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Rock Mechanics For Underground Mining

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Rock
Mechanics
for underground mining
Third edition

B. H. G. Brady
Emeritus Professor, The University of Western Australia, and Consulting
Engineer, Montville, Queensland, Australia

E. T. Brown
Emeritus Professor, The University of Queensland, and Senior Consultant,
Golder Associates Pty Ltd, Brisbane, Australia

4y Springer
Contents

Preface to the third edition xi

Preface to the second edition xiii
Preface to the first edition xv
Acknowledgements xvii

1 Rock mechanics and mining engineering 1

1.1 General concepts 1
1.2 Inherent complexities in rock mechanics 4
1.3 Underground mining 6
1.4 Functional interactions in mine engineering 9
1.5 Implementation of a rock mechanics programme 13

2 Stress and infinitesimal strain 17

2.1 Problem definition 17
2.2 Force and stress 17
2.3 Stress transformation 19
2.4 Principal stresses and stress invariants 23
2.5 Differential equations of static equilibrium 25
2.6 Plane problems and biaxial stress 26
2.7 Displacement and strain 29
2.8 Principal strains 33
2.9 Strain compatibility equations 34
2.10 Stress-strain relations 34
2.11 Cylindrical polar co-ordinates 37
2.12 Geomechanics convention 39
2.13 Graphical representation of biaxial stress 41
Problems 43

3 Rock mass structure and characterisation 46

3.1 Introduction 46
3.2 Major types of structural features 47
3.3 Important geomechanical properties of discontinuities 51
3.4 Collecting structural data 57
3.5 Presentation of structural data 69
3.6 The hemispherical projection 71
3.7 Rock mass classification 77
Problems 82

4 Rock strength and deformability 85

4.1 Introduction 85
4.2 Concepts and definitions 86
CONTENTS

4.3 Behaviour of isotropic rock material in uniaxial

compression 87
4.4 Behaviour of isotropic rock material in multiaxial
compression 99
4.5 Strength criteria for isotropic rock material 105
4.6 Strength of anisotropic rock material in triaxial compression 117
4.7 Shear behaviour of discontinuities 120
4.8 Models of discontinuity strength and deformation 130
4.9 Behaviour of discontinuous rock masses 133
Problems 139

5 Pre-mining state of stress 142

5.1 Specification of the pre-mining state of stress 142
5.2 Factors influencing the in situ state of stress 143
5.3 Methods of in situ stress determination 147
5.4 Presentation of in situ stress measurement results 156
5.5 Results of in situ stress measurements 159
Problems 161

6 Methods of stress analysis 165

6.1 Analytical methods for mine design 165
6.2 Principles of classical stress analysis 166
6.3 Closed-form solutions for simple excavation shapes 173
6.4 Computational methods of stress analysis 178
6.5 The boundary element method 179
6.6 The finite element method 183
6.7 The distinct element method 189
6.8 Finite difference methods for continuous rock 192
6.9 Linked computational schemes 195

7 Excavation design in massive elastic rock 197

7.1 General principles of excavation design 197
7.2 Zone of influence of an excavation 201
7.3 Effect of planes of weakness on elastic stress distribution 204
7.4 Excavation shape and boundary stresses 209
7.5 Delineation of zones of rock failure 213
7.6 Support and reinforcement of massive rock 217
Problems 221

8 Excavation design in stratified rock 224

8.1 Design factors 224
8.2 Rock mass response to mining 225
8.3 Roof bed deformation mechanics 227
8.4 Roof design procedure for plane strain 230
8.5 Roof beam analysis for large vertical deflection 235

VI
CONTENTS

9 Excavation design in blocky rock 242

9.1 Design factors 242
9.2 Identification of potential block failure modes -Block Theory 243
9.3 Symmetric triangular roof prism 255
9.4 Roof stability analysis for a tetrahedral block 261
9.5 Design practice in blocky rock 263
9.6 Stope wall design - the Mathews stability chart method 266

