Master Thesis 2023.07.15.rev20.9

Axial shortening after
50 years
Dalian University of Technology Master Dissertation
EL only
CR + SH
Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response
of High-rise Concrete Buildings
story
By
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.4g Columns (E2-A1), ∆EL,∆CR+∆SH, and total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) after 50 years
ENG PHEARUM
(201906279)
To
The School of Civil Engineering
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

Master
in the subject of
Structural Engineering
on
September 25, 2019
Dissertation Supervisor
Prof. Wang Licheng
大连理工大学
Dalian University of Technology
大连理工大学学位论文独创性声明
Dalian University of Technology Master Dissertation
作者郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师的指导下进行研究
工作所取得的成果。尽我所知，除文中已经注明引用内容和致谢的地方外，
本论文不包含其他个人或集体已经发表的研究成果，也不包含其他已申请
学位或其他用途使用过的成果。与我一同工作的同志对本研究所做的贡献
均已在论文中做了明确的说明并表示了谢意。
若有不实之处，本人愿意承担相关法律责任。
学位论文题目： Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response of High-

rise Concrete Buildings.
作者签名：日期：2023 年 07 月 15 日
Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response of High-Rise Concrete Buildings
Dalian University of Technology Dissertation Originality

Declaration
I declare that this dissertation is the result of independent research I have done under the
supervision of my supervisor. It does not involve any published or unpublished works or
research results by other individuals or institutions apart from those quoted in the form of
references or notes. All individuals and institutions that have made contributions to my
research have been acknowledged in the acknowledgment.
I am fully aware that I will bear all the legal responsibility arising from violating the
declaration above.
Dissertation Title: Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response of High- rise
Concrete Buildings.
Author Signature: Date: 2023 Year 07 Month 15 Day
-1-
Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response of High-rise Concrete Buildings
Abstract
In a high-rise building, the axial deformation of columns cannot be ignored and must be
considered as particular deliberation is required for design and construction. A vertical
member undergoes both elastic and inelastic deformation due to creep and shrinkage. Elastic
deformation occurs instantaneously due to dead loads and live loads applied to the structure,
while deformation due to creep and shrinkage occurs over many years. Most of the vertical
deformation in a high-rise building, however, takes place during its construction.
Due to the difference in axial stiffness and load distribution area on vertical members,
difference shortening inevitably develops. The accurate prediction of vertical elements (i.e,
columns, walls) shortening is required to determine their effects on other structural and
nonstructural elements, which are usually overestimated by linear elastic analysis. Its
adequacy was assessed by comparison of the results for a tall concrete building with those
obtained with commercial software incorporating a nonlinear staged construction analysis
package.
This research presents a set of guidelines so that the effect could be considered
approximately, especially at the preliminary design stage and during the construction phase.
In addition, construction stages analysis considers the creep and shrinkage effects of a 54-
story building consisting of an exterior and interior wall.
In addition, it is carried out using the numerical computation method and the numerical
model will be validated using the results of structural modeling design and analysis. In order
to limit the scope of the research, the study focuses on a high-rise building with high-strength
reinforced concrete columns and core walls where differential axial shortening problems can
be aggravated. The displacement of vertical members is evaluated and compared with results
from nonlinear analysis (construction stages).
As the result, the differential axial shortening between successive floors must be
considered in the façade. As well as, the amount of differential shortening due to deformation
caused by creep and shrinkage is 54.4% of the total differential shortening. Since there are
considerable amounts of deformation due the creep and shrinkage, their effect must be
considered in analysis. This face becomes more significant for high-rise construction or for
structure with longer construction periods.
Moreover, the differential axial shortening between the core wall and the peripheral
columns must be considered in the design, the proportion of the deformation due to creep and
shrinkage that contribute to the total amount of deformation is 65.80%-75.19% for the column
and 70.40% - 82.10% for the shear wall. Therefore, deformation due to creep and shrinkage
must be considered.
Keywords: High-rise building; Deformation; Creep and shrinkage effects; Stage construction
analysis; Load-time history; Analysis for column shortening.
III
Table of Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................................................
Chapter 1 Introduction......................................................................................................- 1 -
1.1 Background of the Master's Thesis Topic............................................................................

1.2 Aim of the Master's Thesis..................................................................................................
1.3 Research Objectives.............................................................................................................
1.4 Scope of Research................................................................................................................
Chapter 2 Literature Review.............................................................................................- 9 -
2.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................
2.2 High-rise Building...............................................................................................................
2.2.1 Procedure of Performance-based Design.........................................................- 9 -
2.2.2 Basis of Design...............................................................................................- 10 -
2.2.3 Geotechnical Investigation Report.................................................................- 10 -
2.2.4 Site-specific Probabilistic seismic Hazard Assessment Report......................- 11 -
2.2.5 Wind Tunnel...................................................................................................- 11 -
2.3 Theoretical Background of Elastic Deformation in Concrete............................................
2.3.1 Creep Deformation in Concrete.....................................................................- 11 -
2.3.2 Factor affecting Creep of Concrete................................................................- 11 -
2.3.3 Aggregate.......................................................................................................- 12 -
2.3.4 Cement............................................................................................................- 13 -
2.3.5 Water to Cementitious Ratio..........................................................................- 13 -
2.3.6 Chemical Admixtures.....................................................................................- 13 -
2.4 Stress-Strength Ratio at Loading.......................................................................................
2.4.1 Age at Loading...............................................................................................- 14 -
2.4.2 Size Effect......................................................................................................- 14 -
2.4.3 Curing Conditions..........................................................................................- 14 -
2.4.4 Relative Humidity..........................................................................................- 14 -
2.4.5 Temperature under Load................................................................................- 15 -
2.5 Prediction of Creep of Concrete........................................................................................
2.5.1 ACI 209R (1992)............................................................................................- 15 -

2.5.2 ACI-Modified by Huo (2001)........................................................................- 16 -
2.6 Shrinkage of Concrete........................................................................................................
2.6.1 Introduction....................................................................................................- 16 -
2.6.1 Factor Affecting Shrinkage of Concrete........................................................- 17 -
2.6.2 Aggregate.......................................................................................................- 17 -
2.6.3 Cement............................................................................................................- 17 -
2.6.4 Water to Cementitious Ratio..........................................................................- 17 -
2.6.5 Chemical Admixtures.....................................................................................- 17 -
2.6.6 Mineral Admixtures.......................................................................................- 18 -
2.6.7 Size Effect......................................................................................................- 18 -
2.6.8 Curing Conditions..........................................................................................- 19 -
2.6.9 Relative Humidity..........................................................................................- 19 -
2.7 Prediction of Shrinkage......................................................................................................
2.7.1 ACI 209R (1992)............................................................................................- 19 -
2.7.2 ACI-Modified by Huo (2001)........................................................................- 21 -
2.8 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete.....................................................................................
2.8.1 Introduction....................................................................................................- 21 -
2.8.2 Factor affecting Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete.......................................- 21 -
2.8.3 Material Properties.........................................................................................- 21 -
2.8.4 Mineral Admixtures.......................................................................................- 22 -
2.8.5 Prediction of Elastic modulus of Elasticity of Concrete................................- 23 -
2.8.6 Modulus of Elasticity for High-Performance Concrete.................................- 23 -
Chapter 3 Differential Axial Shortening (DAS).............................................................- 25 -
3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................
3.2 Other Factors influencing in High-rise Buildings..............................................................
3.2.1 Current Trends in Concrete Construction......................................................- 26 -
3.2.3 Current Engineering Practices to Minimize Effects.......................................- 27 -
3.3 Quantifying Axial Shortening............................................................................................
V
3.3.1 Concrete Models for Creep and Shrinkage Strains........................................- 28 -

3.3.2 Axial Shortening measurement of High-rise Buildings.................................- 30 -
Chapter 4 Research Methodology...................................................................................- 32 -
4.1 Method of Analysis and Design using Etabs.....................................................................

4.1.1 Design Philosophy and Concept.....................................................................- 32 -
4.2 Determining Axial Shortening of Column.........................................................................
4.2.1 Column Shortening in High-Rise Design.......................................................- 35 -
4.2.2 Progress of the Calculating Shortening using Etabs......................................- 38 -
4.2 Case Study.........................................................................................................................
4.3 Design Criteria...................................................................................................................
4.3.1 Software and Assumptions used in the Analysis............................................- 43 -
4.3.2 Time-dependent Material Properties..............................................................- 43 -
4.3.3 Section Cracking Analysis (Stiffness modifiers)...........................................- 43 -
4.4 Design Loading..................................................................................................................
4.4.1 Load Factor and Serviceability Combinations...............................................- 44 -
4.5 Construction Loading Sequence (CSA).............................................................................
4.5.1 Construction Stage Analysis..........................................................................- 46 -
4.5.2 Construction and Loading Sequence..............................................................- 46 -
4.6 Material Properties.............................................................................................................
4.6.1 Calculation of Creep Strain According to ACI 209-90..................................- 48 -
4.6.2 Calculation of Shrinkage Strain According to ACI 209-90...........................- 49 -
4.6.3 Calculation of Elastic Strain...........................................................................- 50 -
Chapter 5 Result and Summary......................................................................................- 51 -
5.1 Long-term Axial Shortening of Columns and Wall...........................................................

5.2 Axial Shortening of the Column after 50 years.................................................................
5.3 Axial Shortening of the Wall after 50 years......................................................................
5.4 Long-term Shortening Value to be used in Slabs Design..................................................
5.5 Comparison of Shortening in Vertical members...............................................................
5.6 Nonlinear Staged Construction Analysis Case Verification..............................................
5.6.1 Base Reaction Verification.............................................................................- 71 -

5.6.2 Creep and Shrinkage Percentage versus Building Height..............................- 71 -
5.6.3 Compensation of Long-term Axial Shortening in Shuttering Level..............- 73 -
5.6.4 Difference in the Axial Force Ratio...............................................................- 73 -
Chapter 6 Conclusions....................................................................................................- 75 -
References ........................................................................................................................- 76 -
Appendix A Collected accumulative long-term axial shortening for columns and walls after
50 years ........................................................................................................................- 80 -
Appendix B Differential long-term axial shortening between successive floors after 50 years
(Façade design).....................................................................................................................- 88 -
Appendix C Factors affecting concrete creep and shrinkage and variables considered in
recommend prediction method.............................................................................................- 92 -
Appendix D Creep and shrinkage correction factor............................................................- 93 -
Appendix E Progress of the calculating shortening using Etabs........................................- 94 -
Publications during Masters Study.......................................................................................- 96 -
Acknowledgment..................................................................................................................- 97 -
Dalian University of Technology.........................................................................................- 98 -
Copyright Use Authorization of Master Degree Dissertation..............................................- 98 -
大连理工大学学位论文版权使用授权书..........................................................................- 99 -
VII
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background of the Master's Thesis Topic
The idea of a tall building has always been an exciting one for mankind. Towards the end of
the 19th century, the construction of the tall building started in Chicago due to new inventions
such as the elevator and the telephone [1]. Since the first appearance of high-rise buildings,
there has been a transformation in their design and construction. The trends in the tall building
have been discussed by Parker and Wood (2013). According to the council on tall building
and urban habitat, buildings of 14 stories or 50 meters in height and are could be considered
as "Tall buildings"; buildings of 3000 meters and 600 meters height and above are classified
as "super-tall buildings" and "megamall buildings" respectively. The council has accordingly
indicated the following ranges of building height:
 200-300 m: tall building
 300-600 m: super-tall buildings
 > 600 m: mega tall buildings
In 2016, over 100 super-tall buildings and 2 mega tall buildings were fully completed and
occupied globally.
(a)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 1.1 High-rise building, (a) The Burj Khalifa (b) Shanghai Tower (c) Makkah Royal
Clock Tower Research by the council on tall buildings and Urban habitats illustrates the
recent explosive growth in the number of tall buildings. Plotting the number of skyscrapers
200
-1-
Number of 200m + buildings Number of 200m + buildings, minimum Projected 200m + buildings completion range, minimum
Number of supertalls (300m +) Number of supertalls (300m +), minimum Projected supertalls (300m +) completion range, minimum
Number of megamalls (600m +) Number of megamalls (600m +), minimum Projected megamalls (600m +) completion, minimum
Fig. 1.2 Steady build-up during 1990

meters or higher completed ear year since 1960 in Fig. 1.1 shows a steady build-up during the
1990s, followed by exponential growth from the mid-2000s onwards. Although there has been
a very definite drop-in skyscraper activity in most western countries recently due to the global
2
numbers completed during 2012 compared to the year previously), in the longer term, this is
generally being offset by activity in Asia-and China specifically: now expect the global
number of a tall building completed in Fig. 1.2. Tall buildings completed each year over 200
meters, 300 meters, and 600 meters since 1960.
The inset shows the total number of completed buildings by decade, revealing exponential
growth [2]. 2013-2014 building completion are predicted from a project in the advanced
constructor; total after 2001 consider the destruction of the world trade center towers 1 and 2.
Each year to keep climbing for the foreseeable future. It’s also worth noting that although
there was a dip in the number of building completions in 2012 relative to the year previous,
2012 still saw the third-highest number of tall building completions over 200 meters in
history.
The detailed statistics are quite staggering. At the time of writing (January 2013), some 56
of the current 100 tallest building buildings in the world have been completed since the end of
2005. In addition, a further 24 buildings are expected to enter the list by the end of 2013,
which will translate into a 68 percent change in the “world’s 100 Tallest” in just eight years
(this change takes into account those building completed since 2005, but subsequently pushed
out of the list by newer, taller buildings). To translate statistics into the actual building Fig 1.3
shows the current 20 tallest buildings in the world. Of these, eleven have been completed
since the end of 2005-55 percent.
Fig. 1.3 Diagram of the world’s tallest 20 building according to the CTBUH height
criterion of height to architectural top
3
The tall building is indisputably getting taller, in terms both of the tallest and of the global
average height. As the graph on the average height of the world’s 100 tallest buildings over
the past eight decades in Fig. 1.4 overleaf shows, the average height has more than doubled in
that time and increased by 13 percent in the period 2000-2010 alone. At the “world’s tallest”
(see Fig. 1.5 overleaf) any building surpassed its predecessor by more than 68 meters, but
Buji Khalifa achieved a leap of an unprecedented 320 meters over the previous world’s tallest,
Taipei 101.The total height of the Burj Khalifa is just five meters shy of the equivalent height
of putting the Empire State Building on top of Petronas Towers (both formerly the “world’s
tallest” buildings).
In trend 3, a change in location of the predominant location of the tallest buildings in the
world has been changing rapidly. whereas as recently as 1990, 80 of the “world’s 100 tallest”
were located in North America, now that Fig. 1.6 is only 23, with the shift predominantly to
Asia (45, with 31 in China alone), and the middle east (27, with 20 in Dubai alone).
Fig. 1.4 History of the “world’s tallest building”
Fig. 1.5 Structural material of the world’s tallest buildings

4
70
60
50
40
20
1930
1990
2000
2010
2012
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
North America Asia Middle East Europe
South America Australia Central Africa

America
Fig. 1.6 100 tallest building by location
100
80
60
40
20
0
1930
1990
2000
2010
2012
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
Office Mixed-use
Hotel Residential
Fig. 1.7 100 tallest building by function, 1930-2012

