Color Effects on AI Influencers’ Product Recommendations

Structured Abstract

Purpose
This research theorizes and investigates the use of effective color features in AI
influencers, an emerging marketing trend in the social media context.

Design/Methodology/Approach
By analyzing 6,132 pictures posted by 10 AI influencers on Instagram, this research
examines the effect of warm colors in AI influencers’ social media posts on consumer
responses, and how other color features may moderate the effect of warm color. In
addition, two experimental studies reveal the underlying process driving the effect of warm
color.

Findings
Warmer color generated more favorable consumer responses, with brightness significantly
moderating the relationship between warm color and favorable consumer responses.
Moreover, the results of the experiments establish that perceived warmth and emotional
trust mediate the causal effect of warm colors on consumer responses.

Research Implications/Limitations
There is still little understanding about consumer perceptions of AI influencers and their
acceptance of AI influencers’ product recommendations. As such, this research offers
theoretical understanding of the color features influencing the effectiveness of
recommendations by AI influencers.

Practical Implications
Brands have started deploying AI influencers as their brand ambassadors to make product
recommendations, representing a new wave of advertising on social media. Our findings
will thus benefit marketers in developing effective product recommendations using AI
influencers.

Originality/Value
The present research provides a novel understanding of how visual features such as color
can influence the effectiveness of AI influencers.

Keywords: AI Influencer; Color; Warmth; Emotional Trust; Product Recommendations

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1. Introduction

The artificial intelligence (AI) manifested by machines that exhibit aspects of human

intelligence is increasingly being utilized in services and is a major source of innovation (Rust

and Huang, 2014). Indeed, while social media influencer marketing continues to grow due to its

potential to engage consumers and stimulate purchase decisions (Ahmadi and Ieamsom, 2022),

marketers have recently started incorporating AI into influencer marketing (Sands et al., 2022).

For instance, AI influencers have been utilized as a customer service tool to recommend products

on social media and their use is expected to grow rapidly in the coming years (Baklanov, 2020).

An AI influencer is a digitally created artificial human that realistically simulates the

characteristics, personalities, and thoughts of real humans (Thomas and Fowler, 2021). The first

AI influencer, Lil Miquela, was introduced on Instagram in 2016 and subsequently named one of

Time’s 25 Most Influential People on the Internet (Baklanov, 2019, Time, 2018). She has

promoted products from luxury brands such as Calvin Klein and Prada. This trend has significant

marketing implications. A recent study reports that AI influencers receive almost three times

more engagement than human influencers (Baklanov, 2020), and also require lower production

costs and carry a lower risk of scandal (Thomas and Fowler, 2021). As a result, brands are

starting to replace human influencers with AI influencers in the influencer job market (Hwang et

al., 2021).

However, despite the potential upside of AI influencers, there is limited understanding of

how AI influencers can be better presented to their followers when promoting products. Notably,

Flavián and Casaló (2021) have called for future studies to explore the design features of AI

influencers and their effect on customer behaviors. In this regard, it remains unclear whether and

how color features influence effective recommendations from AI influencers and how consumers

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might react to them. As such, this research develops an understanding of how brands can utilize

color features to best leverage AI influencers in recommending products on social media.

The present research investigates whether and how color features (i.e., warm colors)

enhance the effectiveness of AI influencers in recommending products on social media.

Moreover, we examine the role of perceived warmth in driving the effectiveness of AI

influencers. We develop our theoretical rationale based on perceptions of warmth associated with

such influencers. Notably, perceived warmth and competence are the two main cues for human

impression formation identified in the social cognition literature (Cuddy et al., 2011, Cuddy et

al., 2009). While perceived warmth is the main driver of relational building in the customer

relationship context (Güntürkün et al., 2020), human brand theory (Thomson, 2006) suggests that

perceived competence (e.g., proficiency) helps human brands such as celebrities, athletes, and

politicians develop relationships with their audiences (Deci and Ryan, 2000, Huang et al., 2015,

Ki et al., 2020, Thomson, 2006).

In the context of AI influencers, as AI has already established competence (Kim et al.,

2019), any further cues related to the competence become non-diagnostic. In contrast, perceived

warmth becomes diagnostic (Hess and Melnyk, 2016). Therefore, while perceived warmth and

competence can both benefit traditional human influencers, only perceived warmth is an

important driver for AI influencers. Further, considering that consumers may view automated

agencies as genuine social actors (Cabibihan et al., 2014, Lin et al., 2021), perceived warmth can

further increase emotional trust toward AI influencers. As a result, we predict that AI influencer

posts with warmer colors will increase perceived warmth and emotional trust, subsequently

driving favorable consumer responses.

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 One of the biggest challenges when analyzing online content (Netzer et al., 2012) is

converting the overwhelming quantity of unstructured visual and textual data into quantifiable

measures (Simester et al., 2020). Previously, researchers had to depend on human coding to

evaluate emotional content (Tellis et al., 2019). Owing to the slow processing time and high cost

of human coders, researchers could not study large samples, which made the knowledge

discovery process slow. In the current research, we utilize a computerized automatic image

analysis tool, OpenCV, to extract color features from large-scale social media posts.

By analyzing 6,132 pictures across 10 AI Influencer Instagram accounts in Study 1, we

show that pictures with higher levels of warm color receive significantly more like clicks.

Moreover, we test the moderating role of other color features, namely brightness and saturation,

in terms of enhancing the effect of warm color (Study 1). In Study 2, we further establish causal

evidence that warm color increases favorable consumer responses (i.e., likelihood to like and

willingness to follow the recommendation of the AI influencer) and demonstrate the underlying

mechanism: a serial mediation via perceived warmth and emotional trust. Lastly, we use a

moderation-of-process approach in Study 3 to ensure the robustness of our findings (Spencer et

al., 2005).

As such, this research provides three theoretical contributions and significant managerial

implications. First, our research contributes to the emerging AI influencer marketing literature

(Thomas and Fowler, 2021, Miao et al., 2022, Baklanov, 2020) by being among the first to

demonstrate a warmer color effect on the product recommendations in AI influencers’ social

media posts. Second, this research contributes to the literature on perceived warmth and

competence (Güntürkün et al., 2020) by demonstrating that perceived warmth (instead of

competence) is an underlying mechanism explaining the effect of color in AI influencers’ social

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media posts. Third, we extend the color interaction literature (Seckler et al., 2015, Witzel, 2019)

by identifying a synergistic interaction effect of color features that positively moderates the

warm color effect. From the managerial standpoint, the findings of this research provide

guidance for companies and marketers on how to effectively deploy AI influencer product

endorsement and boost the emotional appeal of AI influencers via color features.

2. Theoretical Development

2.1 Influencer Marketing and the AI Influencer

Celebrities have been serving as major brand endorsers for some time due to their

significant effectiveness in this role (Bergkvist and Zhou, 2016, Carrillat and Ilicic, 2019).

