount of tungsten with
chromium, vanadium and some cobalt.
Applications are end mills, drills, lathe tools, planar tools, Punches, reamers, routers,
taps, saws. broaches, chasers, and hobs.
List of Software/Learning Websites:

1) https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=6138
2) https://www.engineeringenotes.com/metallurgy/tool-steels/7-main-types-of-tool-
steels-metallurgy/26566
3) https://www.metalsupermarkets.com/tool-steel-applications-grades/
4) https://www.imoa.info/molybdenum-uses/molybdenum-grade-alloy-steels-
irons/tool-high-speed-steel.php
5) https://www.slideshare.net/SwapnilNigam/tool-steels-their-heat-treatment
References:
1) G. Roberts, G. Kraus and R. Kennedy, Tool Steels 5th ed. (ASM International),
Metals Park Ohio, 1998.
2) Schruff, Comparison of properties and characteristics of hot-work tool steels
X38CrMoV5 1, X40CrMoV5 1, X32CrMoV3 3, X38CrMoV5 3, Technische
Berischte/Thyssen-Edelstahl, 1990, p.32-44.
3) J.R. Davis (Ed.), ASM Speciality Handbook, Tool Materials, ASM International,
Materials Park, Ohio, 1995, p. 251.
*****

UNIT-2
STEEL AND ALLOYS
SESSION-7
IV Stainless Steel-
Stainless steel is iron base alloy that has a great resistance to corrosion. It is observed that
a thin, transparent, and very tough film forms on the surface of stainless steel which is
inert or passive and does not react with many corrosive materials. Within a temperature
range of 235°C to 980°C, it exhibits strength, toughness and corrosion resistance superior
to other metals. Stainless steel is manufactured in electric furnaces.
Types and application

(i) Austenitic Stainless Steels:
 These contain at least 24% chromium and nickel combined. These are non-
hardenable and non-magnetic.
 These are highly resistant to many acids, strong and scale less than any of the
plain chromium alloys.
 These are very useful for parts subjected to severe stress at elevated temperatures.
 These find uses on food processing, dairy industry, textile industry,
pharmaceuticals.
(ii) Martensitic Stainless Steels:

 These are alloys of iron, carbon and chromium. These are also called chromium
steels, and are hardenable and magnetic.
 These are very hard and possess strain-resisting properties.
 These are used for utensils, surgical and dental instruments, springs for high
temperature operation, ball valves and seats.
 The steel shows remarkable resistance to weathering, to attack by fruits and
vegetable acids, ammonia and other corrosive agents to which cutlery may be
subjected.

(iu) Ferritic Stainless Steels:

 These are alloys of iron, carbon and steel. These are magnetic and non-
hardenable.
 These have very low carbon content and are relatively inexpensive.
 These are used for kitchen equipment, dairy machinery, heat exchangers, boiler
tubing, screws, bolts, nuts, interior decorative work, automobile trimmings and
for chemical equipment to resist nitric acid corrosion.
 These alloys are useful for all types of furnace parts not subjected to high stress.
(iv) Low Chromium Stainless Steels:

 These contain 4 to 6% of chromium. These have oxidation-resistant properties at
high temperatures.
REFERENCES
[1] Er.R.K. Jain, “Production Technology,” Khanna Publishers, 15th Edition, pp. 28-31,
1995.
[2] Rajender Singh, “Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop
Technology,” New Age International (P) limited Publishers, pp. 69, 2006.
*****

UNIT-2
STEEL AND ALLOYS
SESSION-8
V Spring Steel-
Spring steel is a name given to a wide range of steels used in the manufacture of springs,
prominently in automotive and industrial suspension applications. These steels are
generally low-alloy manganese, medium-carbon steel or high-carbon steel with a very
high yield strength. This allows objects made of spring steel to return to their original
shape despite significant deflection or twisting.
Composition
(i) Carbon-manganese spring steels.
This type of steel contains
 C = 0.45 to 0.6, Si = 0.1 to 0.35% and Mn = 0.5 to 1.0%.
 These steels are quenched and tempered up to 350 BHN.
 They are widely used for laminated springs for railway and general purposes.
(ii) Hyper-eutectoid spring steels.

 C = 0.9 to 1.2%, Si = 0.3% (max) and Mn = 0.45 to 0.70%.
 These steels are oil quenched and tempered at low temperature.
 This type of steel is used for volute and helical springs.
(iii) Silicon-manganese spring steels.