In trend 5, a change in structural material of the revolution in structural material has also
been very significant over the past few decades as in Fig. 1.7. The proportion of all-steel
5
100
80
60
40
20
1930
1990
2000
2010
2012
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
Steel Concrete Composite
Mixed Residential
Fig. 1.8 100 tallest building by structural material, 1930-2012
structure building in the ‘100 tallest’ list has fallen from 90 percent as recently as 1970 to just
17 percent, shifting in favor of concrete or composite structures as shown in Fig. 1.8.
1.2 Aim of the Master's Thesis
The construction of high-rise buildings introduces problems that do not exist for low-rise
buildings. One of the serviceability problems associated with high-rise buildings is the
shortening of vertical structural members caused by elastic deformation, such as creep and
drying shrinkage. In actuality, this shortening also occurs in low-rise buildings, but the stress
applied to the members in these types of facilities is comparatively low, and the amounts of
accumulated deformation are negligible due to the lower heights of the buildings. As a
building becomes higher, the large gravity load causes vertical members to shorten
considerably, and the effect of shortening on both structural and nonstructural members can
be potent. Therefore, the shortening problem is mainly considered in high-rise buildings. The
total shortening and the differential shortening are assessed according to their fundamental
causes, as shown in Fig 1.9. Total shortening accumulates due to vertical members' elastic and
inelastic deformation on every floor.
Axial shortening of these composite columns due to time-dependent phenomena of basic
creep, shrinkage, and elastic deformation is an inherent challenge in high-rise buildings. The
6
magnitudes of this deformation in each member may differ due to differences in load tributary
areas, the loading history, and the geometric and material properties.
Therefore, the differential axial shortening between these members occurs. Unfavorable
effects of differential axial shortening in building constructed with concrete were first
observed in the 1960s, in tall reinforced of more than 30 stories [3]. More recently in a 45-story
RC building in Chicago, Illinois William D. Bast et al. (2003) measured 101.6mm of axial
shortening of the core wall at the 45th floor as marked by the gap created between the
condenser riser pipe support.
They further measured similar high axial shortening values on several other floors by
visual inspections of the building, including a downward "scrape" on the elevator guide rail
produced by the mounting bracket at the top floor of each elevator run, highlighting the
necessity of making the axial shortening study an essential serviceability checks for high rise
buildings. Other studies, including those, indicated similar trends by measuring deformations
in several high-rise buildings [4].
The adverse effects of this differential axial shortening in a high-rise building include
sloping of floor plates, cracking in beams and slope due to the excess stresses induced,
buckling of elevator guide rails and pipes, damage to partitions and the façade of buildings or
column cladding and thus reducing the functionality of the structure
Fig. 1.9 Failure of wall panel due to differential axial shortening
7
1.3 Research Objectives

Today, the prediction of shortening and shortening effectiveness is most effectively
achieved using advanced structural analysis software. However, it is vital to understand the
behavior of the software and the types of analysis options available as compared with the
physical behavior of the actual building. It is also helpful and recommended to estimate the
anticipated shortening amounts and validate the results from the analysis software.
The leading cause of vertical shortening in a tall building is the compression of vertical
elements under the load they carry. This is known as elastic shortening. In reinforced concrete
buildings, creep, and shrinkage of the concrete cause additional shortening of vertical
elements beyond the elastic shortening. Foundation settlement and deflection of structural
transfer technically are not shortening of vertical elements. Their effects should be considered
where appropriate.
1.4 Scope of Research
This research is carried out using the numerical computational method. The numerical
model will be validated using the results of structural modeling design and analysis. In order
to limit the scope of the research, the study focuses on high-rise buildings with high-strength
reinforced concrete columns and reinforced concrete shear cores where the differential axial
shortening problem can be aggravated. The system of high-rise buildings resists the lateral
and gravity load. This research will verify a comprehensive method to quantify the
differential axial shortening of t a high-rise building with reinforced concrete columns as
shown in Fig. 1.10.
Load Deformation on applied Exterior Interior

appli
ed
Cross section
Elastic
strain
Creep Load effect

strain
Shrinkage
strain Differential shortening
Thermal
strain strain
Causes of total strain Causes of differential
shortening
8
Fig. 1.10 Vertical differential shortening
Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
Tall buildings present unique challenges in terms of both design and construction. Their sheer
scale demands that particular attention is paid simultaneously to strategic and detailed issues.
Tall building design and construction require an integrated approach, with the need for
various engineering disciplines to coexist efficiently from the beginning of the project. This
multi-disciplinary approach extends to considering how the building will be constructed. It
thus ideally involves an integrated team (including construction and design professionals) at
the earliest stage of the project.
The definition of “tall building” of a building is not absolute, as shown in Tab. 2.1. It’s
understood here as when the geometry of the building, for example, overall height or height-
to-minimum-plan dimension, significantly influences aspects of the design. These aspects are:
 Structural lateral strength and stiffness
 Vertical transportation
 Fire escape
 Services distribution
 Vertical building movement
 Hoisting of materials.
One definition is that if the building aspect ratio, height divided by the lowest overall
lateral dimension, is more than 5:1, then the building may be considered tall. For consistency,
this document will refer to tall buildings in preference to other common terms including
‘skyscraper’, ‘high-rise’, or ‘tower’, except for sections describing historical context. The
term ‘tall’ may also be sub-divided as follows:
Use (approx. storey
Tall Supertall-tall
height)
Over 100 storeys (300
Residential (3.0m) Up to 100 storey (300 m)
m)
Office (4.0 m) Up to 75 storey (300 m)
Over 75 storeys (300 m)
Tab. 2.1 Definition of Tall Building
2.2 High-rise Building

2.2.1 Procedure of Performance-based Design
Tall building design involves all the design interfaces present in low-rise construction but
there are also several key additional factors that designers must consider. This is particularly
relevant for structural engineers but equally so for clients, architects, and building services
9
engineers. In addition, the design development is likely to involve input and collaboration
from other specialists, including:
 Façade engineers
 Wind specialists
 Geotechnical specialists
 Seismic specialists
 Fire consultants
 Construction advisors
For a design to be effective and economic, it’s essential that all disciplines work
holistically and gain a good understanding of the critical factors which have an impact on the
associated disciplines. The following sections give an overview of the various elements
structural engineers need to be aware of when building tall buildings. The choice of structural
system is fundamental to planning a building and must be considered at the outset. One of the
main factors in tall building design, and the critical difference from the design of low-rise
buildings, is the influence of lateral loading. For low-rise construction, measures to resist
lateral loading are well understood by most designers and include well-positioned stiff
vertical elements working in conjunction with horizontal diaphragms.
2.2.2 Basis of Design
 Description of building
 Structural system
 Codes, standards, and references
 Loading criteria (gravity load, seismic load, wind load)
 Material
 Modeling, analysis, and design procedures
 Acceptance criteria
2.2.3 Geotechnical Investigation Report
 SPT values
 Soil stratification and properties
 Soil types for seismic loading
 Ground water level
 Allowable bearing capacity (factor to increase in capacity for transient loads)
 Sub-grade modulus (vertical and lateral)
 Pile foundation
 Ultimate end bearing pressure vs. pile length
 Ultimate skin friction pressure vs. pile length
 Allowable bearing capacity Allowable pullout capacity
10
 Basement wall pressure

2.2.4 Site-specific Probabilistic seismic Hazard Assessment Report
 Recommend response spectra (SLE, DBE, MCE)
 Ground motion scaled for MCE spectra
 If piles are modeled in the nonlinear model, depth-varying ground motions along the
pile length, springs, and dashpots
 If vertical members are restrained at pile cap level, Amplified ground motions at
surface level.
2.2.5 Wind Tunnel
Wind-induced structural loads and building motion study
 10-years return period wind load
 50-years or 700-year return period wind load
 Comparison of wind tunnel test results with various wind codes
 Floor accelerations (1-year, 5-year return periods)
 Natural frequency sensitivity study
2.3 Theoretical Background of Elastic Deformation in Concrete
The elastic or the instantaneous deformation of concrete is governed by the magnitude and
rate of stress application and young’s modulus of elasticity. Three conventions for the
modulus of elasticity are present, and these are elaborated as shown in Fig. 2.1.
2.3.1 Creep Deformation in Concrete
Creep is the time-dependent increase of strain in the hardened concrete under sustained
stress [5]. Creep is generally obtained by subtracting instantaneous strain after loading
application and shrinkage strain in the non-loaded specimen from the total measured strain
with the change of time in a loaded specimen. Creep is classified into a basic and drying
creep. Basic creep occurs under conditions without moisture movement between the specimen
and the environment. Drying creep is the additional creep due to moisture movement between
the specimen and the environment. Fig. 2.1 shows the relation of deformation of concrete
after loading application with time.
2.3.2 Factor affecting Creep of Concrete
Creep in the current study is on the creep behavior of concrete under compressive stress.
The creep of concrete is influenced by many factors, which are classified into intrinsic and
extrinsic. Intrinsic factors consist of the proportions and properties of the material in concrete.
Extrinsic factors consist of the size of the concrete member, age of loading application,
applied stress-strength ratio, curing conditions, ambient temperature, and relative humidity
surrounding concrete under load.
11
deformation due to creep

Deformation after loading
deformation due to shrinkage
Elastic shortening
Time after loading

Fig. 2.1 Relation of deformation after loading application verus time
2.3.3 Aggregate
Aggregates play an important role in the creep of concrete. Aggregate provides a
restraining effect on creep. Generally, higher aggregate content results in lower creep. It
proposed an equation to indicate the relation between aggregate content and creep shown
below:
(2.1)
(2.2)
where:
cs is the creep of neat cement paste.
c is the creep of concrete.
g is the aggregate content.
µ is Poisson’s ratio of concrete.
µα is Poisson’s ratio of aggregate.
E is the modulus of elasticity of concrete.
Eα is the modulus of elasticity of aggregate.
According to the study, for concrete specimens loaded at 14 days with a stress-strength
ratio of 0.5 stored in 90% relative humidity condition, a linear relationship was obtained
and after 28 days of loading for basic creep [6]. The magnitude α was based
on the age of initial loading and the change of modulus of elasticity of concrete with time
12
after loading application. A similar observation was made for both basic creep and drying
creep of concrete [7].
2.3.4 Cement
Cement paste is the base of the creep phenomenon, so cement has a great influence on the
creep of concrete. According to the study, it was observed that creep was inversely
proportional to the rate of hardening of the cement. It was logical that the higher rate of
hardening of cement, the more hydrated cement, and the restraining effect on creep.
Typically, the concrete with rapid-hardening portland (type III) cement results in lower creep
than the concrete with standard portland (type I) cement for both dry-stored and wet-stored
conditions [8], which was due to the higher strength of type II portland cement concrete at the
age of loading compared with type I cement concrete.
2.3.5 Water to Cementitious Ratio
Typically, creep increases with an increase in the water-cementitious (w/c) ratio. In 1970,
A study suggested that creep was approximately proportional to the square of the w/c ratio.
This phenomenon was confirmed, whose results were cited. From the study, the effect of the
w/c ratio on creep was investigated, and specimens were prepared with constant cement paste
content of 20% by weight with a w/c ratio ranging from 0.35 to 0.9.
It was found that the higher the w/c ratio, the higher the ultimate specific creep. In another
study, all concretes had an aggregate-cement ratio of 5.4, and a similar trend was found, and
the ultimate specific creep with a w/c ratio of 0.4 was approximately 10% higher than with a
w/c ratio of 0.3 [9].
2.3.6 Chemical Admixtures
Mineral admixture, including ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), fly ash, and
silica fume, are widely used as a partial replacement for Portland cement in high-performance
concrete [10]. It is a glassy material with cementitious property formed when molten blast-
furnace slag is rapidly cooled, such as by immersion in water, and slag mainly consists of
silicates and aluminosilicate of calcium. Fly ash is a by-product of coal combustion with both
pozzolanic and cementitious properties [11].
2.4 Stress-Strength Ratio at Loading
According to a wide range of investigations, creep is proportional to the applied stress and
inversely proportional to the strength at the time of application of load. Although some other
research indicated a higher upper limit of stress-strength ratio to 0.75 or 0.80, generally the
upper limit was approximately 0.60. As explained by the strength loading-rate relationship of
concrete, the measured creep of concrete specimens was proportional with a stress-strength
ratio up to 0.6, and beyond this limit creep increased more quickly than the increase of
applied stress [12].
13
Similar behavior of concrete was observed for concrete specimens with different stress-
strength ratios and different initial applications of load. According to the study, the linear
relation was obtained for concrete stored in water initially at 7 days, 35 days, 70 days, 1 year,
and 5.5 years [13]. Another the study, the linear limit was 0.5 for high-performance concrete
after the loading of 91 days [14]. The linear limit for creep in compression is 40% of concrete
compressive strength [15].
2.4.1 Age at Loading
The same concrete loaded at different ages undergoes a different growth in strength, so for
the constant applied stress, creep depends on the age at loading. The strength of the younger
concrete is lower, and the creep is higher, and the older concrete has the opposite
characteristics. In investigation, it was found that when the strength gain of concrete was
smaller the creep [16]. Another study confirmed this behavior, and for the same concrete, 18%
higher creep was obtained for the concrete loaded at 1 day than 3 days after the loading of 28
days [17].
Loading age effect on creep was also observed for both unsealed and sealed specimens,
and the earlier loading the higher creep. As stated by research, the effect of age of loading on
creep for normal concrete, medium concrete, and high-strength concrete was investigated [18].
It was found that the creep of high-strength concrete was more sensitive to the early age of
loading than that of normal and medium concrete [19].
2.4.2 Size Effect
It’s important for the shape and size of specimens to make a transition from the results
obtained in the laboratory to actual full-size concrete members under drying conditions. A
research summarized several investigations and found that the measured creep decreased with
a 90 cm size effect and became negligible [6]. Generally, the influence of size on creep under
drying conditions is great during the initial period (first several weeks) after the application of
load, but after that, the rate of creep is comparable for all specimens with different diameters
ranging.
2.4.3 Curing Conditions
Curing condition has a great effect on the creep of concrete. Low-pressure steam curing is
frequently used for the construction of prestressed concrete with the consideration of
efficiency and economy. Generally, low-pressure steam curing results in lower creep of
concrete than moist the age of loading. According to the study by ACI, the effect of two
curing conditions was investigated, including steam curing at 66 C for 13 hours, and moist
curing at 24 C for 5 or 6 days [20].
14
2.4.4 Relative Humidity

Relative humidity is an important extrinsic factor affecting the creep of concrete.
Typically, higher relative humidity during loading results in lower creeps due to the decrease
in the drying effect of concrete. In 1958, according to the study, 4 by 14 in. cylindrical
specimens were prepared and after 28 days moist-curing loaded at a relative humidity of 50%,
70%, and 100%. It was observed that the creep of concrete specimens at 50% relative
humidity was 2 to 3 times higher than that of concrete at a relative humidity of 100% after 25
years. Concrete at 70% relative humidity had moderate creep.
2.4.5 Temperature under Load
The temperature under load is another extrinsic factor affecting creep. Generally, the
higher temperature results in higher creep during a certain temperature range. This behavior
was confirmed by research. In this review, it was observed that the specific creep of sealed
specimens had a linear relationship with temperatures ranging from 27 to 08 C) with a
duration of loading of 7333 days [21]. Another survey to investigate the influence of
temperature on the creep of concrete. All specimens were submerged in the water all the time,
and they were loaded at the age of 14 days. After 15 months under load, the behavior was
observed between creep and temperature at the stress-strength ratio 0.35 for the temperature
in the range of 46 to 96 C [22].
2.5 Prediction of Creep of Concrete
For the prediction of creep of concrete without actual measurement of local material
mixtures, the following five models were used, including AASHTO-LRFD, ACI 209R-90
Modified, CEB-FIP90, and Bazant [23]. It also provides the relation between temperature and
maturity of concrete. Therefore, if the concrete is steam-cured, the maturity of concrete after
steam-curing could be calculated, and the adjusted age of the concrete could be used in creep
and shrinkage models.
2.5.1 ACI 209R (1992)
The expression for creep coefficient at the standard condition is given as:
(2.3)
This equation is applicable for both 1-3 days of steam-cured concrete and 7 days of moist-
cured concrete.
where:
t is days after loading
vt is the creep coefficient after t days of loading
vu is the ultimate creep coefficient, and the average value suggested
15
γc is correction factors for a condition other than the standard concrete

composition, which is defined as:
(2.4)
in which:
is a correction factor for loading age, which is defined as:
(2.5)
for loading ages later than 7 days for moist cured concrete
(2.6)
for loading ages later than 1-3 days for steam-cured concrete
is the correction factor ambient relative humidity, which is defined as:
for (2.7)
where the relative humidity is the percent
is the correction factor average thickness of member or volume-to-surface
ratio. When the average thickness of the member is other than 150 mm or the volume-
to-surface ratio is other than 38 mm.
2.5.2 ACI-Modified by Huo (2001)
This model is the same as ACI 209-90, and an additional modification factor for
compressive strength is considered [22]:
(2.8)
where:
is a correction factor for the compressive strength of concrete
(2.9)
is 28-day compressive strength.