However, with the growing popularity of social media, social media influencers have emerged as

another type of endorser, significantly influencing consumer engagement and purchase decisions

(Ahmadi and Ieamsom, 2022, Schouten et al., 2020, Zhu et al., 2022). Indeed, influencer

marketing is a relationship-building strategy in which brands form alliances with influencers to

engage their followers on social media and endorse brand offerings (De Veirman et al., 2017).

Brands are increasingly empowering online influencers to present and promote their products,

making influencer marketing a global phenomenon and integral component of marketing

strategies (Leung et al., 2022).

More recently, AI has been incorporated into influencer marketing, with AI influencers

becoming a new force in the field (Thomas and Fowler, 2021, Sands et al., 2022) and engaging

with audiences in a similar manner to human influencers (e.g., word-of-mouth, product

recommendation). AI is already being used to engage customers at various service levels and

throughout different stages of the service process (Hollebeek et al., 2021, Kietzmann et al., 2018,

Lin et al., 2021, Singh et al., 2021). Huang et al. (2019) categorize three types of AI used in

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customer engagement based on the nature of the service task. They are: (1) mechanical AI for

standardized service, (2) thinking AI for personalized service and service recommendations, and

(3) feeling AI for personalized customer relationships and customer retention (Huang and Rust,

2018, Huang and Rust, 2017).

AI influencers combine characteristics of thinking and feeling AI. Firstly, AI can be

designed and programmed to achieve utilitarian and instrumental goals (Yogeeswaran et al.,

2016). In this regard, AI influencers have the instrumental goal of recommending products.

Secondly, AI influencers have a realistically noticeable human-like appearance (see Figure 1 and

2), and thus can simulate relationships with their followers (Huang and Rust, 2018, Huang and

Rust, 2017). Endorsement effects have been observed not only in the contexts of celebrity

endorsement (Escalas and Bettman, 2017, Gong and Li, 2017) and human influencer

endorsement (Kim and Kim, 2021, Breves et al., 2021), but also during interaction with virtual

agents (Jin and Park, 2009, Whang and Im, 2021) and AI influencers (Sands et al., 2022). This is

because when technologies have human-like characteristics, consumers may experience their

interactions with such technologies as if they are interacting with other human beings (Nass and

Moon, 2000). As a result, consumers are likely to view automated service contexts, such as

virtual salespeople, as involving genuine social actors (Brengman et al., 2021, Lin et al., 2021).

[Insert Figures 1 and 2]

However, there is little research examining effective influencer strategies for AI-enabled

customer engagement on social media, with only experimental studies undertaken so far (e.g.,

Sands et al., 2022). The present research extends this literature by analyzing social media data.

Notably, we investigate how the effectiveness of AI influencers’ product recommendations can

be enhanced by employing specific color features, thus imbuing AI influencers with emotional

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qualities (i.e., feeling AI). In this regard, we develop our arguments by proposing that color

features can influence the perceived warmth associated with AI influencers.

2.2 Perceptions of Warmth and Competence

In social psychology, the stereotype content model suggests perceptions of warmth and

competence regarding a brand can influence consumer evaluations and purchase behaviors

related to that brand (Chang et al., 2019, Kervyn et al., 2012, Kolbl et al., 2019). In fact, these

two dimensions are highly predictive in explaining how individuals characterize others (Chang et

al., 2019, Fiske, 2018). In social cognition literature, perceived warmth and competence are the

two main cues for human impression formation about individuals and groups (Cuddy et al.,

2009, Cuddy et al., 2011, Fiske et al., 2007).

Perceived warmth plays a critical role in the quality of customer-brand communications

and customer determinations of service quality (Güntürkün et al., 2020, Kirmani et al., 2017), as

well as providing other benefits in different contexts (Aiello et al., 2020, Cuddy et al., 2007). For

example, consumers show more emotional trust toward companies (Aiello et al., 2020) and

people who are perceived as warm (Cuddy et al., 2007). A superior who is perceived as warm by

his subordinates is also more likely to gain their trust (Tjosvold, 1984). In addition, human brand

theory (Thomson, 2006) suggests that perceived competence (e.g., proficiency) helps human

brands such as celebrities, athletes, and politicians develop committed relationships with their

audiences (Deci and Ryan, 2000, Huang et al., 2015, Ki et al., 2020, Thomson, 2006). This is

because consumers tend to favorably evaluate brands or products endorsed by popular people

whom they perceive as credible (Amos et al., 2008, Erdogan, 1999, Ohanian, 1990).

Despite considerable evidence that both perceived warmth and competence dimensions

impact consumer impressions and behavior, there is a discourse in the literature regarding which

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dimension is more critical in driving marketing outcomes (Güntürkün et al., 2020).

Differentiating between perceived warmth and competence in terms of outcomes is important

since consumer evaluations may involve distinct decision-making processes (Jacoby and Kyner,

1973) for which different underlying judgments (i.e., perceived warmth and competence)

become diagnostic. In the customer relationship context, perceived warmth drives relationship

building, whereas perceived competence drives transactional and utilitarian outcomes

(Güntürkün et al., 2020, Yzerbyt et al., 2008).

Because AI is programmed and designed to function in a certain way to achieve

instrumental and utilitarian goals (Yogeeswaran et al., 2016), perceived competence can be seen

as a basic, inherent, and expected feature of AI (Kim et al., 2019). For instance, AI as a

“recommendation agent” (Rust and Kannan, 2003) provides data-driven advice based on

customers’ interests, preferences, or needs (Ansari et al., 2000, Huang and Rust, 2018). In other

words, perceived competence should be an inherent dimension of AI influencers.

The accessibility-diagnosticity framework suggests that information will only serve as a

basis for inference if it is perceived as a reliable predictor of the missing value (Feldman and

Lynch, 1988). For example, once perceived competence has been established, any additional

competence cues become less effective. Instead, consumers are more likely to evaluate warmth

information as the next diagnostic attribute. In this case, we can predict that given AI has already

established perceived competence (Kim et al., 2019), further cues related to competence become

ineffective for AI influencers. Alternatively, perceived warmth appeals should be more

influential in stimulating favorable customer behavior (Hess and Melnyk, 2016).

In this study, we explore the potential of color features (i.e., warm colors) to elicit

perceived warmth. Specifically, we test whether the use of warmer color can be helpful in

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attracting more favorable consumer responses (i.e., more likes) to AI influencers’ posts.

Furthermore, we test whether using warmer color in association with AI influencers can generate

perceived warmth among consumers, leading to greater emotional trust in the AI influencer and

the recommended product.

2.3 Psychology of Color

Color is significant to our visual perceptions. Prior studies in marketing and consumer

research have investigated how colors can influence perception, motivation, cognition, and

behavior (Bagchi and Cheema, 2013, Chylinski et al., 2015, Hess and Melnyk, 2016, Labrecque,

2020). For instance, because color (vs. black-and-white) is associated with low construal levels,

consumers evaluating colorful (vs. black-and-white) stimuli will focus on the abstract (vs.

concrete) features of the stimuli (Lee et al., 2014). Past research examining discrete colors also

suggests that colors can differentially influence consumer decision making, depending on the

situation. For example, red signals avoidance in the context of performance (Mehta and Zhu,

2009), whereas it signals approach in the relational context (Elliot and Niesta, 2008) and

aggression in the competition context (Bagchi and Cheema, 2013).