 C = 0.3 to 0.62%, Si = 1.5 to 2% and Mn = 0.6 to 1 %.
 These steels are hardened and tempered.
 This type of steel is used for the manufacturing of railway and road springs
generally.

REFERENCES
[1] Er.R.K. Jain, “Production Technology,” Khanna Publishers, 15th Edition, pp. 28-31,
1995.
[2] Rajender Singh, “Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop
Technology,” New Age International (P) limited Publishers, pp. 69, 2006.
*****

UNIT-2
STEEL AND ALLOYS
SESSION-9
STEEL FOR SHAFT MATERIAL
Fig.Shaft
A shaft is made of materials having following desirable properties:

 High fatigue strength.
 Good machinability.
 Ductility.
Most Common Shaft Material
 Mild or low-carbon steel is used for shafts

 Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.30% carbon making it malleable and
ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to
form.
STEEL FOR AXLES

Fig: Axel
An Axle is made of materials having following desirable properties:

 High fatigue strength.
 Ability to withstand impact load
 Good compressibility.
 Ability to with stand weight of the vehicle which is used
Materials used for axles
Medium-Carbon Steels
 Medium-carbon steels are similar to low-carbon steels except that they contain
carbon from 0.30% to 0.60% and manganese from 0.60% to 1.65%.
 Steels with carbon ranging from 0.40% to 0.60% are used for rails, railway
wheels, and rail axles.
STEEL FOR BOLTS AND NUTS
Fig: Nut Fig: Bolt
A Bolt and Nut is made of materials having following

desirable properties:
 Torsional strength
 Surface Hardness
 Ductility
Most Common Bolt and Nut Material
 Stainless steel is highly alloyed iron-based family of metals with a minimum

content of element chromium ranging between 10% to 11%. Unlike iron, it is an
alloy that is resistant to rust, due to the inclusion of chromium.
STEEL FOR AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENTS
Fig: Agricultural equipment’s
An Axle is made of materials having following desirable properties:

 higher strengths
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Corrosion resistance
Steel used in the agriculture and farming industry.
 Low carbon steel (steel consists of less than 0.30% carbon): Used extensively in
the construction of farm machinery. Frames and most of other members are made
out of low-carbon steel.
 Medium carbon steel (Medium-carbon steel consists of 0.30% to 0.60% carbon)

for greater strength and hardness‟ Steel is found in a variety of farming equipment
including:
STEEL FOR HOUSE HOLD UTENSILES
Fig: Households utensils

A house hold utensils is made of materials having following

 Corrosion resistance
 Strength
 Ease of cleaning
 Non-reactive surface
Materials used for house hold utensils
 Stainless steels are used to make common household items.
 Stainless steels are steels containing at least 10.5% chromium, less than 1.2%
carbon and other alloying elements.
STEEL FOR ANTIFRICTION BEARINGS
Fig: ANTIFRICTION BEARING
Antifriction bearing is made of materials having following

 Low Coefficient of friction
 High Compressive Strength
 High Fatigue Strength
 Low Thermal Expansion
 High Thermal Conductivity
 Corrosion Resistance
Materials used for antifriction bearings
 Parts of anti-friction bearings are manufactured from chromium steel of an
approximate chemical composition of 1% carbon, 0.3 %manganese, 1.5 percent
chromium, remainder substantially iron.
 Chrome steel can function at temperatures up to 120°C; upon heat treatment can
work at 220°C.
*****

UNIT-2
STEEL AND ALLOYS
SESSION-10
BIS/ASME System of Designation of Steels
Introduction
 Engineering materials have various compositions, types, Applications, properties.

 Every material has its different mechanical properties, The Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS). Have standardized the designation method for steel and other
material.
 These standards are mainly followed by Indian industries, other countries may be
using ASME standard. (The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.)
Designation of Steels
Steels are designated by a group of letters or numbers indicating any one of the following
three properties.
1. Tensile strength;
2. Carbon content; and
3. Composition of alloying elements.
 Steel, which are standardized based on their tensile strength without detailed
chemical composition, are specified in two ways- a symbol Fe followed by the
minimum tensile strength in N/mm2.
 Another method is FeE steel followed by the yield strength in N/mm2.
For examples:
Fe350 This indicates steel with a tensile strength of 250 N/mm2.
FeE 250yield strength of 250 N/mm2.