2.6 Shrinkage of Concrete
2.6.1 Introduction
Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of hardened concrete with time. Shrinkage of
hardened concrete is divided into drying shrinkage and carbonation shrinkage. Drying
shrinkage is caused by moisture loss in the concrete. Autogenous shrinkage (or basic
shrinkage or chemical shrinkage) is due to the hydration of cement [25]. Autogenous shrinkage
typically is negligible in concrete with a higher water performance concrete.
Carbonation shrinkage results from the carbonation of cement hydration products in the
presence of carbon dioxide. A study found that good concrete carbonation occurs only in the
16
surface layer with a thickness of serval millimeters, so the carbonation shrinkage in

negligible. For high-performance concrete used for prestressed bridge girders, carbonation
shrinkage is negligible compared with drying shrinkage and autogenous shrinkage.
2.6.1 Factor Affecting Shrinkage of Concrete
Shrinkage of concrete is influenced by an intrinsic and extrinsic factor similar to creep.
The intrinsic factor contains the proportions and properties of mixtures. Extrinsic factor
consists of the size of the concrete, age of concrete exposure to the ambient condition, curing
conditions, ambient temperature, and relative humidity after exposure.
2.6.2 Aggregate
Aggregate has a significant effect on the shrinkage of concrete. Aggregate provides the
restraining effect of shrinkage, and the more aggregate the higher the restraining effect and
the lower shrinkage. A researching proposed an equation to describe the effect of aggregate
content on the shrinkage of concrete:
Shrinkage ratio (2.10)

where,
Sc is the shrinkage of concrete
Sp is the shrinkage of neat paste
a is the percent aggregate content by volume
n is the experimental exponent, and typically between 1.2 to 1.7.
2.6.3 Cement
Cement type and fineness have a slight influence on the shrinkage of concrete. According
to the studies by Swayze, the finer cement typically resulted in higher shrinkage of cement
pastes, but not necessarily caused higher shrinkage of concrete. A similar conclusion was also
made by Bennett. Typically, rapid-hardening (type III) Portland cement and other mineral
admixture such as slag and fly ash resulted in higher autogenous shrinkage of concrete.
2.6.4 Water to Cementitious Ratio
Water to cementitious (w/c) ratio is another factor influencing both shrinkage and
autogenous shrinkage. A higher w/c ratio typically causes higher drying shrinkage, which is
due to the reduction of the effective volume of restraining aggregate caused by higher water
content. As explained, the effect of the w/c ratio on the shrinkage of concrete was
investigated, and it was found that the shrinkage of concrete increased with an increase in the
w/c ratio in drying conditions.
17
2.6.5 Chemical Admixtures

Chemical admixtures are widely used in high-performance concrete, and the effect on the
shrinkage of concrete highly depends on the chemical compositions and dosages. According
to the research by the effect of air-entrainment, it was found that air-entrainment agents had
no effect on the shrinkage of concrete under drying conditions.
In the inquiry by influence of mix proportions, seven sets of data on the drying shrinkage
of concrete were summarized, and it was indicated that plasticizers and superplasticizers
typically increased the drying shrinkage of concrete by 20%. However, some other
investigators had the opposite conclusion, and decreased shrinkage of concrete was observed
due to the use of high-range water-reducing agents.
2.6.6 Mineral Admixtures
Slag, fly ash, and silica fume are three types of partial replacement materials for Portland
cement used in high-performance concrete. They also influence the behavior of shrinkage of
concrete. Slag influences the shrinkage of concrete. In the review, there were three levels of
replacement of Portland cement with slag, including 0%, 35%, and 55%. It was observed that
slag decreased the shrinkage of concrete under drying conditions after 28 days of storage, and
the higher the slag content the lower effect of slag on the shrinkage of concrete. In another
study, the effect of four levels of replacement of Portland cement with slag including 50%,
60%, 70%, and 80% in concrete was investigated.
It was indicated that shrinkage of concrete under drying conditions increased with an
increase of slag content from 50% to 60%, then decreased with an increase of slag content
was also observed. According to a later study, the effect of slag content in the range of 0%,
25%, 50%, and 70% and three levels of fineness of slag particles on autogenous shrinkage
was investigated.
Generally, particle replacement of Portland cement with fly ash has no significant
influence on the shrinkage of concrete under a given drying condition, but affects autogenous
shrinkage. According to the study, the effect of class C fly ash of 0% and 30% replacement of
Portland cement on the shrinkage of concrete was investigated. It was observed that fly ash
decreased early-age autogenous shrinkage of concrete and increased it at later ages.
2.6.7 Size Effect
The size of a specimen has a significant effect on the shrinkage of concrete underlying
conditions. In another study, mass concrete was stored in the air with 50% relative humidity.
It was observed that the drying thickness was about 76.2 mm from the surface after one
month, and about 228 mm after ten years, which indicated the size effect on the drying
process of concrete. Hansen reported that volume to surface (v/s) ratio was a reasonable
indicator of size effect on drying shrinkage, and it was observed that a higher v/s ratio
18
typically resulted in lower drying shrinkage during 1200 days. It was additionally indicated
that the effect of the shape of concrete members on drying shrinkage is small when specimens
had similar v/s ratios [43].
2.6.8 Curing Conditions
Curing condition is an extrinsic factor affecting the shrinkage of concrete. Steam curing is
widely used for high-performance concrete of prestressed members. In the study, it was
observed that steam-cured concrete had 45% higher shrinkage than moist-cured at the storage
of 1 week under drying conditions, but after 14 weeks this value became 11%.
It was indicated that steam curing increased the initial shrinkage of concrete significantly,
and decreased the rate of shrinkage at later ages. According to the study, it was found that
concretes with 14-day moist curing had smaller shrinkage under drying conditions compared
with concretes with 7-day moist curing, which was due to the higher maturity of concrete
under 14-days moist curing.
2.6.9 Relative Humidity
Relative humidity of storage has a great influence on shrinkage under drying conditions.
Concrete swells in the water or the air with 100% relative humidity, and shrinks when the
relative humidity is below 94%. According to the study, concrete specimens were stored in
three conditions of relative humidity for concrete from 50% relative humidity had 30% higher
shrinkage at 1 year and 45% high shrinkage at 25 years compared with concrete stored at the
condition of 70% relative humidity.
2.7 Prediction of Shrinkage
For the prediction of shrinkage of concrete without actual measurements of local material
mixtures, the following five models are typically used, including AASTO-LRFD, ACI 209R-
90, ACI 209R modified, CEB-FIP 90, and Bazant B3.
2.7.1 ACI 209R (1992)
The expression for shrinkage strain at the standard conditions is given as:
(2.11)
shrinkage after 7 days for moist cured concrete
(2.12)
shrinkage after 1-3 days for steam-cured concrete
where:
t is days after the end of the initial wet curing
19
is the ultimate shrinkage strain, and the average value suggested for
(2.13)
is a correction factor for conditions other than the standard concrete

composition
which is defined as:
(2.14)
in which:
is a correction factor for ambient relative humidity, which is defined as:
(2.15)
where λ, is the relative humidity in percent
(2.16)
where λ, is the relative humidity in percent
is a correction factor for the average thickness of member or volume-to-surface ratio,

when the average thickness of the member is other than 150 mm or the volume-to-surface
ratio is other than 38 mm, two methods are offered.
Average Thickness Method, for the average thickness of members less than 150 mm, the
factors are given in Tab 2.2.5.1 in ACI 209R-92. For the average thickness of members
greater than 15mm and up to about 300-380 mm, the equation is given:
, (2.17)
during the first year after loading
(2.18)
where h, is the average thickness of the member in inches and it’s for ultimate value,
volume-surface ratio method, for members with volume-to-surface area other than 38 mm,
the equations are given:
(2.19)
where v/s, is the volume-surface ratio in inches.
is a correction factor for the slump, and equations are given as:
(2.20)
where, s is the observed slump in inches.
20
is a correction factor for fine aggregate percentage, which is defined as:
(2.21)
where is percent.
(2.22)
where is percent.
where is the ratio of the fine aggregate to the total aggregate by weight expressed as a
percentage.
is a correction factor for cement content, which is defined as:
(2.23)
where is the air content in percent.
2.7.2 ACI-Modified by Huo (2001)
(2.24)
where,
is a correction factor for the compressive strength of concrete:
(2.25)
2.8 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
2.8.1 Introduction
The modulus of elasticity is an important property of hardened concrete. The Concrete is a
composite material, including aggregate and cement paste. The modulus of elasticity of
concrete highly depends on the properties and proportions of the mixture materials’ standard
C469 provides the method to measure the static modulus of elasticity of concrete is
compression. The elastic modulus of concrete has a significant effect on the behavior of
prestressed bridge girders, such as camber.
2.8.2 Factor affecting Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is greatly influenced by the material properties and
mineral admixtures, and the effect of other factors is not significant.
21
2.8.3 Material Properties

Concrete is a composite of aggregate and cement paste, and it’s typically a composite soft
material due to the higher modulus of elasticity of aggregate than cement paste. Two
equations for elastic moduli of composite shown below:
(2.26)
which, (Composite hard material when ).
(2.27)
which, (Composite hard material when .

where:
E is the modulus of elasticity of the composite material; Em is the modulus of elasticity
of the matrix phase; Ep is the modulus of elasticity of the particle phase; g = the
fractional volume of the particles.
Aggregate plays an important role in the modulus of elasticity of concrete. Typically,
higher aggregate content and higher modulus of elasticity of aggregate result in higher elastic
moduli of concrete. Those conclusions were confirmed, and empirical equations were
proposed.
The relation of stress and strain for aggregate, cement paste, and concrete are shown in
Fig. 2.2. A reasonable explanation for the curved shape of concrete was given. The rate of
increase of induced strain at the interface of aggregate and cement paste was much higher
than the rate of applied stress development beyond a certain range.
Further explanation of the effect of the bound of aggregate and cement paste on the elastic
modulus of concrete was also provided. The difference in modulus of elasticity between
22
Fig. 2.2 Stress-strain relations for aggregate, cement paste and concrete
aggregate and cement paste plays an important role in the modulus of elasticity of concrete. In
high-performance concrete, the difference in modulus of elasticity between aggregate and
cement and higher modulus of elasticity of concrete. In high-performance concrete, the linear
part in a stress and strain curve as high as 85% of ultimate strength or even higher was
observed.
2.8.4 Mineral Admixtures
Mineral admixture is typically added in high-performance concrete as partial replacement
materials for Portland cement. The influence of slag on the modulus of elasticity of concrete
is small. In the study, the effect of 0%, 30%, 50%, and 70% slag replacement of Portland
cement on the property of concrete was investigated. No significant influence of slag on
elastic moduli was observed. It was indicated that dry-stored slag concrete had higher elastic
moduli at early ages, but lower at later ages compared with concrete without slag, and the
opposite trend was found for water-stored concrete.
Fly ash has also a slight influence on the modulus of elasticity of concrete, including class
fly ash and class C fly ash. Silica fume increases the elastic moduli of concrete within certain
content.
According to the study by influence of silica fume and polymer dispersions in high-
performance concrete, it was indicated 10% silica fume as the replacement of Portland cement
increased the elastic moduli of concrete by 12% at 28 days, but 20% silica fume increased it
by 7% at 28 days compared with concrete without silica fume.
2.8.5 Prediction of Elastic modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
Typically, the relation between the modulus of elasticity of concrete and corresponding
compressive strength is provided, which is not due to a direct relation between elastic moduli
and compressive strength, but because of the convenience of measurement of compressive
strength. Such a high degree of accuracy based on the level of significant figures shown by
the authors should not be expected in the committee’s opinion due to the degree of scatter of
modulus of elasticity data shown in Fig. 23[50].
23
and higher-strength concrete data
2.8.6 Modulus of Elasticity for High-Performance Concrete

According to the investigation, it was found that the expression of below equation
overestimated the modulus of elasticity for high-performance concrete with a compressive
strength between 21 MPa and 83 MPa. A correlation between the modulus of elasticity
and compressive strength for normal-weight concrete was reported below:
(MPa) for (2.28)

where:
is 28-day compressive strength.
24
Chapter 3 Differential Axial Shortening (DAS)