In the marketing context, color was originally used based on anecdotal evidence, with

brand managers often relying on their own gut feelings when making decisions related to colors

(Gorn et al., 1997, Schindler, 1986). This is because colors express symbolic meanings that are

fundamental to a brand’s identity, enhance brand recognition (Abril et al., 2009), signal brand

personality (Labrecque and Milne, 2012), and communicate the desired brand image to

consumers (Bottomley and Doyle, 2006). Indeed, prior studies have established the important

role of color in various contexts such as advertising (Gorn et al., 1997), retailing (Ettis, 2017),

and prosocial behavior (Choi et al., 2020). The role of color in branding is extremely important,

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to the extent that customers with high levels of attachment to a brand may complain when a

brand changes its color scheme (Kahney, 2003).

Research on the effect of color arises from the premise that colors express embodied

meanings (Labrecque, 2020, Labrecque et al., 2013, Labrecque and Milne, 2012). Indeed,

conventional associations link some colors to sensations of warmth and other colors to a sense of

coolness (Choi et al., 2020). This warm (i.e., higher levels of hue) versus cool (i.e., lower levels

of hue) aspect of colors reflects the dimension of hue, which has been examined in prior research

(Deng et al., 2010, Labrecque, 2020). Consistent with prior research, the present research thus

investigates warmer colors (i.e., higher levels of hue), and we further develop and elaborate our

arguments based on warmer color, perceived warmth, and emotional trust in the following

section.

2.4 Hypotheses Development

The hue of a color is determined by its wavelength within the visible spectrum (Hsieh et

al., 2018). The level of warm hue for an image reflects the proportion of warm hue (i.e., red,

orange, yellow) pixels in an image (Wang et al., 2006), and thus the level of hue is a continuous

value, such that higher levels of hue reflect warmer colors. Warm colors are those with high

wavelengths, such as reds, oranges, and yellows, while cool colors are those with low

wavelengths, such as blues, greens, and whites (Ettis, 2017). A warm color is associated with

perceived warmth, sincerity, and friendliness (Fraser and Banks, 2004, Gorn et al., 1997,

Labrecque and Milne, 2012). Alternatively, cool colors are associated with perceptions of

confidence and competence (Labrecque and Milne, 2012, Scherbaum and Shepherd, 1987).

Warmer colors have been found more effective in the B2C (Business-to-Consumer)

context than cooler colors, in terms of more click-throughs from B2C web advertisements

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(Sokolik et al., 2014) and increased social media engagement with B2C firm-generated content

(Kwon et al., 2022, Yu et al., 2020). Furthermore, perceived warmth can lead to potentially

advantageous effects. For example, consumers show more emotional trust toward companies

(Aiello et al., 2020) and people who are perceived as warm (Cuddy et al., 2007), and superiors

perceived as warm by their subordinates are more likely to gain their trust (Tjosvold, 1984). In

this regard, we propose that a warm color used in a post featuring an AI influencer should lead to

a spill-over effect in which that AI influencer will be perceived as warm.

As noted earlier, AI influencers have already established perceived competence (Kim et

al., 2019) and further competence cues are not likely to be effective. Instead, warmth cues can be

used to stimulate perceived warmth and favorable customer behavior (Hess and Melnyk, 2016).

Moreover, as one of the main antecedents of social presence, perceived warmth in influencers

enhances their perceived trustworthiness (Lu et al., 2016) and facilitates relationship building

with customers (Güntürkün et al., 2020). Because AI influencers can be viewed as genuine social

actors (Cabibihan et al., 2014, Lin et al., 2021), being perceived as warm by consumers could

help in developing trust in AI influencers. Notably, because perceived warmth represents an

emotional dimension (Güntürkün et al., 2020, Yzerbyt et al., 2008), when AI influencers are

perceived as warm, consumers should feel more secure and comfortable about relying on their

recommendations (Kim et al., 2021).

In summary, consumers should experience higher levels of emotional trust in AI

influencers presented in the warm color context, and thus be more likely to follow their

recommendations (Komiak and Benbasat, 2006) and exhibit favorable responses (Seegebarth et

al., 2019). Building on these findings, we propose that:

H1. AI influencer posts with warmer colors will increase favorable consumer responses.

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 H2. Perceived warmth and emotional trust will serially mediate the effect of warmer colors

on consumer responses.

The Moderating Role of Brightness and Saturation

Along with hue, colors can be coordinated based on other dimensions such as brightness

and saturation (Gorn et al., 1997, Labrecque et al., 2013). Brightness refers to a color’s lightness

or darkness, such that colors with low (vs. high) brightness have a blackish (vs. whitish) quality

(Ettis, 2017, Gorn et al., 2004). Saturation reflects the intensity of colors, such that higher

saturated colors are more vivid and stand out (Gorn et al., 2004). In this section, we discuss how

these color features can further influence the predicted effect of warmer colors.

In terms of brightness, colors with low brightness (i.e., blackish colors) signal power

(Wexner, 1954), durability (Hagtvedt, 2020), and sophistication (Fraser and Banks, 2004). In the

fashion world, black expresses status and competence (e.g., black limousine, black tuxedo)

(Labrecque and Milne, 2012). Conversely, colors with a high brightness (i.e., whitish colors)

signal sincerity (Fraser and Banks, 2004, Labrecque and Milne, 2012). They are also associated

with cleanness and purity (Fraser and Banks, 2004). In addition, text in a bright white font is

associated with faster and more accurate evaluation of positive words (Meier et al., 2004) and

can increase emotional arousal (Wilms and Oberfeld, 2018). These findings suggest that colors

with high (vs. low) levels of brightness have a stronger association with perceptions of warmth.

In terms of saturation, colors with high saturation look more vivid (Gorn et al., 2004). Such

colors are also associated with feelings of happiness and joy (Jonauskaite et al., 2019). Saturation

has also been found to increase arousal (Kunz et al., 2020, Labrecque and Milne, 2012). Given

that higher levels of perceived warmth, saturation, and brightness generate higher emotional

arousal (Gorn et al., 1997, Wexner, 1954, Wilms and Oberfeld, 2018, Hagtvedt and Brasel,

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2017), we propose that both brightness and saturation will moderate the effect of warmer colors

such that the predicted effect of warm color will be stronger when brightness and saturation are

also higher. Formally stated:

H3. Brightness and saturation will moderate the effect of warmer colors on consumer

responses such that the predicted effect will be stronger when (a) brightness and (b)

saturation are higher.

We conducted three studies to test our predictions. Figure 3 describes the conceptual model

tested in the present research. Study 1 tested Hypothesis 1 in a field setting by examining

secondary data obtained from the Instagram accounts of AI influencers, while Studies 2 and 3

adopted an experimental design approach to provide causal evidence for Hypothesis 1. Study 1

further tested the moderating role of brightness and saturation (H3a and H3b). Finally, Studies 2

and 3 tested the underlying mechanism driving the effect (H2) using measurement-of-mediation

and moderation-of-process approaches (Spencer et al., 2005).