Designation of Plain Carbon Steels:

This consist following three quantities:
1. figure and indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon.
2. A letter C
3. A figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of manganese.
Example: 1)55C4 indicates a plain carbon steel with 0.55% carbon and 0.04 %
manganese.
2)30C8
Where,
30 = 100 times average % of Carbon

8 = 100 times average % of Manganese
Average % of Carbon = 30/100 = 0.3%
Average % of Manganese = 8/100 = 0.08%
Designation of Alloy steels:
The designation of alloy steels consist of following quantities:
1. figure indicating hundred times the average percentage of carbon
2. Chemical symbol for allowing elements always followed by the figure for its average
percentage content multiplied by the factor. The multiplying factor depends upon the
alloying element and it‟s shown in the following table.
Elements Multiplying
factors
Cr,Co,Ni,Mn 4
Al,Be,V,Pb,Cu,Ti,Nb,Zr 10
P,S,N 100

3. In alloy steels, if manganese % is more than 1 then chemical symbol and their figures
are arranged in descending order of their percentage content.
Example:
1)25Cr4Mo2 :is an alloy steel having an average 0.25% of carbon, 1% chromium, and
0.2 % molybdenum.
2) Example:
An alloy steel of the following composition is to be designated
Carbon = 0.13 to 0.17%; Silicon = 0.1 to 0.4%; Chromium = 0.5 – 0.8%; Manganese =
0.4 – 0.5%
Here,
Carbon varies from 0.13 to 0.17
Therefore average % of C = (0.13 + 0.17)/ 2 = 0.15
Among the other alloying elements, Chromium is largest in composition with average %
being 0.5 to 0.8%
Therefore average % of Cr = (0.5 + 0.8) / 2 = 0.65
Therefore the above example‟s designation will be 15 Cr 65
Designation of Cast iron
Cast iron is designated as follows,
 Grey Cast iron: Grey cast iron specified by FG followed by its tensile strength.
1) FG200 that means grey cast iron with ultimate tensile strength 200
N/mm2.
 Cylinder block, brake drum, clutch plate etc. are made from Grey Cast
iron.
 Malleable cast iron
1) Blackheart- superb machinability and used to manufacture axle, wheel
hub etc.

2) Pearlite- this material can be hardened by heat treatment and suitable

for Engineering component
3) White heart- this material is suitable in thin casting.
 Malleable cast iron is designated by the Letter BM, WM, PM followed by
tensile strength.
1) BM 300Blackheart Malleable cast iron with 300 N/mm2 minimum
tensile strength
2) WM420White heartmalleable cast iron with 420 N/mm2 minimum
tensile strength
3) PM 550Pearlite Malleable cast iron with 550 N/mm2 minimum tensile
strength
 Ductile cast iron or nodular cast iron or spheroidal cast iron (bright surface at
the fractured surface) is designated by SG followed by minimum tensile strength
and minimum percent of elongation.
1) SG 850/3is spheroidal cast iron with a minimum tensile strength of 850
N/mm2 and 3% minimum elongation.
*****

2.steels and Alloy

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Materials For Engineering-20ME11T

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 2

WHITE CAST IRON

Figure 2.1- Microstructure of White Cast Iron

0.18% phosphorus(P) and

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

1. Briefly classify the types of ferrous metal

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 4

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 5

GRAY CAST IRON

Figure 2.2- Graphite Flakes in Gray Cast iron

Figure 2.3-Photomicrograph of Gray Cast iron

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 6

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 7

Figure 2.5-Photomicrograph of Nodular Cast iron

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 8

(3) (4) (5)

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 9

Figure 2.7 - Ferritic Malleable Cast iron

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 10

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) (6)

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 11

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 12

Unalloyed Steels OR Plain Carbon Steel

 Carbon is the principal determinant of many performance properties.

 Better wear resistance

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 13

 They are relatively soft and weak.

Components made of Low Carbon steel

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 15

Medium Carbon Steel

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 16

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 17

High carbon steel

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 18

 Thread metal dies, twist drills, knives, etc.

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 19

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 20

Effect of alloying elements on alloy steel:

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 21

Molybdenum Inhibits grain growth

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 22

List of Software/Learning Websites:

1) Groover, M. P., 2007, p. 105-106, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing:

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 23

The primary properties of tool steels are listed below:

Classification of tool steels:

a) Oil-hardening cold-work steels

2) Hot work tool steels

a) Chromium hot work steels

3) High-speed tool steels

Unit-2: Steels & Alloys Page 24

4) Other types of tool steels include:

Cold work tool steels:

The primary properties of cold work steels are listed below,

Cold work tool steels are classified into

1) Oil-hardening cold-work steels

1) Oil-hardening cold-work steels (Symbol O):