3.1 Introduction
The magnitude of time-dependent deformation varies in vertical structural components due to
many factors. These differentials lead to numerous serviceability problems, such as tilting
floor plates, distortion of non-structural elements such as cladding and facades, and other
services such as lift guide rails and plumbing systems. One good example is the tallest high-
rise in the world the Burj Kalifa tower in UAE.
According to the research, this tower had to be closed soon after opening due to the failure
of the lift operation which may be a result of the adverse effects of differential axial
shortening [26]. In addition to the serviceability, differential axial shortening can also alter the
load paths in the structure which may induce excessive stresses on some vertical elements and
horizontal elements such as the outriggers.
Several researchers have therefore attempted to study the differential axial shortening of
reinforced concrete high-rise buildings. An investigation conducted axial shortening studies
of Burj Khalifa in UAE using several three-dimensional finite element analysis models. Each
model represents a discrete time strep during construction and time-dependent load
application. The stiffness change of concrete was adopted in the models at the time steps [27].
The main drawback of this quantification is due to the wide discrete time steps considered
during the axial shortening quantifications conducted analytical studies on the axial
shortening of selected members in the World tower building, in Sydney. The ACI concrete
models were used to obtain the time-varying Yong’s modulus, creep coefficient, and
shrinkage coefficient, and the predictions were compared with the in-situ measurements.
The experimental investigation proposed a relationship between the modulus of elasticity
and compressive strength for concrete mixes used in the middle east in the strength range
from 70-100 MPa [28]. This was used in the spreadsheet method developed to calculate the
expected differential axial shortening in Dubai Tower Doha, a 438-tall building in Qatar.
In this, each member is considered for the calculation with its stress history and hence it’s
a laborious method for optimization or design when the number of vertical elements is large.
A study used an SAP analysis package and considered the time-varying material properties,
construction sequences by using compression-only gas elements and relaxation due to
reinforcement in the analysis of 164-story reinforcement concrete high-rise building structure
with a belt and outrigger system [29].
This method was hence more comprehensive than many others. However, the discrete-
time steps used do not provide the flexibility of varying the time interval which is the main
factor affecting the accuracy of time-dependent deformation predictions, which is equivalent
to the effect of mesh size in a finite element method analysis [30].
25
Practicing engineers predict differential axial shortening using different methods but these
are not comprehensive. Most of these represent discrete models of a concrete member or
subframe analysis of a building representing a few stages of the construction process and field
monitoring conducted for a limited time period. These are unable to capture the time-
dependent load path changes due to structural complexities [31].
Further, the use of concrete-filled tube columns for the exterior columns may aggravate
the problem of axial shortening when the shear core is constructed with reinforced concrete as
common in practice. The few studies on the axial shortening of these types of structures
include the Taipei 101 building which used concrete-filled steel tubes for its eight mega
columns and the studies done on the proposed use of concrete-filled tubes for the perimeter
columns of one of the tallest buildings in Korea, the tower palace III in Seoul in which they
later abandoned the use of these columns [32].
However, a holistic approach for predicting differential axial shortening in high-rise
buildings with concrete-filled tube columns considering all the influencing factors has not yet
been established.
3.2 Other Factors influencing in High-rise Buildings
3.2.1 Current Trends in Concrete Construction
Due to the present construction technology, the construction cycle of floors in high-rise
buildings has been reduced to about 4-7 days [33]. This increase in construction speed saves
time and money extensively. However, these fast concrete construction trends aggravate
Fig. 3.1 Typical sequencing of site operation
26
differential axial shortening. Also, the self-climbing formwork systems enable the shear core
to be constructed several floors ahead of the frame as can be seen in Fig. 3.1.
3.2.3 Current Engineering Practices to Minimize Effects
The current engineering practices on minimizing the effect of differential axial shortening
in high-rise buildings are three-fold as follows [34]:
(1) Proactive strategies to optimize building layout to minimize differential axial
shortening:
 Stress balancing in the vertical load-bearing elements (by selecting the appropriate
column size)
 Adjustment to reinforcement percentages
 Varying concrete strengths in vertical members
(2) Compensation for differential axial shortening during construction
 Several compensations techniques are available to minimize slab tilt during the service
of the structure, occurring due to the anticipated differential shortening of the columns
and walls. Absolute compensation. The absolute compensation is an idealized method,
where the differential shortening is exactly adjusted at each floor using the predicted
shortening at each level. The amount of correction for a vertical member at each level
might have different values leading to many complications such as different lengths of
formwork and steel member requirements. Due to the costly correction procedure, the
absolute compensation technique cannot be used during construction.
 Uniform compensations, for minimize the number of different correction values in the
compensation process encountered in the previous method, the amount of the correction
for each floor is averaged over the number of floors in a building in this technique. Due
to this averaging, however, there are differences between the predicted shortening
values and the correction values after compensation. Therefore, as a result, the uniform
compensation may not effectively eliminate the predicted differential shortenings after
compensation.
 Lumped compensation, in this method, the lengths of vertical members are increased
at the lumped level by the cumulative correction for a few floors. With the lumped
correction method, there are differences between the predicted shortening values and
the correction values after compensation except at the lumped floor. The differences
become gradually larger as the number of floors to be lumped in a group is increased.
On the other hand, the efficiency of the lumped compensation method depends on the
number of floors lumped together.
A study proposed an optimization method for lump compensation using a simulated
annealing algorithm. In this by specifying, the limits on the magnitudes of the compensation
errors in each floor level as well as in each group as constraints in the optimization problem,
27
the magnitude of the differential shortening or the degree of the slab tilt in the floor levels
below the lump corrected is controlled [36].
The optimum values for the number of lumped groups, the number of floors in each
group, and the average correction value for each group are given as outputs of this method.
Currently, the moving average method which is another form of lumped compensation
optimization method was introduced to decide on the average correction value and the number
of floors to be lumped with much simpler than the earlier measure to reduce adverse effects of
differential axial shortening [37]:
 Shim packing at the contact surfaces between the outrigger and the perimeter columns.
However, this is not effective to prevent the serviceability issues arising due to axial
shortenings such as tilting of floor plates, distortion, and damage to nonstructural
components and services.
 The allowance was made for additional stresses induced by differential axial
shortening in load-bearing members.
 Use of prestressed slabs
 20mm limit for the facades attached to the floor, but it not only
 Affects the facades but also other services and floor plates. This 20mm limit can
 Increase or decrease depending on many other factors.
In Burj Kalifa, Dubai the tallest building in the world, several measures were taken to
reduce the differential axial shortening. At the design stage, some columns were over-
designed for stress balancing, and during construction, both horizontal and vertical
compensations were implemented and a typical constant floor-to-floor height increase was
incorporated, while each successive center hex core jump was “re-centered”. However, an
accurate prediction of axial shortening at the design stage is paramount for the success of
these.
3.3 Quantifying Axial Shortening
The accuracy of predicting the long-term deformations of concrete-filled tube structures
depends consequently on the accuracy of the material models used to describe the shrinkage
and creep behavior of concrete, the creep calculation algorithm, and the correct representation
of the structure and construction conditions [38].
3.3.1 Concrete Models for Creep and Shrinkage Strains
Reliable shrinkage and creep material models for concrete have been an area of research
interest for many years, and there are several well-established empirical relationships between
these long-term strains and the various properties of concrete [39]. Among them are several
popular models with an increasing number of factors to be considered such as the B3 model
and simple but popular models like the ACI-209, EC2 (BSI 2004), and GL2000 method [40].
28
The time-dependent strain components of concrete considered in these material models

are as given as shown in Tab. 3.1. As mentioned earlier these different models require a
variety of factors to be considered in calculating the creep and shrinkage of concrete [41].
These include the properties of the individual elements such as the cross-sectional area,
and exposed perimeter, the environmental conditions such as the humidity and temperature
which prominently affect the deformations through drying, and the properties of the concrete
mix such as the cement type, slump, and water/cement ratio. The factors considered and their
range for the successful prediction of creep and shrinkage are tabulated as shown in Tab. 3.1
and 3.2 [42].
Tab. 3.1 Equation Components for different Models

AS3600 ACI209
Feature EC2 (2004) B3 GL2000
(2009) (2008)
Basic Not
√ ×
Creep differentiated
Not Not
but possible
Drying differential differentiated
to do so by the √ √
Creep
user
Autogenous
√ √ × √
Shrinkage Not
Drying differentiated
√ √ √ √
Shrinkage
29
Tab. 3.2 Equation Component for a different Model

AS360
Factor EC2 ACI209 B3 GL2000
0
Age at loading
√ √ √ √ √
(t0)
Time Time from age at
√ √ √ √ √
dependency loading (t-t0)
Age at end of curing
√ √ √ √ √
(ts)
Concrete mean
√ √ √ √ √
strength (fcm28)
Properties of the Member shape × × √ √ ×

structural
element Member size √ √ √ √ √
Relative Humidity × √ √ √ √
Environmental
conditions
Concrete temperature × √ × × ×
Cement type √ √ × × √
Cement content × × √ √ ×
Concrete mix Aggregate cement
properties × × √ √ ×
ratio (a/c)
Water cement ratio
× × × √ ×
(w/c)
Aggregate stiffness × × × × √
Slump × × √ × ×
3.3.2 Axial Shortening measurement of High-rise Buildings

Although differential axial shortening is predicted at the design stage, these values can
differ from the actual due to variations in material properties, environmental, and loading
conditions from that considered in the design stage calculations. The following methods are
currently used for the measurement of axial shortening [43]:
 Mechanical gauges (DMEC strain gauges) such as Fig. 3.2
 Surveying techniques (Precise leveling, Total station)
 Use of sensors: Electronic stain gauges or sensors such as vibrating wire strain gauges
as shown in Fig. 3.2, acoustic wires, strain transducers, and extensometers.
30
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.2 Instruments for axial shortening measurements
Several researchers have measured the axial shortening of high-rise buildings using these
techniques as recorded in literature [44]. The experimental investigation used precise leveling
techniques and mechanical strain gauges to measure the vertical deformations of Water Tower
place which is a 75-story reinforced concrete building of 252m in height in Chicago [45]. Axial
shortening of selected columns was measured at six levels of the building for three years.
For all strain gauge readings, measurements of air temperature and the surface
temperature had to be taken. Also, according to them, for the precise leveling techniques, the
reading could only be taken once the formwork had been removed and targets have been
attached. Also, the accuracy is reduced due to the difficulty of taking readings under site
conditions [46].
A study instrumented a sixty-story and an eight-story building to obtain axial shortening
measurements for up to ten years of service, which is one of the very few studies done for
such a long period [47]. Their study indicated the design stress of steel in some columns was
exceeded only in 10 years due to the relaxation of concrete with time.
The experimental investigation instrumented a medium-rise reinforced building at the new
south Wales University of Technology using vibrating wire gauges [48]. These were installed at
three levels of the building while another set of measurements was taken in parallel using
precise leveling. Brelsford used electronic strain gauges and the total station. He concluded
the total station setup can be successfully used to measure the absolute difference in the
shortening of columns and shear walls at a certain floor level. However, this method becomes
problematic when the construction progresses and the finishes are done [49].
31
Chapter 4 Research Methodology

4.1 Method of Analysis and Design using Etabs
4.1.1 Design Philosophy and Concept
The purpose of this study is to provide the predicted value of short-term and long-term axial
shortening for each vertical element (columns and the central core wall) considering creep and
shrinkage effects which are considering time-dependent parameters in the design will have
clearly appeared in the following pages as shown in Fig 4.1.
Accumulation of
deformation
Beam and Slab
Column
Shortening per 1-story
Core Wall
Shortening per 1-story
Fig. 4.1 Core wall and column structure concept model
When it comes to an absolute shortening, it causes the problems such as a bending of

elevator rails, deformation of door frames, and damage to vertical finishing material. The
relative shortening cause the problems such as damage to the external curtain wall, reverse
32
Fig. 4.2 Effects of shorteningon a glazed Facade

slope of the plant piping, a damage to the partition and the floor finishing material as shown
in Fig. 4.2, 4.3.
It’s very important to know how concrete displacement will become in the future.
Thus, the designer can take precautions during construction and during the design stage to
consider the negative effect on horizontal elements due to the differential vertical
displacement between vertical elements as shown in Fig. 4.3.
: differential shortening
: member forces duet to differential shortening
Fig. 4.3 Vertical member concept model
This study is normally performed for high-rise buildings where a huge vertical
sustained load is due to the own weight of the structure in additional to the super-imposed
dead load and a portion of sustained live load. The differential vertical displacement between
the concrete columns and the central core wall will affect the following:
 The design of horizontal elements such as slabs, beams, belt walls, and outriggers
where the differential vertical displacement between columns and the central core wall
in the long-term stage will induce additional stresses in those elements which need to be
considered in the design as shown in Fig. 4.2.
33
 The future effect on the façade element where the differential displacement between
successive floors in long-term stages must be considered in the façade joints design and
tolerance, especially for brittle façade materials.
 If the slop values of the slabs due to differential vertical displacement exceed the
(1/240), a compensation of the long-term differential displacements between columns
and the central core should be considered in the shutter leveling during construction as
shown in Fig. 4.2.
Peripheral column Central core wall
Fig. 4.4 Compensation of predicted value of long-term shortening
Fig. 4.5 Deformations due to the axial shortening of column and corresponding
bending moment and shear diagrams
34
4.2 Determining Axial Shortening of Column

4.2.1 Column Shortening in High-Rise Design
Fig. 4.6 show a schematic section of a multistory building with reinforced concrete or
composite columns, with the slabs up to level N already cast. The slabs above level N will be
case as construction proceeds. This section presents mathematical expressions for the
cumulative elastic, shrinkage, and creep shortening of all segments of column up to level N
(called solution-floor level in the remainder of this paper). In other words, expressions are
given for the vertical displacement of one support of the slab at level N. Several possible load
stages are considered.
The initial loads are those that start acting immediately on construction. These come on
the structure in as many increments as there are floors. One set of subsequent loads may be
those due to the installation of cladding and partitions.
Installation of such items would normally proceed story by story, so that the loads would
come on in as many increments as there are stories. The final set of loads may be live loads
that start acting as the building is occupied. Occupation may proceed story by story or in
some other sequence.
The following expressions allow specification of the time of application of each stage of
each floor load separately. Each type of shortening caused by the initial loads, as discussed
previously, is computed separated up to and subsequent to the casting of the slab at level N.
The postulated and confirmed principle of superposition of creep states.
35
Strains produced in concrete at any time by a stress increment are independent of the
effects of any stress applied either earlier or later. The stress increment may be either positive
or negative, but stresses that approach the ultimate strength are excluded. Thus, each load
increment causes a creep strain corresponding to the strength-to-stress ratio at the time of its
application, as if it were the only loading to which the column was subjected.
Load Long-term
Load
Time
Concrete Elastic Inelastic

Element Shortening Shortening
Elastic Shortening ∆1 Inelastic Shortening ∆2
Dead Load Live Load Dry shrinkage Creep
Shortening in vertical members
Differential shortening of various member types such as column, core wall and ETC
Roof level
Higher building has more problems due to cumulative differential shortening
Fig. 4.7 Shortening procedure Model

level N
(Load increment), i
Fig. 4.6 Schematic of a multi-stories differential shortening
36
This principle of superposition is applied to determine the total creep strain in a column
subjected to several load increment by totaling the creep strains caused by each of the
incremental loadings. Elastic shortening of steel columns can be computed in exactly the
same way as that the computation is somewhat simper due to the absence of any effect of age
on strength and due to the absence of shrinkage and creep [24]. Elastic shortening of column
due to initial load, up to casting of solution-floor level is given as:
(4.1)
where,
Ect is the elastic modulus
Pi is applied to load
hj is the height of each floor
N is the level of floor
i is load increment or a particular floor level
j is the particular column
At is time-dependent transformed
area of column cross section
Ect is time-dependent modulus of elasticity of concrete
t is time of casing or load application (starting from casting of foundation)
The shrinkage shortening, up to casting of solution-floor level is given as:
(4.2)
The PCA report suggested shrinkage strains with time in the form of eq. (4.2). In the
equation, shrinkage strains are taken from multiplying the ultimate shrinkage strain
(ε ¿¿ sh)u ¿with coefficient of the volume to surface of member SH v/ s , relative humidity
SH H , shrinkage with time SH t , and residual shrinkage of reinforced concrete SH rf :
(4.3)
The ultimate shrinkage strain can be determined by regression fitting the data obtained from
material tests with the time function of shrinkage. The time function of shrinkage differs
according to codes.
(4.4)
where,
37
is time in days after concrete pouring
is time in days of initial wet curing

The creep shortening, up to casting of solution-floor level is given as:
(4.5)
Creep strain suggested by the PCA report can be determined by multiplying acting stress
and specified creep (ε ¿¿ cr )u ¿ with coefficients of age of concrete at loading CR t ' , member
size CR v /s , relative humidity CR H , creep with time CR t , and residual creep of reinforced
concrete CR rf , as shown in eq. (4.6). Specific creep refers to occurred creep strains per unit
stress, which is taken from fitting data of material tests with time functions of creep. The time
functions of creep are eq. (4.6) and the PCA report uses the equation of the ACI code.
(4.6)
(4.7)
4.2.2 Progress of the Calculating Shortening using Etabs
38
The Fig. 4.4 is the progress of the column shortening project using Etabs. First step is to
create a group of members, loads and boundary elements in order to set the construction stage.
And then each construction stage should be defined by assigning the group information
depend on the construction schedule.
Next to define the time-dependent material properties such as creep, shrinkage, and
Grouping
Member Loading Boundary
Define construction stage according to the construction schedule
Set construction stage analysis control data (Analysis method)
Perform construction stage analysis
Calculate member force
Self-weight Dead load Live load Creep Shrinkage
Wind load
Generate load combinations
Run member design
Fig. 4.4 Grouping of member, load and boundary of column shortening analysis.
compressive strength. And, link each defined material property to each member as shown in
Fig. 4.5. Analysis is performed using the defined construction stage and inelastic material
information.
We can obtain the member force for each gravity load, creep, and drying shrinkage
through this analysis and creates a load combination including a wind and seismic load. Now,
it’s possible to do a design that reflects the column shortening using these load combinations,
39
the shortening of each vertical member can be obtained from the analysis result, and we can
calculate amount of correction using these shortening values.
Material
4.2 Case Study
Time-dependent material Time-dependent material
(Creep & Shrinkage) (Compressive strength)
Time-dependent material link