[Insert Figure 3]

3. Study 1

3.1 Data

To explore the effect of warm colors in AI influencers’ posts on consumer responses, we

collected data from AI influencers on Instagram. We chose Instagram as our focal platform

because (1) most AI influencers are active on Instagram (Baklanov, 2020), (2) Instagram is one

of the most used social networking sites (Statista, 2019), and (3) it is an image-dominant

platform.

We selected AI influencers from among HypeAudior’s top 25 AI influencers according to

their Instagram Virtual Influencers’ ranking (Baklanov, 2020). The selection criterion was AI

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characters that have a realistic human-like appearance. After excluding AI influencers with

animal (Guggimon), doll (Barbie) or animation characters (Any Malu), the remaining 10 AI

influencers formed our sample (see Table 1). We analyzed 6,132 posts from the official

Instagram accounts of these AI influencers from September 2014 to February 2021.

3.2 Color Features

In this study, we investigated the effect of three color features (warmth, brightness and

saturation) on the number of likes of social media posts. Using OpenCV (available at

https://opencv.org), we extracted three color features for each image. OpenCV converts images

from RGB (Red, Green, and Blue) space to HSV (Hue, Saturation, and Value [or Brightness])

space, where each HSV component has its own range of pixels (from 0 to 255). First, the level of

warm hue for an image is the proportion of warm hue (i.e., red, orange, yellow) pixels in an

image (Wang et al., 2006). While a higher score means a warmer hue, a lower score indicates a

cooler hue (see Figures 1 and 2). Second, brightness, which is the value dimension of HSV, is

the average of brightness across pixels. A higher score means a brighter image. Third, following

Datta et al. (2006), saturation is defined as the average of saturation across pixels. A higher score

means more saturation. 

Table 2 shows descriptive statistics for the above three color features for the 10 AI

influencers. The sentiment and length of text description in the caption are included as control

variables. We measured sentiment using VADER (Valence Aware Dictionary and sEntiment

Reasoner) (Hutto and Gilbert, 2014), which is a lexicon and rule-based sentiment analysis tool.

VADER works particularly well for the sentiments expressed in social media because it handles

emoji, slang, and emoticons in addition to negative and positive words. VADER scores range

between -1 (most extreme negative) and +1 (most extreme positive). To measure text length, we

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counted the number of words in the caption and then applied og transformation after we added 1

because some posts do not have any text description. To avoid multicollinearity issues, we

checked the correlation between the independent variables and can confirm that the correlation

was not too high. Furthermore, as applies in our case, there is less concern if the biggest variance

inflation factor (2.111 in our data) is smaller than 5 (Hair et al., 2010, Ringle et al., 2015).

[Insert Table 2]

3.3 Model Specification

To test Hypothesis 1, we examined whether posts with warm colors received more likes.

As usual, the number of likes (as the measure of WOM) in our data is rightly skewed by having a

much bigger mean than the median. The median and mean for the data are respectively 7406.50

and 16,300.26. Also, none of the 6,132 posts had zero likes. Hence, following prior Instagram

research (Simester et al., 2020), we adopted a log-linear model rather than a zero-inflated count

model. In addition to the main variable, warm color, we controlled for other color and textual

features. Furthermore, we controlled for unobserved heterogeneity across AI influencer

Instagram accounts and posting time, respectively. Some AI influencers may be more active on

Instagram than others and thus tend to receive more likes. Hence, we included dummies for

different AI influencers. Posting time can also affect the number of likes. Earlier posts had

longer exposure than later posts. There may also be more popular days or hours for social media

usage. To account for the posting time effects, we included a rich set of dummies for year-

month, day-of-week, and hour-of-day.

ln ( Like Count ij )=β 0 + β 1 Warm i+ β2 Bright i + β 3 Saturated i+ β 4 Text Length i+ β 5 Text Sentiment i + μ j+ τ t + ε ¿

(1)

Where:
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  β 1 , captures the core coefficients of interest for the hypothesis regarding warm color

 β 2 , β 3 are the coefficients of the control variables for color features

 β 4 , β 5 are the coefficients for the control variables of textual features

 β 0 is an intercept

 Warm, Bright, Saturated, Text Length, and Text Sentiment are defined as above

 μ j: 10 AI influencers’ Instagram accounts’ fixed effect

● τ t : 78 year-month, 7 day-of-the week, 24 hour-by-hour fixed effects of posting time of

post i

● ε ¿: a random error

To estimate the above log-linear fixed-effect regression in Equation 1, we used ordinary least

squares (OLS) to examine the relationship between warm color and like count on each post.

Then, heteroskedasticity-robust standard errors were clustered at the account-year-month level to

adjust for correlation within each account-year-month across the analyzed carousel posts.

To test Hypothesis 3, we examined whether brightness and saturation moderate the effect

of warm color. The following function is the effect of warm color in Equation (1).

β 1=α 0 +α 1 Bright i+ α 2 Saturated i

Where:

 α 1 , α 2capture the core coefficients of interest for Hypothesis 3 regarding the moderators

of warm color

 α 0 is the baseline effect

 Bright and Saturated have the same definitions as Equation 1 except that each variable is

mean-centered.

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3.4 Results and Discussion

Main Effect of Warm Colors. Column (1) in Table 3 shows the main results for

Equation 1, building up to the full specifications for Equation 1 in Column (2). Column (1)

shows only the main effect of warm color in addition to Instagram account and time fixed

effects. Column (2) adds other color and textual features. Across the two specifications, Warm i ,

the key coefficient of interest, is positive and significant (b = .14, SE = .04, p < .01 in Column 2).

This suggests that pictures with warm color received more favorable consumer responses (i.e.,

more likes) on AI influencer posts, supporting Hypothesis 1.

Moderation Effects of Brightness and Saturation. As proposed in Hypothesis 3, we

included brightness and saturation as moderators of the relationship between warm color and

favorable consumer responses to AI influencers’ posts. The effects of brightness and saturation

on favorable consumer response to AI influencers’ posts were included in the regression

analysis. Table 3 shows the result of Equations 1 and 2 with two interaction terms. The

coefficient of the interaction term for brightness is positive and significant (b = .64, SE = .21, p <

.001), while the coefficient of the interaction term for saturation is insignificant (b = .26, SE

= .17, p = .118). Hypothesis 3 is thus partially supported as only brightness was found to be a

significant moderator of the relationship between warm color and favorable consumer response,

showing positive moderate effects.

In summary, the main effect of warm color was positively associated with more favorable

consumer responses (i.e., like count). Also, brightness, but not saturation, was significant in

moderating the effect of warm colors on consumer responses, partially supporting Hypothesis 3.