10 Energy, mine stability, mine seismicity and rockbursts 271

10.1 Mechanical relevance of energy changes 271
10.2 Mining consequences of energy changes 275
10.3 Energy transmission in rock 277
10.4 Spherical cavity in a hydrostatic stress field 285
10.5 General determination of released and excess energy 289
10.6 Mine stability and rockbursts 293
10.7 Instability due to pillar crushing 294
10.8 Thin tabular excavations 299
10.9 Instability due to fault slip 301
10.10 Characterisation of seismic events 304

11 Rock support and reinforcement 312

11.1 Terminology 312
11.2 Support and reinforcement principles 313
11.3 Rock-support interaction analysis 317
11.4 Pre-reinforcement 322
11.5 Support and reinforcement design 326
11.6 Materials and techniques 338

12 Mining methods and method selection 347

12.1 Mining excavations 347
12.2 Rock mass response to stoping activity 349
12.3 Orebody properties influencing mining method 352
12.4 Underground mining methods 355
12.5 Mining method selection 368

13 Pillar supported mining methods 370

13.1 Components of a supported mine structure 370
13.2 Field observations of pillar performance 372
13.3 Elementary analysis of pillar support 375
13.4 Design of a stope-and-pillar layout 384
13.5 Bearing capacity of roof and floor rocks 390
13.6 The Elliot Lake room-and-pillar mines 391
13.7 Stope-and-pillar design in irregular orebodies 396
13.8 Open stope-and-pillar design at Mount Charlotte 403

VII
CONTENTS

13.9 Yielding pillars 404

Problems 406

14 Artificially supported mining methods 408

14.1 Techniques of artificial support 408
14.2 Backfill properties and placement 410
14.3 Design of mine backfill 416
14.4 Cut-and-fill stoping 418
14.5 Backfill applications in open and bench stoping 423
14.6 Reinforcement of open stope walls 427

15 Longwall and caving mining methods 430

15.1 Classification of longwall and caving mining methods 430
15.2 Longwall mining in hard rock 430
15.3 Longwall coal mining 440
15.4 Sublevel caving 453
15.5 Block caving 465
Problems 481

16 Mining-induced surface subsidence 484

16.1 Types and effects of mining-induced subsidence 484
16.2 Chimney caving 486
16.3 Sinkholes in carbonate rocks 495
16.4 Discontinuous subsidence associated with caving
methods of mining 496
16.5 Continuous subsidence due to the mining of
tabular orebodies 506

17 Blasting mechanics 518

17.1 Blasting processes in underground mining 518
17.2 Explosives 518
17.3 Elastic models of explosive-rock interaction 521
17.4 Phenomenology of rock breakage by explosives 522
17.5 Computational models of blasting 527
17.6 Perimeter blasting 527
17.7 Transient ground motion 532
17.8 Dynamic performance and design of underground excavations 536
17.9 Evaluation of explosive and blast performance 538

18 Monitoring rock mass performance 543

18.1 The purposes and nature of monitoring rock
mass performance 543
18.2 Monitoring systems 544
18.3 Examples of monitoring rock mass performance 558

VIII
 CONTENTS

Appendix A Basic constructions using the

hemispherical projection 568
A. 1 Projection of a line 568
A.2 Projection of the great circle and pole to a plane 568
A.3 Determination of the line of intersection of two planes 569
A.4 Determination of the angle between two lines in a plane 570
A.5 Determination of dip direction and true dip 571
A.6 Rotation about an inclined axis 572

Appendix B Stresses and displacements induced by point and

infinite line loads in an infinite, isotropic, elastic continuum 574
B.I A point load (the Kelvin equations) 574
B.2 An infinite line load 575

Appendix C Calculation sequences for rock-support

interaction analysis 575
C.I Scope 575
C.2 Required support line calculations 575
C.3 Available support line calculations 577

Appendix D Limiting equilibrium analysis of progressive

hangingwall caving 580
D.I Derivation of equations 580
D.2 Calculation sequence 584

Answers to problems 585

References 589
Index 614

IX

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