(Creep & shrinkage + material link +member)
Perform construction stage analysis
Calculate shortening value
Calculate shortening value (sub to slab shortening)
Determine correction value (by manual)
Fig. 4.5 Material properties of column shortening analysis
40
In order to evaluate the theoretical results of the considered ACI 209R-92 method, a case
study of a 306m high vertically asymmetric building was to compare the site readings of
Fig. 4.6 Typical structural plan of the tower
Fig. 4.7 Typical structural plan of the tower from Etabs
41
column shortening taken during the tower construction. The building is 54 floors as shown
typically as shown in Fig. 4.6, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9.
Fig. 4.8 Typical elevation view of the tower from Etabs

42
Fig. 4.9 Typical elevation view of the tower from Etabs
43
4.3 Design Criteria

4.3.1 Software and Assumptions used in the Analysis
Etabs V20 ultimate version has been used in performing this study. A nonlinear staged
construction analysis is defined based on the assumed construction schedule (to be verified by
the contractor and if a big difference between the assumed and the actual construction
sequence, the contractor must get back to the designer). ACI 209R-92 has been used in
defining time-dependent material properties.
4.3.2 Time-dependent Material Properties
Tab. 4.1 show the creep and shrinkage parameter used in Etabs based on ACI 209R-92.
Tab. 4.1 Time-dependent Material Properties
Type Unit Remarks
Shrinkage starts age (days) (time of initial

7
curing)
The average duration of
Loading age (days) 7
shuttering removal
Average relative humidity
Relative humidity % 60%
during the year
Compressive strength factor (α) 4 Tab 2.2.1 ACI-209R
Compressive strength factor (β) 0.85 Tab 2.2.1 ACI-209R
Curing type Moisture cure
Average of low workable

concrete and self-compacted
Slump 150 mm
concrete where flow Tab test
is performed.
Fine aggregate percentage 50%

Air content 2%
759 (450 For concrete 70 MPa strength
kg/m3 ) and 60 MPa
Cement content lb/Yd3
6224 (370 For concrete 50 MPa and 40
kg/m3 ) MPa strength
44
4.3.3 Section Cracking Analysis (Stiffness modifiers)

The long-term axial shortening values will be predicted under service loads. So, the model
used in this study is the uncracked model (cracked under service loads not under ultimate
loads),
the following stiffness modifiers have been assigned to different members [51].
Tab. 4.2 Stiffness Modifiers (Service Load Analysis)
Columns and
1 for all ACI 318-19, 6.6.3.1
Wall
Beams 0.5 for all ACI 318-19, 6.6.3.1
Slabs 0.35 for all ACI 318-19, 6.6.3.1
For lateral load analysis, either the stiffnesses presented in Tab. 4.3.1 can be used. These
use values that approximate the stiffness for reinforced concrete building systems loaded to
near or beyond the yield level and have been shown to produce reasonable correlation with
both experimental and detail analytical results. For earthquake-induced loading, use Tab. 4.2.
4.4 Design Loading
4.4.1 Load Factor and Serviceability Combinations
The required strength U is expressed in terms of factored loads [52]. Factored loads are the
loads specified in the general building code multiplied by appropriate load factors as shown in
Tab. 4.3 and 4.4. If the load effects such as internal forces and moments are linearly related to
the loads, the required strength U may be expressed in terms of load effects multiplied by the
appropriate load factors with an identical result. If the load effects are nonlinearly related to
the loads, such as frame P-delta effects, the loads are factored in before determining the load
effects.
Tab. 4.3 Load Combination for Ultimate Limit State
Load Combination Primary load
U=1.4D D: Dead load

L: live load
U=1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S or R) Lr: Roof live load
R: Rain load
U=1.2D+1.6(Lr or S or R) +(1.0L or
Lr or S or R
0.5W)
U=1.2D+1.0W+1.0L+0.5(Lr or S or R) W: Wind load
45
U=1.2D+1.0E+1.0L+0.2S E: Earthquake load
U=0.9D+1.0W W
U=0.9D+1.0E E
Tab. 4.4 Load Combination for Allowable Stress Design
Load Combination Primary load
SLS=D D: Dead load
SLS=D + L L: live load
SLS=D+ (Lr or S or R) Lr or S or R
U=D+0.75L+0.75(Lr or S or R) Lr or S or R
U=1.2D+1.0E+1.0L+0.2S E: Earthquake load
U=0.9D+1.0W W
U=0.9D+1.0E E
4.5 Construction Loading Sequence (CSA)

Construction loading sequence is a nonlinear analysis approach in which the structure is
analyzed at various stages corresponding to the construction sequence and the partial required
loads are applied sequentially at every stage.
In general, the structures are analyzed and designed using a single step using gravity
analysis or seismic analysis on the basic assumption that the structure will be fully loaded at
once as shown in Fig. 4.10.
Practically, the structure is constructed story-wise hence dead load is applied story-wise
and the finishing loads are also imposed as the structure is constructed stage-wise as shown in
Fig. 4.11. This analysis will provide more reliable results and hence the method should be
adopted in usual practice.
As the construction of the building proceeds, the structural members are added in stage-
wise and the dead load is carried by that part of the building completed at that particular stage
of construction.
Hence, the stresses and displacements distribution in the part of the completed structure at
any stage due to the partial dead load of members installed at that stage does not depend on
46
the geometry, properties, or the presence of members com-posing the rest of the overall
structure and can be obtained correctly by summating the results of analysis at each stage.
The results of the analysis of the overall structures can be obtained incorrectly by ignoring
this effect. Therefore, it is very important to analyze the structure at every construction stage.
4.5.1 Construction Stage Analysis
A large additional member force is created
The level is corrected when the slab Construction shape

is poured Deformed shape
Deformation by construction conventional stage analysis Deformation by

conventional Analysis
Fig. 4.10 Deformation by construction stage and conventional analysis model
The construction stage analysis considers the creep and shrinkage effect of a 53-story
building consisted of an exterior concrete frame and interior shear wal. Vertical members
(columns and walls) in high-rise reinforced concrete building not only exhibit elastic
shortening, but also have shrinkage and creep effect that develop from long-term compressive
loading.
In lower stories of a building, additional stresses in girders become very large due to
differential shortening and undergo significant redistribution of the member forces.
In order to analytically solve the problem described above, the construction stage analysis
function of Etabs considers shrinkage and creep during construction stages to simulate the
construction process of a high-rise building as shown in Fig. 4.12.
Also, with input variables, such as the strength of concrete, construction duration of
building components, casting condition, ambient condition, etc., the elastic shortening,
shrinkage and creep of vertical members can be estimated and are reflected in the analysis.
Change in strength gain based on the maturity of concrete member is also reflected in the
calculation of modulus of elasticity at various construction stage.
4.5.2 Construction and Loading Sequence
In case of the project,10 days period is considered as a construction cycle period (floor /
10 days) and the main core wall has been assumed to be preceded in the construction of slabs
47
by 3 floors which is normal practice in high-rise building construction as shown in Fig. 4.12.
Superimposed dead load will be applied after construction of the first 21 floors (after
construction of level 20) (i.e., with the construction of floor number 22), The finishing will be
applied at floor number 1(ground floor level) the cycle period for applying floor finishes is
considered 10 days/floor (partitions, floor finishes and ceiling).
50 percentage of live load (sustained live load) has been assumed to be added to all floors
after 30 days from construction process completion (building is operating). The creep and
shrinkage will be calculated from age 0 up to 50 years of the entire structure life time. A load
case long-term axial shortening has been defined with nonlinear staged construction analysis.
82 stages are defined to follow the assumed construction plan. The total estimated duration
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Stage 4 Stage 5
Fig. 4.12 Construction process of high-rise building
required for completing the project is 850 days (i.e., almost 28 month). Fig. 4.13 shows the
sequence of core wall, self-weight of floor plates, and super-imposed dead loads increment in
the analysis (structure self-weight and finishes). As mentioned previously, 50 percentages of
48
live load have been assumed to be added to all floor after 30 days from construction process
completion.
60
50
40
Core wall
30
20 Self-weight of floor
10 plate
Finishes
Story
S5 (50 days)
S10 (100 days)
S15 (150 days)
S20 (200 days)
S25 (250 days)

S26 (260 days)
S30 (260 days)
S35 (350 days)
S40 (400 days)
S45 (450 days)

S50 (500 days)
S56 (560 days)
S59 (590 days)
S60 (600 days)
S61 (610 days)

S65 (700 days)
S75 (800 days)

S80 (850 days)
S81 (880 days)

50% of live load
Fig. 4.13 Construction and loading sequence diagram
4.6 Material Properties

Vertical elements (columns and core wall) are used for 70 MPa, 60 MPa, and 50 MPa
concrete strength and 50 MPa, 45 MPa, and 40 MPa for slab and beam as shown in Tab. 4.5.
Tab. 4.5 Material Properties of the Element
Unit
E α G
Type v Weight
(MPa) (1/C) (MPa) (MPa)
kN/m3
11583.3
C35 27800 0.2 0.0000099 24 35
3
C40 29700 0.2 0.0000099 12375 24 40
31528.5
C45 0.2 0.0001 13136.9 24 45
6
13833.3
C50 33200 0.2 0.0000099 24 50
3
15166.6
C60 36400 0.2 0.0000099 24 60
7
C70 39300 0.2 0.0000099 16375 24 70
49
4.6.1 Calculation of Creep Strain According to ACI 209-90

The strain-time of creep coefficient as shown in Fig. 4.14. The creep strain calculation
according to ACI 209-90, creep strain equal elastic strain at the time of loading multiply as
shown below:
(4.1)
where:
vu is the ultimate creep coefficient, and the average value suggested
is the 28-day compressive strength.
Fig. 4.14 Creep coefficient for strength 70MPa.
is the product of applicable correction factors.

4.6.2 Calculation of Shrinkage Strain According to ACI 209-90
The calculation of dry shrinkage strain as shown below:
(4.2)
shrinkage after 7 days for moist cured concrete:
(4.3)
where:
t is days after the end of the initial wet curing.
(εsh)u is the ultimate shrinkage strain, and the average value suggested for:
(4.4)
The strain-time of shrinkage coefficient as shown in Fig. 4.15 below.
50
Fig. 4.15 Shrinkage strain for strength 70MPa

4.6.3 Calculation of Elastic Strain
Elastic strains of concrete with time are determined from compressive strength, ,
and elastic modulus, . For high-strength concrete above 41 MPa, ACI-363R suggests the
elastic modulus as shown below:
(MPa) for (4.5)
(MPa) (4.6)
where,
is the compressive strength of concrete at the age of 28 days (MPa)

w is the unit weight of concrete.
51
Chapter 5 Result and Summary

5.1 Long-term Axial Shortening of Columns and Wall
Fig. 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 show columns and walls layout for podium floors (up to the 10th
floor), typical floors-ground 1 (from the 11th floor up to the 35th floor), and typical floor-
ground 2 (from the 36th floor up to roof floor). Results are plotted for axial shortening
directly after Top out (after applying 100% of structure self-weight and super-imposed dead
load) and for axial shortening after 50 years. Finally, total long-term axial shortening as
shown in equation:
(∆LT) = ∆EL + ∆CR + ∆SH (5.1)
where:
 ∆EL is the elastic shortening of the member after construction process completion
considering only time-dependent concrete compressive strength and member stiffness
(modulus of elasticity) and without considering creep and shrinkage up to the
construction completion date.
 ∆CR is the additional shortening value due to shrinkage from date zero up to the
considered target time (up to 50 years).
 ∆SH is the additional shortening value due to shrinkage from date zero up to the
considered target time (up to 50 years).
Fig. 5.1 Columns and walls layout for podium floors.
Fig. 5.2 Columns and walls layout for typical floors-ground 1

52
5.2 Axial Shortening of the Column after 50 years

Etabs has been used in performing this study. A nonlinear staged construction analysis is
defined based on the assumed construction schedule. ACI 209R-92 has been used in defining
time-dependent material properties, which is explained in chapter 4. Axial shortening of the
column after 50 years is shown in Tab. 5.1:
Fig. 5.3 Columns and walls layout for typical floors-ground 2
53
Tab. 5.1 Axial Shortening after 50 years
Total Deformation (mm) of Column
Column
E2-A1 E2-A2 F2-B1 F2-B2 G2-Y4
Story Story label ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm)
54 FL53ROOF
Numerical Analysis of 75.332
Columns 75.332
Shortening on the Response of 75.835
High-rise Concrete Buildings
53 FL52PH 78.803 78.803 78.731 79.34
52 FL51MECH 80.225 80.225 80.328 80.733
51 FL50 81.965 81.965 82.145 82.476
50 FL49 83.567 83.567 83.719 84.097 Fr
o 49 FL48 84.987 84.987 84.933 85.516 m
48 FL47 86.233 86.233 86.015 86.748
47 FL46 87.321 87.321 86.804 87.802
46 FL45 88.266 88.266 87.235 88.666
45 FL44 89.142 89.142 87.454 89.532
44 FL43 89.591 89.591 87.541 89.972
43 FL42 89.776 89.776 87.404 90.15
42 FL41 89.738 89.738 87.071 90.103
41 FL40 90.015 90.015 86.988 90.375
40 FL39 90.052 90.052 86.689 90.404
39 FL38 89.867 89.867 86.188 90.212
38 FL37 89.455 89.455 85.473 89.787
37 FL36 88.799 88.799 84.532 89.115
36 FL35ROOF 88.556 88.556 84.123 88.891 56.086
35 FL34 88.087 88.087 83.11 88.391 56.458
34 FL33MECH 89.358 89.358 83.63 89.653 57.807
33 FL32MECH 88.547 88.547 81.637 88.834 57.622
32 FL31 88.197 88.197 81.04 88.508 58.131
31 FL30 87.737 87.737 80.496 88.004 58.495
30 FL29 86.918 86.918 79.613 87.127 58.67
29 FL28 85.95 85.95 78.609 86.103 58.794
28 FL27 84.825 84.825 77.484 84.93 58.872
27 FL26 83.561 83.561 76.256 83.615 58.715
26 FL25 82.141 82.141 74.916 82.148 58.419
25 FL24 80.515 80.515 73.424 80.495 57.981
24 FL23 78.762 78.762 71.837 78.714 57.49
23 FL22 76.883 76.883 70.16 76.811 56.903
22 FL21 74.995 74.995 68.512 74.9 56.221
21 FL20REFUGE 73.676 73.676 67.252 73.556 55.804
20 FL19 72.251 72.251 65.913 72.108 55.309
19 FL18 70.736 70.736 64.506 70.571 54.747
18 FL17 69.135 69.135 63.035 68.948 54.124
17 FL16 67.453 67.453 61.506 67.245 53.443
16 FL15 65.697 65.697 59.925 65.469 52.715
15 FL14 63.881 63.881 58.303 63.634 51.95
14 FL13 62.027 62.027 56.66 61.762 51.169
13 FL12 60.179 60.179 55.038 59.9 50.414
12 FL11 59.103 59.103
54 54.106 58.818 50.41
11 FL10 51.927 51.927 47.946 51.651 46.278
10 FL09 46.858 46.858 43.268 46.494 42.419
9 FL08 44.2 44.2 40.835 43.75 40.471
8 FL07 41.421 41.421 38.274 40.92 38.507
the analysis results, deformation due to the creep and shrinkage effects, as shown in Tab. 5.1,
contribute 65.8%-75.19% of the total deformation of the column. Fig. 5.4a, 5.4b, 5.4c, 5.4d,
5.4e, 5.4f, and 5.4g show the distribution graph of the vertical displacement by stories for the
column, respectively.
As the number of stories increases in conventional analysis in which construction stages
are considered, the maximum vertical displacement of the column of 90.404 mm at the 40
stories. So, the relation between vertical shortening and story of building were plotted.
55
Graph - Column (E2-A1)
Axial shortening after 50 years