[Insert Table 3]

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4. Study 2

Study 2 was conducted with two important purposes. First, we sought to establish causal

evidence for Hypothesis 1. Hence, we used an experimental approach and manipulated the

overall color of an Instagram post using orange, which is perceived to be extremely warm, and

blue, perceived to be the least warm (Fenko et al., 2010). This is also consistent with the results

of a semantic association task study when individuals were asked to rate orange and blue (Sivik

and Taft, 1989). Second and more importantly, we have proposed that the effect of warm color

on favorable consumer responses will be mediated by perceived warmth and emotional trust

(H2); thus, Study 2 sought to provide evidence for this underlying mechanism.

4.1 Method

Study 2 employed a one-factor, two-level (color: warm, cool) between-subjects design.

We recruited 118 participants (73% males, Mage = 33.79, SD = 8.89) from Amazon Mechanical

Turk in exchange for $0.50. Following prior research (Puzakova and Aggarwal, 2018, Septianto

et al., 2022), we used three criteria for the recruitment process to ensure data quality. Participants

needed to be (1) located in the U.S. and have (2) at least a 98% HIT approval rate, and (3) at

least 100 approved HITs.

Participants were asked to imagine they needed to buy a new smartphone, and when

looking around on the Internet they came across the Instagram page of an AI influencer named

“Evgeneia”, who recommended a new smartphone. Participants were then randomly shown an

Instagram post with either warm or cool color. Note that the posts had identical content and

information, with the exception of the differences in color (see the Appendix). To best reflect the

AI Influencer context, the stimulus materials were unedited images collected from AI influencer

Lu do Magalu’s page (https://www.instagram.com/magazineluiza/) on Instagram.

18
 As the dependent variables, participants rated their likelihood of “liking” the post (a

single item scale) and their willingness to follow the purchase recommendation using four items

(α = .95). These items were: “I am willing to rely on the AI influencer for my decision about

which product to buy”, “I am willing to use the AI influencer as an aid to help me decide which

product to buy”, “I am willing to let the AI influencer assist me in deciding which product to

buy”, and “I am willing to follow the AI influencer’s purchase recommendations” (adapted from

Lin et al., 2021). All four items were measured on a 7-point scale (1 = not at all, 7 = very much).

Next, we measured the two posited mediators. We measured perceived warmth by asking

participants to rate the extent to which the AI influencer looked “warm”, “sincere”, and

“friendly” (α = .95) (adapted from Chang et al., 2019). In addition, we also measured perceived

competence using the items, “competent”, “effective”, and “efficient” (α = .90) (adapted from

Chang et al., 2019).

We then measured emotional trust by asking participants to rate their feelings on three

items (α = .95). These items were: “I feel secure about relying on the AI influencer for my

decision”, “I feel comfortable about relying on the AI influencer for my decision”, and “I feel

content about relying on the AI influencer for my decision” (adapted from Komiak and

Benbasat, 2006). The three items were measured on a 7-point scale (1 = not at all, 7 = very

much). Lastly, as a manipulation check, we asked participants to choose whether the post used

“orange” or “blue” as the color.

4.2 Results and Discussion

Manipulation Check. As expected, a higher proportion of participants in the warm color

condition reported that the post used the color “orange” (98.3% [= 59/60]), whereas a higher

19
proportion in the cool color condition reported that the post used the color “blue” (98.3% [=

57/58]; χ2 = 110.13, p < .001). These results suggested our manipulation was successful.

Liking the Post. Independent sample t-tests revealed that participants in the warm color

condition reported a higher likelihood of liking the post than those in the cool color condition

(Mwarm = 4.72, SD = 2.01; Mcool = 3.93, SD = 2.26; t(116) = 2.00, p =. 048).

Following the Recommendation. As expected, those in the warm color condition

showed a higher willingness to follow the recommendation of the AI influencer than those in the

cool color condition (Mwarm = 4.68, SD = 1.59; Mcool = 4.00, SD = 1.82; t(116) = 2.16, p =. 033).

Taken together, these findings provided evidence for Hypothesis 1.

Perceived Warmth. Independent sample t-tests revealed that participants in the warm

color condition perceived the AI influencer to be warmer than those in the cool color condition

(Mwarm = 4.82, SD = 1.52; Mcool = 4.07, SD = 1.84; t(116) = 2.41, p =. 017). However and as

expected, there were non-significant differences in the levels of perceived competence between

participants in the two conditions (Mwarm = 4.76, SD = 1.55; Mcool = 4.70, SD = 1.53; t(116) = .21,

p =. 832).

Emotional Trust. As predicted, participants in the warm color condition reported higher

levels of emotional trust than those in the cool color condition (Mwarm = 4.71, SD = 1.71; Mcool =

3.98, SD = 2.00; t(116) = 2.13, p =. 035).

Serial Mediation Analysis. We then conducted two separate serial mediation analyses

for each dependent variable using PROCESS Model 6 with 5,000 bootstrap resamples (Hayes,

2017). We examined the indirect effects of color → perceived warmth → emotional trust → (a)

likelihood to like the post, and (b) willingness to follow the recommendation. The indirect effect

of color on likelihood of liking the post was significant (B = .28, SE = .12, 95% CI: .06 to .53).

20
Similarly, the indirect effect of color on willingness to follow the recommendation was

significant (B = .28, SE = .11, 95% CI: .06 to .49; see Table 4 for full results).

We conducted additional analyses to provide further support for our prediction that the

effect of warm color on favorable consumer responses is driven by perceived warmth, not

competence. We thus conducted a simple mediation analysis using PROCESS Model 4 with

5,000 bootstrap resamples. The model examined the indirect effects of color on emotional trust

via perceived warmth and competence (parallel mediators). The results showed that the indirect

effect of color via warmth was significant (B = .27, SE = .12, 95% CI: .05 to .53), whereas the

indirect effect via competence was non-significant (B = .01, SE = .04, 95% CI: -.07 to .83),

consistent with our expectations.

Moreover, following a recommendation made in prior research (Kim et al., 2018), we

also conducted a reverse mediation analysis (X [color] → M2 [emotional trust] → M1 [perceived

warmth] → Y [liking the post and following the recommendation]). The results revealed non-

significant indirect effects of color on liking the post (B = .04, SE = .04, 95% CI: -.05 to .13) and

following the recommendation (B = -.01, SE = .02, 95% CI: -.05 to .05). These findings provided

additional evidence on the hypothesized (H2) path (color → perceived warmth → emotional

trust → liking and following).

5. Study 3

Study 3 extended Study 2 in three meaningful manners. First, we noted that females were

underrepresented among participants in Study 2. Coupled with the fact that we used a female AI

influencer, this could raise concerns about our findings. Study 3 sought to address these potential

concerns by replicating the effect using a male AI influencer. Second, because it was empirically

unclear in Study 2 whether our effect was driven by higher perceived warmth in the warm color

21
condition (and not decreased favorable responses in the cool color condition), we included a

baseline (control) condition in Study 3 to address this. Third, while Study 2 provided evidence

on the underlying mechanism (a serial mediation) and included additional analyses, we sought to

offer stronger evidence by employing a moderation-of-process approach (Spencer et al., 2005).

In this regard, we directly heightened perceived warmth in the description (Septianto et al.,

2022). If our prediction was correct, the differences for the dependent variables across color

conditions should be attenuated when perceived warmth was heightened. This would provide

additional support that our effect was being driven by enhanced warmth, which in turn increased

emotional trust and favorable consumer responses (H2).

5.1 Method

Study 3 employed a 3 (color: warm, cool, control) × 2 (perceived warmth: heightened,

non-heightened) between-subjects design. We recruited 362 participants located in the U.S. from

Prolific (51% males, Mage = 34.51, SD = 12.83) in exchange of £0.40. Notably, Prolific allowed

us to recruit female and male participants evenly, thus addressing the gender imbalance noted in

Study 2.

Participants were asked to imagine they needed to buy a new smartwatch, and when

looking around the Internet they came across the Instagram page of an AI influencer named

“Evgeneia”, who recommended a new smartwatch. We changed the color shade to manipulate

warm and cool colors (see the Appendix). The stimulus material was an image collected from the

Instagram page of existing AI influencer, Knox Frost (https://www.instagram.com/knoxfrost). In

the control condition, we used the original (unedited) image. In the warm condition we added

warm color to the image, and in the cool condition we added cool color.1
1
Note that we did not measure perceived competence and warmth because we directly manipulated warmth in Study
3. Furthermore, we had also demonstrated that perceived competence did not mediate our predicted effect in Study
2. Regardless, to ensure our stimuli elicited the intended effects, we conducted a separate test (N = 151 Prolific
participants, 50% males, Mage = 39.48, SD = 11.41), in which participants were randomly assigned to one of three

22
 Moreover, we heightened perceived warmth by informing participants that this AI

influencer was known to be “warm, sincere, and friendly”. As in Study 2, participants then

indicated their likelihood of “liking” the post, willingness to follow the purchase

recommendation (α = .96), and emotional trust (α = .97). As a manipulation check, we asked

participants to rate the extent to which the color of the Instagram post was “cool” (1) to “warm”

(7).

5.2 Results and Discussion

Manipulation Check. As expected, there were significant differences in the levels of

perceived color across the conditions (F(2, 356) = 208.35, p < .001), such that participants in the

warm color condition (M = 5.88, SD = 1.31) reported that the color of the post was warmer than

those in the cool color (M = 1.97, SD = 1.05; p < .001) and control (M = 3.67, SD = 1.97; p

< .001) conditions. These results suggested our manipulation was successful.

Liking the Post. A 3×2 ANOVA examining likelihood of liking the post revealed a

significant main effect of warmth (F(1, 356) = 6.95, p = .009), but a non-significant main effect

of color (F(2, 356) = .60, p = .659). However and as expected, there was a significant interaction

effect (F(2, 356) = 3.80, p = .023; see Figure 4). Planned contrasts revealed that in the non-

heightened warmth condition, participants in the warm color condition (M = 2.75, SD = 1.97)

reported a higher likelihood of liking the post than those in the cool color (M = 1.92, SD = 1.39;

p = .015) and control (M = 2.00, SD = 1.29; p = .027) conditions. However, in the heightened

warmth condition, there were non-significant differences when examining participants in the

images and then asked to rate perceived warmth (α = .90) and competence (α = .93) using the same scales as those in
Study 2. A one-way ANOVA revealed significant differences on the levels of warmth (F(2, 148) = 4.00, p = .020),
such that participants in the warm color condition (M = 3.37, SD = 1.28) perceived the AI influencer to be warmer
than did those in the cool color (M = 2.76, SD = 1.19; p = .019) and control (M = 2.73, SD = 1.36; p = .013)
conditions. However, there were non-significant differences on the levels of competence (M warm = 3.49, SD = 1.48,
Mcontrol = 3.51, SD = 1.53, Mcool = 3.67, SD = 1.38; F(2, 148) = .24, p = .786).

23
warm color condition (M = 2.50, SD = 1.97) as compared to those in the cool color (M = 2.84,

SD = 2.08; p = .316) and control (M = 2.85, SD = 2.14; p = .288) conditions.

[Insert Figure 4]

Following the Recommendation. A 3×2 ANOVA examining the likelihood of liking the

post revealed a significant main effect of warmth (F(1, 356) = 10.23, p = .002) but a non-

significant main effect of color (F(2, 356) = 1.58, p = .208). However and as expected, there was

a significant interaction effect (F(2, 356) = 3.52, p = .031; see Figure 5). Planned contrasts

revealed that in the non-heightened warmth condition, participants in the warm color condition

(M = 2.89, SD = 1.87) reported a higher likelihood of liking the post than those in the cool color

(M = 2.04, SD = 1.19; p = .005) and control (M = 2.23, SD = 1.22; p = .028) conditions.

However, in the heightened warmth condition, there were non-significant differences when

examining participants in the warm color condition (M = 2.80, SD = 1.87) as compared to those

in the cool color (M = 2.90, SD = 1.70; p = .736) and control (M = 3.13, SD = 1.91; p = .261)

conditions. Taken together, these findings provided further evidence for Hypothesis 1.

[Insert Figure 5]

Moderated Mediation Analyses. Examining emotional trust, a 3×2 ANOVA showed a

significant main effect of warmth (F(1, 356) = 9.13, p = .003), but a non-significant main effect

of color (F(2, 356) = .90, p = .408). However and as expected, there was a significant interaction

effect (F(2, 356) = 3.73, p = .025). Planned contrasts revealed that in the non-heightened warmth

condition, participants in the warm color condition (M = 2.72, SD = 1.77) reported a higher

likelihood of liking the post than those in the cool color (M = 1.88, SD = 1.31; p = .008) and

control (M = 2.05, SD = 1.31; p = .032) conditions. However, in the heightened warmth

condition, there were non-significant differences when examining participants in the warm color

24
condition (M = 2.58, SD = 1.79), as compared to those in the cool color (M = 2.83, SD = 1.96; p

= .417) and control (M = 2.89, SD = 1.98; p = .310) conditions.

We then conducted two separate moderated mediation analyses for each dependent

variable using PROCESS Model 7 with 5,000 bootstrap resamples (Hayes, 2017). The model

examined the indirect effects of color (warm, as compared to cool and control), moderated by

warmth (non-heightened vs. heightened) → emotional trust → (a) likelihood to like the post, and

(b) willingness to follow the recommendation.

In the case of liking the post, for warm color (vs. control), there was a significant index of

moderated mediation (B = .86, SE = .39, 95% CI: .08 to 1.61), such that the indirect effect was

significant in the non-heightened warmth condition (B = -.58, SE = .25, 95% CI: -1.08 to -.09),

but non-significant in the heightened warmth condition (B = .27, SE = .30, 95% CI: -.30 to .84).

Similarly, for warm (vs. cool) color, there was a significant index of moderated mediation (B

= .95, SE = .39, 95% CI: .20 to 1.73), such that the indirect effect was significant in the non-

heightened warmth condition (B = -.73, SE = .25, 95% CI: -1.24 to -.25), but non-significant in

the heightened warmth condition (B = .22, SE = .30, 95% CI: -.37 to .80).