Axial shortening after top out
story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.4a Columns (E2-A1), axial shortening after 50 years
Graph - Column “E2-A2”
story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.4b Columns (E2-A2), axial shortening after 50 years
56
Graph - Column (F2-B1)

story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.4c Columns(F2-B1), axial shortening after 50 years

story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.4d Columns (F2-B2), axial shortening after 50 years
57
Graph - Column (G2-Y4)

Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.4e Columns (G2-Y4), axial shortening after 50 years

50 years
EL only
CR only
SH only
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.4f Columns (E2-A1), ∆EL, ∆CR, ∆SH, and total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) shortening
after 50 years
58
Finally, we get the total long-term axial shortening of columns (E2-A1) due to elastic
shortening, creep, and shrinkage after 50 years.
5.3 Axial Shortening of the Wall after 50 years
A nonlinear staged construction analysis is defined based on the assumed construction
schedule. ACI 209R-92 has been used in defining time-dependent material properties which is
explained in chapter 4. Axial shortening of the wall after 50 years is shown in Tab. 5.3.
Tab. 5.3 Wall Axial Shortening after 50 years

Wall C01 C02 N02 E01
Story Story label ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm)
56 FL55CRF 50.4858 56.89283 49.24386
55 FL54C 53.148 59.55933 51.95846
54 FL53ROOF 54.08888 60.14483 52.54938
53 FL52PH 62.09714 55.4545 61.2536 53.864
52 FL51MECH 61.65513 55.92413 61.6216 54.26315
51 FL50 62.835 57.09713 62.6534 55.36562
50 FL49 63.94763 58.19725 63.6244 56.38077
49 FL48 64.89725 59.22425 64.5308 57.30831
48 FL47 65.59171 60.17475 65.3554 58.15608
47 FL46 66.42538 61.04825 66.0676 58.93015
46 FL45 67.01888 61.84513 66.6712 59.62631
45 FL44 67.507 62.554 67.173 60.23915
44 FL43 67.89213 63.199 67.5756 60.78438
43 FL42 68.1795 63.76713 67.8736 61.26792
42 FL41 68.36475 64.26025 68.0636 61.68869
41 FL40 68.45763 64.68513 68.1632 62.06031
40 FL39 68.4485 65.03325 68.1586 62.37923
39 FL38 68.52363 65.8255 68.274 63.15
38 FL37 68.0085 65.747 67.7814 63.27208
37 FL36 67.645 66.00563 67.486 63.80638
36 FL35ROOF 68.0651 66.65238 66.4915 64.59915
35 FL34 68.39488 67.183 67.2175 64.92917
34 FL33MECH 69.58213 68.46713 68.6245 66.29383
33 FL32MECH 68.29113 67.44275 67.4269 65.27892
32 FL31 68.07475 67.49638 67.356 65.38383
31 FL30 67.68425 67.38713 67.1373 65.35517
30 FL29 67.2495 67.17363 66.8617 65.23383
29 FL28 66.75363 66.85638 66.5115 65.02033
59
28 FL27 66.18375 66.45638 66.0735 64.723

27 FL26 65.55488 65.99475 65.5681 64.36675
26 FL25 64.87413 65.46775 64.9988 63.94108
25 FL24 64.16513 64.85188 64.3872 63.43125
24 FL23 63.391 64.16838 63.7026 62.84608
23 FL22 62.5695 63.42538 62.965 62.19817
22 FL21 61.70425 62.62338 62.1771 61.49142
21 FL20REFUGE 60.9155 61.872 61.457 60.84
20 FL19 60.087 61.06838 60.6855 60.13058
19 FL18 59.2285 60.22425 59.8814 59.37817
18 FL17 58.34813 59.34725 59.0502 58.59
17 FL16 57.454 58.44738 58.2001 57.77875
16 FL15 56.56875 57.54563 57.347 56.97033
15 FL14 55.92188 56.887 56.6551 56.36075
14 FL13 55.21463 56.196 55.8621 55.6945
13 FL12 54.55263 55.53138 55.1323 55.10217
12 FL11 54.31938 55.33538 54.8762 55.09831
11 FL10 49.756 50.78813 50.1007 50.60438
10 FL09 44.41288 45.45163 44.8119 45.36954
9 FL08 41.55138 42.557 42.081 42.72792
8 FL07 38.71063 39.4905 39.3634 40.04885
7 FL06 34.22575 35.1315 35.029 35.775
6 FL05 29.50075 30.31563 30.33 31.08692
5 FL04 22.74925 23.38225 23.6094 24.37246
4 FL03 18.90463 19.61588 19.7811 20.57362
3 FL02 14.92625 15.6495 15.8081 16.647
2 FL01 10.8145 11.46013 11.6679 12.55108
1 FL00GFL 4.85675 5.184375 5.3248 5.510538
0 BASE 0 0 0 0
The relation vertical shortening and story of building were plotted as shown in Fig 5.5a, 5.5b,
5.5c, 5.5d, 5.5e, 5.5f.
Graph - Wall (C01)
60
Graph - Wall (N02)

story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.5a Wall (C01), axial shortening after 50 years

story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.5b Wall (N02), axial shortening after 50 years
Graph - Wall (E01)
story
Shortening
61 (mm)
Fig. 5.5c Wall (E01), axial shortening after 50 years
From the analysis results, deformation due to the creep and shrinkage effects, as shown
in Tab. 5.2, contribute 70.4%-82.1% of the total deformation of the shear wall.
Graph - Wall (C02)
Graph - Wall (C01)
Axial shortening
after 50 years
∆EL only
∆CR +∆SH
only
story

story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.5f Wal (C01), ∆EL, ∆CR+∆SH, and total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) shortening after 50 years
Shortening (mm)
5.4 Long-term Shortening

Fig. 5.5d Value
Wall (C02),axial to be used
shortening after in
50 Slabs
years Design
Graph - Wall (C01)

50 years
∆EL only
∆CR only
∆SH only
story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.5e Wall (C01), ∆EL, ∆CR, ∆SH, and total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) shortening after 50 years
62
In reinforced concrete structures, the deflecting slabs respond to settling supports with
resistant shears acting back on the supports, thus decreasing the unrestrained differential
shortening. A restrained member, as shown in Fig. 5.6, subjected to an instantaneous
differential settlement of supports, ∆, will respond with restraint moments, ±M. Creep of the
concrete will cause relaxation of the moments with time as shown qualitatively by curve A.
The rate of creeping out of the moment depends upon the creep properties of the member, the
change in the effective stiffness of the member caused by progressive cracking, if any, and the
Fig. 5.6 Parasitic moments due to settlement of supports

increase of the modulus of elasticity with time. If the same settlement, ∆, is applied over a
period, T, the induced moments will change with time as shown by curve B.
For the practical design of the building, according a study suggest that the maximum
value of the differential settlement moments be assumed at 50% of the moments that would
occur without relaxation due to creep. These moments should then be used with appropriate
load factors in combination with the effects of other loads. The 50% reduction accounts only
for creep relaxation during the period of settlement. Beyond this time a further creeping out of
settlement moments takes place.
The differential between the accumulative long-term shortening values sorted in previous
Tabs for columns and walls at each floor must be considered in slab design. Appendix A
shows the collected accumulative long-term axial shortening for columns and walls after 50
years.
The total value of long-term axial shortening at the target time does not always occur due
to stresses relaxation of the concrete members, the environmental changes during the entire
life of the building, and the code-based creep and shrinkage values may be conservative, so it
is recommended to use 50% only of the calculated long-term shortening in the design
purposes to obtain a reasonable increase in the reinforcement.
In post-tension (PT) slab design, the post-tension consultant shall provide adequate
tendons to achieve the code requirements regarding the stresses at the full-service load stage
and the sustained load stage considering the effect of long-term axial shortening in the used
service and sustained load combinations.
63
The induced stresses from the differential shortening can be reduced by using a different
approach as shown in the following:
 As noticed in previous Tables for columns and walls, the value of differential
shortening between the main core and peripheral columns is increasing with going
higher (at upper floors) and this increase in the value of the differential shortening may
induce high stresses at upper slabs which will lead to increasing slab thicknesses and/or
reinforcement values at upper floors, however, the induced high stresses can be slightly
eliminated by subtracting the value of shortening already occurred before the date of
pouring the specific slab. This will not be workable for lower floors where the
subtracted value will be very minor and will not help in reducing the stresses. This
approach may be applicable for at least 50-story high-rise buildings to give the
expected difference.
5.5 Comparison of Shortening in Vertical members
In high-rise buildings, there are two types of vertical deformation, which take place at
the nth story, the vertical deformation that takes place immediately after casting concrete up
to the nth story, and the vertical deformation that takes places after subsequent floor are cast
above the nth story. In a reinforced concrete building, additional stresses on a girder at the nth
story are not generated at the time of casting the nth floor, since there is no relative vertical
displacement between the columns supporting the girder. However, additional loads above the
nth story cause shortening in the columns, and if differential shortening exists between the
columns, additional stresses are generated in the girder. Again, shortening is caused by elastic
deformation due to the long-term effects of creep and shrinkage. Therefore, the deformation is
calculated after the completion of the nth floor structure. Generally, each floor is leveled on-
site when casting concrete.
The elastic deformation and deformation due to creep and shrinkage of an actual
structure cannot be physically isolated; but, for the purpose of analysis, they are separately
calculated. The observation points for the shortening of vertical members are selected at a
column and a wall.
Core Wall
Columns
64
Fig. 5.7 Observation Points for shortening in vertical members
From the analysis results, deformation due to the creep and shrinkage effects, as shown in
Fig. 5.6, contribute 60.80%-71.73% of the total deformation of the column as shown in Tab.
5.4. As the number of stories increases in conventional analysis in which construction stages
are considered, the maximum vertical displacement of the column of 90.404 mm at the 40
stories.
Tab. 5.4 Axial Shortening of Columns (E2-A1)
Total Deformation
Column Elastic Creep & Shrinkage
(mm)
Story Story label ∆z (mm) Ratio (%) ∆z (mm) Ratio (%) ∆z (mm)
54 FL53ROOF 21.7 28.27% 55.07 71.73% 76.77
53 FL52PH 27.27 34.61% 51.533 65.39% 78.803
52 FL51MECH 28.35 35.34% 51.875 64.66% 80.225
51 FL50 29.36 35.82% 52.605 64.18% 81.965
50 FL49 30.19 36.13% 53.377 63.87% 83.567
49 FL48 31 36.48% 53.987 63.52% 84.987
48 FL47 31.65 36.70% 54.583 63.30% 86.233
47 FL46 32.15 36.82% 55.171 63.18% 87.321
46 FL45 32.64 36.98% 55.626 63.02% 88.266
45 FL44 32.89 36.90% 56.252 63.10% 89.142
44 FL43 33.07 36.91% 56.521 63.09% 89.591
43 FL42 33.14 36.91% 56.636 63.09% 89.776
42 FL41 33.3 37.11% 56.438 62.89% 89.738
41 FL40 33.36 37.06% 56.655 62.94% 90.015
40 FL39 33.33 37.01% 56.722 62.99% 90.052
39 FL38 33.21 36.95% 56.657 63.05% 89.867
38 FL37 32.99 36.88% 56.465 63.12% 89.455
37 FL36 33.21 37.40% 55.589 62.60% 88.799
36 FL35ROOF 32.82 37.06% 55.736 62.94% 88.556
35 FL34 33.26 37.76% 54.827 62.24% 88.087
34 FL33MECH 33.25 37.21% 56.108 62.79% 89.358
33 FL32MECH 33.07 37.35% 55.477 62.65% 88.547
32 FL31 32.91 37.31% 55.287 62.69% 88.197
31 FL30 32.86 37.45% 54.877 62.55% 87.737
65
30 FL29 32.57 37.47% 54.348 62.53% 86.918

29 FL28 32.27 37.55% 53.68 62.45% 85.95
28 FL27 31.88 37.58% 52.945 62.42% 84.825
27 FL26 31.44 37.63% 52.121 62.37% 83.561
26 FL25 30.93 37.65% 51.211 62.35% 82.141
25 FL24 30.34 37.68% 50.175 62.32% 80.515
24 FL23 29.68 37.68% 49.082 62.32% 78.762
23 FL22 28.97 37.68% 47.913 62.32% 76.883
22 FL21 28.31 37.75% 46.685 62.25% 74.995
FL20REFUG
21 27.81 37.75% 45.866 62.25% 73.676
E
20 FL19 27.25 37.72% 45.001 62.28% 72.251
19 FL18 26.65 37.68% 44.086 62.32% 70.736
18 FL17 26 37.61% 43.135 62.39% 69.135
17 FL16 25.32 37.54% 42.133 62.46% 67.453
16 FL15 24.59 37.43% 41.107 62.57% 65.697
15 FL14 23.82 37.29% 40.061 62.71% 63.881
14 FL13 23.02 37.11% 39.007 62.89% 62.027
13 FL12 22.18 36.86% 37.999 63.14% 60.179
12 FL11 21.79 36.87% 37.313 63.13% 59.103
11 FL10 19.36 37.28% 32.567 62.72% 51.927
10 FL09 17.65 37.67% 29.208 62.33% 46.858
9 FL08 16.71 37.81% 27.49 62.19% 44.2
8 FL07 15.59 37.64% 25.831 62.36% 41.421
7 FL06 14.04 38.11% 22.805 61.89% 36.845
6 FL05 12.2 38.17% 19.764 61.83% 31.964
5 FL04 9.56 38.47% 15.293 61.53% 24.853
4 FL03 7.87 38.41% 12.618 61.59% 20.488
3 FL02 6.15 38.32% 9.897 61.68% 16.047
2 FL01 4.41 38.30% 7.104 61.70% 11.514
1 FL00GFL 2.01 39.20% 3.118 60.80% 5.128
0 BASE 0 0.00% 0 0.00% 0
The relation between vertical shortening and story of building were plotted as shown
in Fig. 5.6. Moreover, deformation of inelastic shortening (creep & shrinkage) is between
1.5~2.6 times of the elastic shortening for a column.
In the case of a high-rise building with a 54-story, concrete column usually has an
average shortening between 2~4mm per story of total vertical deformation due to elastic and
long-term shortening. Otherwise, large differential vertical shortening of each floor happens
from middle height to ground of building.
66