In the case of following the recommendation, examining warm color (vs. control), there

was a significant index of moderated mediation (B = .84, SE = .39, 95% CI: .09 to 1.61), such

that the indirect effect was significant in the non-heightened warmth condition (B = -.57, SE

= .25, 95% CI: -1.07 to -.11), but non-significant in the heightened warmth condition (B = .27,

SE = .29, 95% CI: -.31 to .84). Similarly, examining warm (vs. cool) color, there was a

significant index of moderated mediation (B = .93, SE = .38, 95% CI: .18 to 1.69), such that the

indirect effect was significant in the non-heightened warmth condition (B = -.72, SE = .25, 95%

CI: -1.21 to -.25), but non-significant in the heightened warmth condition (B = .22, SE = .29,

25
95% CI: -.35 to .77; see Table 5 for full results). In sum, these results provided strong support for

H2 using the moderation-of-process approach.

6. General Discussion

6.1 Implications for Theory and Practice

Influencer marketing has become more popular in recent years (De Veirman et al., 2017)

alongside an increasing trend toward utilizing AI in marketing (Campbell et al., 2020, Huang and

Rust, 2021). However, most existing studies on influencer marketing have focused on the content

and personal characteristics of celebrities and human influencers (Leung et al., 2022, Paramita

and Septianto, 2021). Against this backdrop, the present study extends the research scope from

social media influencers and their endorsement strategies to the context of AI influencers.

Considering that the existing contributions to this emerging AI field are largely conceptual and

lab experiment based (Flavián and Casaló, 2021), this research fills a gap by offering empirical

evidence obtained from the social media of AI influencers.

We examined how color features can influence the effectiveness of AI influencers’

product recommendations. In doing so, we advance existing knowledge by making three

theoretical contributions as well as offering managerial implications. First, our research

contributes to the emerging AI influencer marketing literature (Thomas and Fowler, 2021, Miao

et al., 2022) by being among the first to examine the role of color appeals in AI influencers’

posts. While existing research on AI influencers identifies differing perceptions of transgressions

between human influencers and AI influencers (Thomas and Fowler, 2021), little is known

regarding effective usage of design features in AI influencers’ social media (Miao et al., 2022).

Given the growing relevance of AI influencers (Baklanov, 2020), our work thus contributes to

the emerging literature on AI influencers and demonstrates the role of color perceptions in

26
influencing the effectiveness of their product recommendations. Notably, we show whether and

how color features of AI influencers can also increase emotional trust among consumers (i.e.,

feeling AI), thus leading to more effective product recommendations.

Second, we contribute to the literature on perceived warmth and competence (Güntürkün

et al., 2020) by demonstrating perceived warmth as an underlying mechanism that explains the

effect of warmer color in AI influencers’ social media on emotional trust. As hypothesized, we

find that warmer color in AI influencers’ social media increases perceived warmth and, in turn,

emotional trust, while cooler color does not increase perceived competence. As discussed, this is

perhaps because AI influencers are human-like virtual agents (e.g., virtual salesmen) and thus

combine characteristics of AI robots and humans. Because viewers still recognize that the AI

influencer has been created, like an AI robot (Kim et al., 2019), the AI influencer is seen as

inherently competent and thus cool color does not make any additional contribution to perceived

competence (Hess and Melnyk, 2016). However, adding warmth appeals using warm color to AI

influencers’ posts can stimulate perceived warmth and lead to favorable customer behavior.

Our findings are important because they show marketers can take advantage of AI

influencers’ human-like appeal compared to AI robots. Specifically, while adding human-like

features to an AI robot can increase perceived warmth, it can also elicit a sense of the uncanny

(Kim et al., 2019). In contrast, a human-like AI influencer does not elicit this sense of the

uncanny; instead perceived warmth increases. This finding is also significant for social media

influencer marketing because AI influencers are a new type of endorser that incorporates both AI

and human characteristics. While perceived warmth (Güntürkün et al., 2020) and competence

(Huang et al., 2015, Ki et al., 2020) can both benefit traditional human influencers, our finds

27
show that only perceived warmth from warm color is an important driver for the effect of AI

influencers.

Lastly, our findings extend the color interaction literature (Seckler et al., 2015, Witzel,

2019) by identifying effective color features for moderating the effect of warm hue. As

hypothesized, we demonstrate that the effect of warm color on viewers’ engagement with social

media posts is greater with brighter color. This is because perceived warmth and brightness have

a positive impact on emotional arousal (Gorn et al., 1997, Wexner, 1954, Wilms and Oberfeld,

2018, Hagtvedt and Brasel, 2017), and thus using colors that are both warm and bright can

generate a synergistic interaction effect. These findings are important because they show the

effect of visual images is not determined by a single-color feature, but rather the combination of

several color features. Our findings thus provide more detailed guidance for designing visuals on

social media posts.

The results of this empirical study have two managerial implications that should be of

interest to companies and marketers planning to use AI influencers on social media to

recommend products. First, the study provides actionable insights on how to visually deploy AI

influencers. According to the findings of our research, AI influencers featuring warmer color

generate more favorable customer responses. Indeed, the use of warmer color increases the

perceived warmth of the AI influencers, leading to emotional trust as perceived by customers and

higher willingness to purchase. Thus, our results suggest marketers should incorporate warmer

colors such as red, orange, and yellow when designing social media posts by AI influencers to

signal perceived warmth and simulate emotional truth. Adjusting the warmth level of color can

be done simply using image editing software such as Photoshop.

28
 Furthermore, the findings of this study provide additional guidance on color feature

combination strategies to enhance the effectiveness of the product recommendations of AI

influencers. Our results suggest that brightness can enhance the positive effect of warm color.

Thus, we recommend that marketers feature AI influencers with high levels of warm and bright

visuals. Red is one example of such a color.

6.2 Limitations and Future Research

As the use of AI influencers is an emerging and important topic in marketing, the

limitations of the current research offer plenty of opportunities for future research. First, we

analyzed images of AI influencers in Instagram because Instagram is an image-dominated social

media platform and thus provided relevant image context for our research. For the purposes of

generalization, future research needs to explore other types of social media platform. Second,

this research mainly examined the effect of color features on emotion. Prior research has found

that the composition of image content, including symmetry, contributes to perceived emotion

(Wang and Hsu, 2020). It would therefore be interesting to explore the effect of such image

composition features in the context of AI influencers.

Third, in this study we analyzed AI influencers owned by a third-party agency. Recently,

some brands have launched their own AI influencers (Kumpumäki, 2021). KFC’s Virtual

Influencer Colonel is an example (https://digitalagencynetwork.com/meet-kfc-new-computer-

generated-virtual-influencer-colonel/). Research into the effectiveness of brand-owned AI

influencers in recommending products would generate valuable insights for industries that hire

expensive influencers, such as fashion and cosmetics. In addition, it would be interesting to

further investigate the motivations behind the creation of these AI influencers. Lastly, we

measured favorable consumer responses using number of likes. Further research could measure

29
consumers’ purchase data as a result of product recommendations by AI influencers. Using such

purchase data, future research could also examine ways for AI influencers to offer a better

service and better recommendations to potential followers (Belanche et al., 2021).