50 years
EL only
story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.6 Columns (E2-A1), ∆EL,∆CR+∆SH, and total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) after 50 years
From other analysis results, vertical deformation due to the creep and shrinkage effects, as
shown in Fig. 5.7, contribute 62.3%-73.5% of the total vertical deformation of the wall as
shown in Tab. 5.5. As the number of stories increases in conventional analysis in which
construction stages are considered, the maximum vertical displacement of the wall of 69.58
mm at the 34th story.
Tab. 5.5 Axial Shortening after 50 years (C01)
Total Deformation
Core Wall Elastic Creep & Shrinkage
(mm)
Stor Ratio
Story label ∆z (mm) Ratio (%) ∆z (mm) ∆z (mm)
y (%)
56 FL55CRF
55 FL54C
54 FL53ROOF
53 FL52PH 19.89 32% 42.21 68% 62.10
52 FL51MECH 20.21 33% 41.45 67% 61.66
51 FL50 20.96 33% 41.88 67% 62.84
50 FL49 21.70 34% 42.25 66% 63.95
49 FL48 22.35 34% 42.55 66% 64.90
48 FL47 22.93 35% 42.66 65% 65.59
47 FL46 23.42 35% 43.01 65% 66.43
46 FL45 23.88 36% 43.14 64% 67.02
45 FL44 24.28 36% 43.23 64% 67.51
44 FL43 24.61 36% 43.28 64% 67.89
43 FL42 24.91 37% 43.27 63% 68.18
42 FL41 25.15 37% 43.21 63% 68.36
41 FL40 25.33 37% 43.13 63% 68.46
40 FL39 25.46 37% 42.99 63% 68.45
39 FL38 25.70 38% 42.82 62% 68.52

67
38 FL37 25.51 38% 42.50 62% 68.01
37 FL36 25.43 38% 42.22 62% 67.65
36 FL35ROOF 25.76 38% 42.31 62% 68.07
35 FL34 26.46 39% 41.93 61% 68.39
34 FL33MECH 26.24 38% 43.34 62% 69.58
33 FL32MECH 26.26 38% 42.03 62% 68.29
32 FL31 26.20 38% 41.87 62% 68.07
31 FL30 26.14 39% 41.54 61% 67.68
30 FL29 26.14 39% 41.11 61% 67.25
29 FL28 26.02 39% 40.73 61% 66.75
28 FL27 25.86 39% 40.32 61% 66.18
27 FL26 25.66 39% 39.89 61% 65.55
26 FL25 25.45 39% 39.42 61% 64.87
25 FL24 25.21 39% 38.96 61% 64.17
24 FL23 24.91 39% 38.48 61% 63.39
23 FL22 24.61 39% 37.96 61% 62.57
22 FL21 24.28 39% 37.42 61% 61.70
21 FL20REFUGE 23.96 39% 36.96 61% 60.92
20 FL19 23.60 39% 36.49 61% 60.09
19 FL18 23.24 39% 35.99 61% 59.23
18 FL17 22.85 39% 35.50 61% 58.35
17 FL16 22.41 39% 35.04 61% 57.45
16 FL15 21.95 39% 34.62 61% 56.57
15 FL14 21.66 39% 34.26 61% 55.92
14 FL13 21.24 38% 33.97 62% 55.21
13 FL12 20.76 38% 33.79 62% 54.55
68
12 FL11 20.47 38% 33.85 62% 54.32
11 FL10 18.74 38% 31.02 62% 49.76
10 FL09 16.80 38% 27.61 62% 44.41
9 FL08 15.59 38% 25.96 62% 41.55
8 FL07 14.38 37% 24.33 63% 38.71
7 FL06 12.63 37% 21.60 63% 34.23
6 FL05 10.83 37% 18.67 63% 29.50
5 FL04 8.39 37% 14.36 63% 22.75
4 FL03 6.92 37% 11.98 63% 18.90
3 FL02 5.39 36% 9.54 64% 14.93
2 FL01 3.87 36% 6.94 64% 10.81
1 FL00GFL 1.71 35% 3.15 65% 4.86
0 BASE 0.00 0% 0.00 0% 0
The relation between vertical shortening and story of building were plotted as shown
in Fig. 5.7. Moreover, deformation of inelastic shortening (creep & shrinkage) is between
1.6~2.8 times of the elastic vertical shortening for a wall.
In the case of a high-rise building with a 54-story, concrete column usually has an
average shortening between 1~2mm per story of total vertical deformation due to elastic and
long-term shortening. Otherwise, large differential vertical shortening of each floor happens
from middle height to ground of building.
Graph - Wall (C01)
Axial shortening
after 50 years
∆EL only
∆CR +∆SH
only
69
Shortening (mm)
Fig. 5.7 Wal (C01), ∆EL, ∆CR+∆SH, and total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) shortening after 50 years
5.6 Nonlinear Staged Construction Analysis Case Verification

5.6.1 Base Reaction Verification
To be sure that all loads assigned to the staged construction analysis case are counted in
the analysis, a simple verification will be performed. This verification is to compare the base
reactions for the nonlinear staged construction analysis case (long-term axial shortening case–
step 160) with the base reactions for load combination (own weight + super imposed dead +
50% of live load). To get base reaction from Etabs as shown in Tab. 5.3.
 R1= 209,4974 kN; is base reaction of load combination case (long-term axial
shortening)
 R2= 209,6187 kN;is base reaction of load combination case (self-weight load + super-
imposed dead load + 50% of live load).
To make percentage difference of the two cases:
( R ¿ ¿ 2−R 1) ( 209,6187 kN−209,4974 kN )

= ≈ 0.00 % ¿
R1 209,4974 kN
The percentage difference in base reaction for both cases ≈ 0.00%, which is confirming
that all loads have been already considered in nonlinear staged construction analysis.
Tab. 5.3 Base Reaction Verification
Load combination / Load case Base rection, Fz (kN)
Long-term axial shortening (maximum
209,4974
case)
SW + SDL + 0.50L+ LL(NR) 209,6187
Ratio between the two cases 0.999
5.6.2 Creep and Shrinkage Percentage versus Building Height
It is noted that the creep shortening is greater than the shrinkage shortening specially for
columns (refer to column E2‐A1 results) due to high elastic displacement. There is no fixed
relation between creep and shrinkage shortening values. Shrinkage shortening value depends
on the member size (volume/surface ratio) and the environmental conditions. Loads and the
elastic shortening value have no effect on shrinkage shortening. Since the vertical member
size will affect the shrinkage shortening value, therefore, the shrinkage shortening will be less
(as a percentage of the total long-term shortening) with higher buildings due to using bigger
sections and versa regarding to creep because while going higher, the elastic shortening will
be increased and hence the creep shortening will be increased as well.
70
Shrinkage
Creep
Elastic
Low rise building High rise building

Fig. 5.7 Changing of creep and shrinkage percentage with building height changes
Fig. 5.7 shows how creep and shrinkage value affected by increasing the building height
and loads. And Tab. 5.4 show the structural type and factors affecting the creep and shrinkage
of concrete.
Tab. 5.4 Structural Types and Load Conditions
For vertical member (i.e., columns, wall and core-wall)
Cement paste content
Water-cement ratio
Concrete composite Mixture proportions
Concrete (creep and Aggregate characteristics
shrinkage) Degrees of compaction
Length of initial curing
Initial curing Curing temperature
Curing humidity
Member geometry and Concrete temperature
Environment
environment (creep and Concrete water content
shrinkage) Geometry Size and shape
Concrete age at load application
During load period
Loading history
Number of load cycles
Loading (creep only) Duration of unloading period
Type of stress and distribution
Stress conditions across the section
Stress/strength ratio
71
5.6.3 Compensation of Long-term Axial Shortening in Shuttering Level

As mentioned in the introduction of this study, the maximum slop of slabs must be
checked to decide if adjustment of shuttering level is required or not. From previous Tabs and
from appendix A, the minimum long-term axial shortening after 50 years will occur at
columns (E2‐A3) and (F2‐A3) at floor level (FL43) equal 97mm (∆ E2-A3 = 97mm). The
minimum corresponding value for the adjacent core wall (N02, N03, S02, and S04) at the
same floor level equal 64mm (∆N02 = 64mm). Therefore, the slope at floor level:
(∆ ¿ ¿ E 2−A 3−∆N 02) ( 97 mm−64 mm )

i slop = = =0.0037=0.37 % ¿
L 9000 mm
The maximum slope of floor level limit;
1
i limit= =0.0042=0.42 %
240
As the result;
i limit >i slop
So, compensating the long-term axial shortening in shuttering level is not necessary
because the differential between long-term axial shortening of the main core and the edge
column is less than the code limit (i.e., islop < ilimit).
5.6.4 Difference in the Axial Force Ratio
The differential shortening occurs due to the difference in the axial force ratio between
Axial force ratio
(Gravity load / compression)
strength)
Relative displacement
Lateral 15~20% of the
Core Wall
Load Service load
Gravity 40~50% of the
Core Wall
Load Service load
Column Core Wall

An important factor in
determining the size of a member
Fig. 5.8 Differential shortening
the column and the wall.
In the case of a wall, the lateral load is an important factor in determining the cross
section. Therefore, the ratio of compressive strength to axial force is generally about 15% to
20%, which is very small. In the case of columns, however, gravity load is the most important
72
factor, and the ratio of axial force and compressive strength 40-50%. As a result, a greater
vertical strain occurs in the column than in the wall. For this reason, an additional member
force is generated in the horizontal member by differential shortening.
73
Chapter 6 Conclusions
From this research, it shows the calculated column shortening of a 54-story building. The
conclusions of this study are summarized as follows:
(1) The differential axial shortening between the central core wall and the peripheral
columns must be considered in the design. In the case of a wall, the lateral load is an
important factor in determining the cross-section. Therefore, the ratio of compressive strength
to axial force is generally about 15 to 20%, which is very small. In the case of the column,
however, gravity load is the most important factor, and the ratio of axial force compressive
strength is about 40-50%. As a result, a greater vertical strain occurs in the column than in the
wall. For this reason, an additional member force is generated in the horizontal member by
differential shortening.
(2) The differential axial shortening between successive floors must be considered in the
concrete floor, which can subsequently result in unintended stresses and misalignment of the
interfacing building systems, partitions, and cladding.
(3) The underestimation in axial shortening deformation of a concrete member is mainly
caused by the inappropriate use of elastic modulus. The time development equation of elastic
modulus recommends by current standards ignores the adverse influence of loading history
applied on concrete, and the step-by-step loading history with shorter time steps has a more
negative impact on elastic modulus, which makes it around 5%-11% lower than the predicted
values.
(4) The proportion of the deformation due to creep and shrinkage that contribute to the
total amount of deformation is 60.80% - 71.73% for the column and 62.3% - 73.5% for the
shear wall. Therefore, for concrete buildings, deformation due to creep and shrinkage must be
considered.
(5) The amount of differential shortening due to vertical deformation caused by creep and
shrinkage is 62.60% of the total differential shortening. Since there are considerable amounts
of deformation due to the creep and shrinkage, their effect must be considered in the analysis.
This face becomes more significant for high-rise construction or for structures with longer
construction periods.
(6) In the case of a high-rise building with a 54-story, concrete column usually has a
shortening of 2~4 mm per story. The concrete wall usually has a shortening of 1~2 mm per
story. Otherwise, because of the difference in axial stiffness, columns generally have greater
deformations compared to walls.
74
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78
Appendix A Collected accumulative long-term axial

shortening for columns and walls after 50 years
Tab. A.1 LT Axial Shortening for Column after 50 years
C E2‐A1 C F2‐B1 C E2‐A2 C F2‐B2 C E2‐A3 C F2‐B3
Stor
Story label ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm)
y
56 FL55CRF
55 FL54C
54 FL53ROOF 75 76 84 83
53 FL52PH 78 79 79 79 87 87
FL51MEC
52 80 80 80 81 89 89
H
51 FL50 82 82 82 82 91 91
50 FL49 83 84 84 84 93 92
49 FL48 85 85 85 86 94 94
48 FL47 86 86 86 87 95 95
47 FL46 87 87 87 88 96 95
46 FL45 87 87 88 89 97 96
45 FL44 87 87 89 90 97 96
44 FL43 87 88 90 90 97 97
43 FL42 87 87 90 90 97 96
42 FL41 87 87 90 90 96 96
41 FL40 87 87 90 90 96 96
40 FL39 86 87 90 90 96 96
39 FL38 86 86 90 90 96 95
38 FL37 85 85 89 90 95 95
37 FL36 84 85 89 89 94 94
36 FL35ROOF 84 84 89 89 93 94
35 FL34 83 83 88 88 93 93
FL33MEC
34 83 84 89 90 94 94
H
FL32MEC
33 82 82 89 89 93 93
H
32 FL31 81 81 88 89 92 93
31 FL30 81 80 88 88 92 92
30 FL29 80 80 87 87 91 91
29 FL28 79 79 86 86 90 90
79
28 FL27 78 77 85 85 89 89
27 FL26 76 76 84 84 88 88
26 FL25 75 75 82 82 86 86
25 FL24 74 73 81 80 84 85
24 FL23 72 72 79 79 83 83
23 FL22 70 70 77 77 81 81
22 FL21 69 69 75 75 79 79
FL20REFU
21 68 67 74 74 77 77
GE
20 FL19 66 66 72 72 76 76
19 FL18 65 65 71 71 74 74
18 FL17 63 63 69 69 72 73
17 FL16 62 62 67 67 71 71
16 FL15 60 60 66 65 69 69
15 FL14 59 58 64 64 67 67
14 FL13 57 57 62 62 65 65
13 FL12 55 55 60 60 63 63
12 FL11 54 54 59 59 62 62
11 FL10 48 48 52 52 54 55
10 FL09 44 43 47 46 49 49
9 FL08 41 41 44 44 46 46
8 FL07 39 38 41 41 43 43
7 FL06 35 34 37 36 39 39
6 FL05 30 30 32 31 34 33
5 FL04 23 23 25 24 26 26
4 FL03 19 19 20 20 21 22
3 FL02 15 15 16 16 17 17
2 FL01 11 11 12 11 12 12
1 FL00GFL 5 5 5 5 5 5
0 BASE 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fig. A.1, A.2, A.3 show the distribution graphs of the vertical displacement by stories for
the column. The maximum vertical displacement occurs at the highest story (∆E2-A1 = 87mm at
46th floor, ∆F2-B1 = 87mm at 46th floor, ∆E2-A2 = 90mm at 44th floor, ∆F2-B2 = 90mm at 45th floor,
∆E2-A3 = 97mm at 46th floor, ∆F2-B3 = 97mm at 44th floor).
80
Tab. 2 LT Axial Shortening for Wall after 50 years