In conclusion, our research provides some initial contributions on the effectiveness of the

color features of warm color to guide the emerging use of AI influencers as a product

recommendation service in social media. We hope this research opens the door for further

studies on AI influencers.

30
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40
Table 1. Selected 10 AI Influencer Instagram Accounts

No. AI Influencer Instagram Account link

1 Lu do Magalu https://www.instagram.com/magazineluiza

2 Miquela https://www.instagram.com/lilmiquela

3 Knox Frost https://www.instagram.com/knoxfrost

4 Thalasya Pov https://www.instagram.com/thalasya_

5 noonoouri https://www.instagram.com/noonoouri

6 imma https://www.instagram.com/imma.gram

7 Bermuda https://www.instagram.com/bermudaisbae

8 Shudu https://www.instagram.com/shudu.gram

9 Amara https://www.instagram.com/amara_gram/

10 Blawko https://www.instagram.com/blawko22/

41
Table 2. Summary Statistics and Correlations (Study 1)

  1 2 3 4 5 6
1 ln(like count) 1.000
2 Warm 0.168 1.000
3 Bright -0.075 0.217 1.000
4 Saturated -0.232 -0.419 -0.475 1.000
5 Text length -0.011 0.230 0.111 -0.184 1.000
6 Sentiment -0.017 0.154 0.092 -0.133 0.378 1.000
M 8.937 0.452 0.499 0.397 3.134 0.438
SD 1.188 0.306 0.169 0.214 0.997 0.457
Min 4.663 0.000 0.003 0.000 0.000 -0.996
Max 13.605 1.000 0.975 0.973 6.059 0.999

Notes: Boldfaced values for correlations indicate significance at 95% level.

42
Table 3. Main Effect (Study 1)
(1) Only Warm (2) Add Control (3) Moderators

  Coeff SE P Coeff SE P Coeff SE P

Warm 0.144 0.043 0.001 0.098 0.033 0.003 0.102 0.043 0.017

Bright -0.556 0.062 < 0.001 -0.62 0.096 < 0.001

Saturated -625 0.055 < 0.001 -0.671 0.081 < 0.001

Warm x Bright 0.635 0.206 0.002

Warm x Saturated 0.263 0.168 0.118

Text length -0.021 0.012 -0.023 0.017

0.236 0.192
Sentiment 0.03 0.021 0.031 0.023
0.191 0.184
const 6.288 0.12 < 0.001 6.872 0.478 < 0.001 6.373 0.124 < 0.001

Dummies for Instagram Account Included   Included   Included

Dummies for Posting Time Included   Included   Included

R-sq 0.696   0.703   0.704

                       

Dependent variable is log(Like Count).

43
Unit of observation is AI Influencer account-post.

The number of observations is 6,132

Heteroskedasticity-Robust standard errors are clustered at the Account-Year-Month level with 730 (=10 x 73) clusters.

Dummies for Instagram Account: control for the fixed effects of 10 AI influencer Instagram account.

Dummies for Posting Time: control for the fix effects of 73 Year-Month, 7 Day-of-Week, 24 Hour-by-Hour.

44
Table 4. Serial Mediation Analyses (Study 2)

Perceived Warmth (M1) Emotional Trust (M2)

Coef
SE t p Coeff SE t p
f
0.1 28.6 <
Constant 4.44 0.57 0.31 1.83 0.069
6 6 0.001
0.1
Color (X) 0.37 2.41 0.017 0.05 0.11 0.42 0.676
6
Perceived Warmth
--- --- --- --- 0.85 0.07 12.88 < 0.001
(M1)
Model Summary F(1, 116) = 5.81, p = 0.017 F(2, 115) = 88.40, p < 0.001
Following the Recommendation
Liking the Post (Y1)
(Y2)
Coef
SE t p Coeff SE t p
f
0.3
Constant -0.09 -0.29 0.772 0.66 0.17 3.99 < 0.001
1
0.1
Color (X) 0.02 0.21 0.837 0.03 0.06 0.52 0.606
1
Perceived Warmth 0.1
0.15 1.46 0.147 -0.03 0.05 -0.49 0.627
(M1) 0
0.0 <
Emotional Trust (M2) 0.87 9.67 0.88 0.05 17.97 < 0.001
9 0.001
F(3, 114) = 100.04, p <
Model Summary F(3, 114) = 236.89, p < 0.001
0.001

45
Table 5. Moderated Mediation Analyses (Study 3)

  Emotional Trust (M)        

Coef
  SE t p        
f
0.1 16.8 <
Constant 2.65        
6 8 0.001
Warm vs. Control 0.2
-0.18 -0.82 0.415        
(X1) 2
0.2
Warm vs. Cool (X2) -0.29 -1.33 0.184        
2
Perceived Warmth 0.1
-0.08 -0.48 0.631        
(W) 6
0.2
X1 × W 0.49 2.25 0.025        
2
0.2
X2 × W 0.55 2.47 0.014        
2
Model Summary F(5, 356) = 3.69, p = 0.003        
Following the Recommendation
Liking the Post (Y1)
(Y2)
Coef
  SE t p Coeff SE t p
f
0.1
Constant 0.33 2.46 0.014 0.59 0.10 6.04 < 0.001
4
Warm vs. Control 0.1
-0.04 -0.28 0.784 -0.01 0.10 -0.10 0.921
(X1) 4
0.1
Warm vs. Cool (X2) 0.01 0.06 0.951 -0.13 0.11 -1.23 0.221
4
0.0 25.8 <
Emotional Trust (M) 0.87 0.85 0.02 34.77 < 0.001
3 5 0.001
F(3, 358) = 223.80, p <
Model Summary F(3, 358) = 407.24, p < 0.001
0.001

46
Figure 1. An Example of Warm Posts (Warm Hue = 0.9)

47
Figure 2. An Example of Cool Posts (Warm Hue = 0.04)

48
Figure 3. Conceptual Model

49
4.00

3.50

3.00 2.84 2.85

2.75
2.50
2.50

1.92 2.00
2.00

1.50

1.00
Non-Heightened Perceived Warmth Heightened Perceived Warmth

Warm Color Cool Color Control

Figure 4. Liking the Post by Color and Perceived Warmth Conditions (Study 3)

50
 4.00

3.50
3.13
3.00 2.89 2.90
2.80

2.50
2.23
2.04
2.00

1.50

1.00
Non-Heightened Perceived Warmth Heightened Perceived Warmth

Warm Color Cool Color Control

Figure 5. Following the Recommendation by Color and Perceived Warmth Conditions (Study

3)

51
 Appendix

Warm Color Post (Study 2) Cool Color Post (Study 2)

52
Warm Color Post (Study 3) Cool Color Post (Study 3)

Original Color Post (Study 3)

53