W C01 W C02 W C03 W N02 W S02 W E14
Stor
y
56 FL55CRF
55 FL54C 50 50 57 54 49
54 FL53ROOF 53 52 60 56 52
53 FL52PH 54 53 84 83 67
52 FL51MECH 62 55 54 61 62 54
51 FL50 62 56 55 62 62 54
50 FL49 63 57 56 63 63 55
49 FL48 64 58 57 64 64 56
48 FL47 65 59 57 65 65 57
47 FL46 66 60 58 65 66 58
46 FL45 66 61 59 66 67 59
45 FL44 67 62 59 67 65 60
44 FL43 68 63 60 67 68 60
43 FL42 68 63 60 68 66 61
42 FL41 68 64 61 68 69 61
41 FL40 68 64 61 68 69 62
40 FL39 68 65 61 68 69 62
39 FL38 68 65 61 68 69 62
38 FL37 68 66 62 68 69 63
37 FL36 69 66 61 68 69 63
36 FL35ROOF 68 66 62 67 69 64
35 FL34 68 67 62 66 69 65
34 FL33MECH 68 67 63 67 69 65
33 FL32MECH 70 68 64 69 71 66
32 FL31 68 67 63 67 69 65
31 FL30 68 67 63 67 69 65
30 FL29 68 67 63 67 69 65
29 FL28 67 67 63 67 68 65
28 FL27 67 67 63 67 68 65
27 FL26 66 66 62 66 68 65
26 FL25 66 66 62 66 67 64
25 FL24 65 65 62 65 66 64
24 FL23 64 65 61 65 66 63
23 FL22 63 64 61 64 65 63
81
22 FL21 63 63 60 63 64 62
21 FL20REFUGE 62 63 59 62 63 62
20 FL19 61 62 59 61 62 61
19 FL18 60 61 58 61 62 60
18 FL17 59 60 58 60 61 59
17 FL16 58 59 57 59 60 59
16 FL15 57 58 56 58 59 58
15 FL14 57 58 55 57 58 57
14 FL13 56 57 55 57 57 56
13 FL12 55 56 54 56 56 56
12 FL11 54 55 54 55 55 55
11 FL10 50 51 50 50 50 51
10 FL09 44 45 45 45 45 45
9 FL08 42 43 42 42 42 43
8 FL07 39 39 39 39 39 40
7 FL06 34 35 35 35 35 36
6 FL05 30 30 31 30 31 31
5 FL04 23 23 24 24 24 24
4 FL03 19 20 20 20 20 21
3 FL02 15 16 16 16 16 17
2 FL01 11 11 12 12 12 13
1 FL00GFL 5 5 5 5 5 6
0 BASE 0 0 0 0 0 0
Fig. A.6, A.7, A.8 show the distribution graphs of the vertical displacement by stories for
the wall. The maximum vertical displacement occurs at the highest story (∆C01 = 70mm at 33th
floor, ∆C02 = 68mm at 33th floor, ∆C03 = 64mm at 33th floor, ∆N02 = 69mm at 33th floor, ∆S02 =
71mm at 33th floor, ∆E14 = 66mm at 33th floor).
82
Graph – Column (E2-A1)
Axial shortening
after 50 years
∆EL only
∆CR +∆SH only

story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. A.1 Columns (E2-A1), ∆EL,∆CR+∆SH and total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) after 50 years
Graph – Wall (C01)
Graph - Column (E2-A1)
Axial shortening
after 50 years
∆EL only
∆CR +∆SH only
Shortening (mm) 83
Fig. A.6 Wal (C01), ∆EL, ∆CR+∆SH, and total (∆EL+∆CR+∆SH) shortening after 50 years
Story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. A.2 Columns (E2-A1), axial shortening after 50 years

Graph - Column (F2-B1) after 50 years

Axial shortening

Story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. A.3 Columns (E2-A2), axial shortening after 50after
Axial shortening years50 years

Story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. A.4 Columns(F2-B1), axial shortening after 50 years

Story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. A.5 Columns (F2-B2), axial shortening after 50 years
84
Graph - Wall (N02)

Story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. A.6 Wall (N02), axial shortening after 50 years
Graph - Wall (E01)

Story
Shortening (mm)
Fig. A.7 Wall (E01), axial shortening after 50 years
85
Appendix B Differential long-term axial shortening between

successive floors after 50 years (Façade design)
Tab. B.1 Axial shortening between successive floors after 50 years
C E2‐A1 C F2‐B1 C E2‐A2 C F2‐B2 C E2‐A3 C F2‐B3
Stor
y
56 FL55CRF
55 FL54C
54 FL53ROOF 3 4 4 4 3 3
53 FL52PH 2 2 1 1 2 2
52 FL51MECH 2 2 2 2 2 2
51 FL50 2 2 2 2 2 2
50 FL49 1 1 1 1 1 1
49 FL48 1 1 1 1 1 1
48 FL47 1 1 1 1 1 1
47 FL46 0 0 1 1 1 1
46 FL45 0 0 1 1 0 0
45 FL44 0 0 0 0 0 0
44 FL43 0 0 0 0 0 0
43 FL42 0 0 0 0 0 0
42 FL41 0 0 0 0 0 0
41 FL40 0 0 0 0 0 0
40 FL39 1 1 0 0 0 0
39 FL38 1 1 0 0 1 1
38 FL37 1 1 1 1 1 1
37 FL36 0 0 0 0 1 0
36 FL35ROOF 1 1 0 1 1 1
35 FL34 1 1 1 1 1 1
34 FL33MECH 2 2 1 1 1 1
33 FL32MECH 1 1 0 0 0 0
32 FL31 1 1 0 1 0 1
31 FL30 1 1 1 1 1 1
30 FL29 1 1 1 1 1 1
29 FL28 1 1 1 1 1 1
28 FL27 1 1 1 1 1 1
27 FL26 1 1 1 1 1 2
26 FL25 1 1 2 2 2 2
86
25 FL24 2 2 2 2 2 2
24 FL23 2 2 2 2 2 2
23 FL22 2 2 2 2 2 2
22 FL21 1 1 1 1 1 1
21 FL20REFUGE 1 1 1 1 1 2
20 FL19 1 1 2 2 2 2
19 FL18 1 1 2 2 2 2
18 FL17 2 2 2 2 2 2
17 FL16 2 2 2 2 2 2
16 FL15 2 2 2 2 2 2
15 FL14 2 2 2 2 2 2
14 FL13 2 2 2 2 2 2
13 FL12 1 1 1 1 1 1
12 FL11 6 6 7 7 8 7
11 FL10 5 5 5 5 5 5
10 FL09 2 2 3 3 3 3
9 FL08 3 3 3 3 3 3
8 FL07 4 4 5 5 5 5
7 FL06 5 5 5 5 5 5
6 FL05 7 7 7 7 7 7
5 FL04 4 4 4 4 5 4
4 FL03 4 4 4 4 5 5
3 FL02 4 4 5 4 5 5
2 FL01 6 6 6 6 7 7
1 FL00GFL 5 5 5 5 5 5
0 BASE 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tab. B.2 Axial shortening between successive floors after 50 years

C E2‐ C F2‐ C E2‐ C F2‐ C G2‐ C G2‐
A4 B4 A5 B5 Y4 Y5
Story Story label ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm) ∆z(mm)
56 FL55CRF
55 FL54C
54 FL53ROOF 2 2
53 FL52PH 1 2 1 1
52 FL51MECH 2 2 1 2
51 FL50 1 1 1 1
50 FL49 1 1 1 1
49 FL48 1 1 1 1
87
48 FL47 1 1 1 1
47 FL46 0 0 1 1
46 FL45 0 0 0 0
45 FL44 0 0 0 0
44 FL43 0 0 0 0
43 FL42 0 0 0 0
42 FL41 0 0 0 0
41 FL40 0 0 0 0
40 FL39 0 0 0 0
39 FL38 1 1 1 1
38 FL37 1 1 1 1
37 FL36 1 0 0 0
36 FL35ROOF 0 1 1 1 0 1
35 FL34 1 1 1 1 1 3
34 FL33MECH 1 1 2 2 0 2
33 FL32MECH 0 0 0 0 1 1
32 FL31 0 1 0 0 0 1
31 FL30 1 1 0 1 0 1
30 FL29 1 1 1 1 0 1
29 FL28 1 1 1 1 0 1
28 FL27 1 1 1 1 0 0
27 FL26 1 1 1 1 0 0
26 FL25 1 2 1 1 0 0
25 FL24 2 2 1 1 0 1
24 FL23 2 2 1 1 1 1
23 FL22 2 2 1 1 1 1
22 FL21 1 1 1 1 0 1
21 FL20REFUGE 1 1 1 1 0 1
20 FL19 1 2 1 1 1 1
19 FL18 1 2 1 1 1 1
18 FL17 2 2 1 1 1 1
17 FL16 2 2 1 1 1 1
16 FL15 2 2 1 1 1 2
15 FL14 2 2 1 1 1 2
14 FL13 2 2 1 1 1 2
13 FL12 1 1 0 0 0 1
12 FL11 7 4 5 5 4 7
11 FL10 5 5 4 5 4 4
10 FL09 3 3 2 2 2 2
88
9 FL08 3 3 2 2 2 2
8 FL07 4 5 4 4 4 4
7 FL06 5 5 4 5 4 4
6 FL05 7 7 6 7 7 7
5 FL04 4 4 4 4 4 4
4 FL03 4 5 4 4 4 4
3 FL02 5 5 4 4 4 5
2 FL01 7 7 6 6 6 7
1 FL00GFL 5 6 5 5 5 6
0 BASE 0 0 0 0 0 0
89
Appendix C Factors affecting concrete creep and shrinkage and

variables considered in recommend prediction method
Tab. C.1 Factors affecting Concrete Creep and Shrinkage
Variable Standard
Factors
considered conditions
Cement paste Type of cement Type I and III
content Slump 70 mm
Water-cement ratio Air content ≤ 6%
Concrete Mixture proportions Fine aggregate
50%
composite Aggregate percentage
characteristics
Concrete (creep and 279 to 446
Degrees of Cement content
shrinkage) kg/m3
compaction
Length of initial Moist cured 7 days
curing Steam cured 1 to 3 days
Initial curing Moist cured 23.2 ± 2 oC
Curing temperature
Steam cured ≤ 100 oC
Curing humidity Relative humidity ≥ 95 oC
Concrete Concrete
23.2 ± 2 oC
temperature temperature
Member geometry Environment
Concrete water Ambient relative
and environment 40%
content humidity
(creep and
Volume-surface V / S = 38
shrinkage)
Geometry Size and shape ratio or minimum mm
thickness 150 mm
Concrete age at load Moist cured 7 days
application Steam cured 1 to 3 days
During of loading Sustained
Sustained load
Loading period load
history Duration of
- -
unloading period
Loading (creep only) Number of load
- -
cycles
Type of stress and
Axial
distribution across Compressive
Stress compression
the section
conditions
Stress / strength
Stress/strength ration ≤ 0.50
ration
90
Appendix D Creep and shrinkage correction factor
Tab. D.1 Shrinkage correction factors for initial moist curing, for
ACI 209 R-92
Moist curing duration tc, days
1 1.2
3 1.1
7 1.0
14 0.93
28 0.86
90 0.75
Tab. D.2 Shrinkage correction factors for average thickness of members, for ACI 209 R-
92 model
Average thickness of member, d (mm) Volume/surface ratio V/S, mm
51(2) 12.5 1.35
76(3) 19 1.25
102(4) 25 1.17
127(5) 31 1.08
152(6) 37.5 1.00
Tab. D.3 Creep correction factors for Tab. D.4 Shrinkage correction factors for
average thickness of members, for initial moist curing, for ACI 209 R-92
ACI 209 R-92 model Relative humidity
Average
Volume/surface
thickness of -0.2
ratio V/S, mm
member, d (mm)
Linear interpolation
51(2) 12.5 1.3
76(3) 19 1.17
102(4) 25 1.11
127(5) 31 1.08
152(6) 37.5 1.00
91
Appendix E Progress of the calculating shortening using

Etabs
Grouping
Member Loading Boundary
Define construction stage according to the construction schedule
Perform Construction Stage Analysis
Calculate member force
Self-weight Dead Load Live Load Creep Shrinkage
Wind load
Generate load combinations
Run member design
Fig. E.1 Grouping of member, load and boundary of column shortening analysis
Tab. E.1 Construction stage analysis

Reduction amount analysis by various
Differences in initial nourishment conditions
prediction formulas
Reflecting material test properties Differences in load history

Reflecting on-site master schedule Differences in material mixtures
Used for correction of analysis Differences in site climatic (temperature /humidity)
values Conditions
92
Material
Time-dependent material Time-dependent material

(Creep & Shrinkage) (Compressive strength)
Time-dependent material link

(Creep & shrinkage + material link +member)
Perform Construction Stage Analysis
Calculate shortening value
Calculate shortening value (sub to slab shortening)
Determine correction value (by manual)
Fig. E.2 Material properties of column shortening analysis
93
Publications during Masters Study

1. E. Phearum, L. C. Wang, R. Partab, “Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the
response of High-rise Concrete Building”. DUT Network Journal.
94
Acknowledgment
I would like to thank Khan Theany for the continuous blessings upon me. I want to thank
my family, especially my parents, for supporting me morally and spiritually far away from
home throughout my master's study and every step of my life.
I want to express my sincere gratitude to my respected supervisor Prof. Dr. Wang Licheng,
for his continuous and unconditional support during my Master's study and related research
work. His guidance, patience, motivation, and immense knowledge helped me throughout my
research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and
mentor for my Master's study.
My sincere thanks also go to all my friends, fellow lab mates, juniors, and seniors for their
assistance, valuable time in discussions and suggestions and, all the fun we have had together
in the last three years. I am also thankful to the People’s Republic of China for providing me
with this opportunity for a master's study in DUT.
Thanks to everyone from 220 for all your encouragement and support. Room 220 will stay
in my heart forever.
ENG Phearum
95
Dalian University of Technology

Copyright Use Authorization of Master Degree Dissertation
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institutions concerned. The university can index relevant databases for retrieval using a part of
the whole dissertation. The university can photocopy, print in reduced format or scan to keep
and compile this dissertation.
Dissertation Title: Numerical Analysis of Columns shortening on the response of
High-rise Concrete Building
Author’s Signature: Date: 2023 Year 07 Month 15 Day
Supervisor’s Signature: Date: 2023 Year 07 Month 15 Day
96
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学位论文题目：Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the response of

High-rise Concrete Building
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Axial shortening after

The School of Civil Engineering

in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

September 25, 2019

Prof. Wang Licheng

学位论文题目： Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response of High-

Dalian University of Technology Dissertation Originality

Author Signature: Date: 2023 Year 07 Month 15 Day

1.1 Background of the Master's Thesis Topic............................................................................

2.5.1 ACI 209R (1992)............................................................................................- 15 -

3.3.1 Concrete Models for Creep and Shrinkage Strains........................................- 28 -

4.1 Method of Analysis and Design using Etabs.....................................................................

5.1 Long-term Axial Shortening of Columns and Wall...........................................................

5.6.1 Base Reaction Verification.............................................................................- 71 -

Appendix D Creep and shrinkage correction factor............................................................- 93 -

Appendix E Progress of the calculating shortening using Etabs........................................- 94 -

Publications during Masters Study.......................................................................................- 96 -

Dalian University of Technology.........................................................................................- 98 -

Copyright Use Authorization of Master Degree Dissertation..............................................- 98 -

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 1.2 Steady build-up during 1990

Fig. 1.4 History of the “world’s tallest building”

Fig. 1.5 Structural material of the world’s tallest buildings

North America Asia Middle East Europe

South America Australia Central Africa

Fig. 1.7 100 tallest building by function, 1930-2012

Steel Concrete Composite

Fig. 1.9 Failure of wall panel due to differential axial shortening

1.3 Research Objectives

Load Deformation on applied Exterior Interior

Creep Load effect

Chapter 2 Literature Review

Tab. 2.1 Definition of Tall Building

2.2 High-rise Building

 Basement wall pressure

deformation due to creep

deformation due to shrinkage

Time after loading

2.4.4 Relative Humidity

γc is correction factors for a condition other than the standard concrete

is a correction factor for the compressive strength of concrete

is 28-day compressive strength.

surface layer with a thickness of serval millimeters, so the carbonation shrinkage in

Shrinkage ratio (2.10)

2.6.5 Chemical Admixtures

is a correction factor for conditions other than the standard concrete

is a correction factor for ambient relative humidity, which is defined as:

is a correction factor for the average thickness of member or volume-to-surface ratio,

is a correction factor for fine aggregate percentage, which is defined as:

is a correction factor for cement content, which is defined as:

is a correction factor for the compressive strength of concrete:

2.8.3 Material Properties

which, (Composite hard material when ).

which, (Composite hard material when .

Numerical Analysis of Columns Shortening on the Response of High-rise Concrete Buildings

2.8.6 Modulus of Elasticity for High-Performance Concrete

(MPa) for (2.28)

is 28-day compressive strength.

Chapter 3 Differential Axial Shortening (DAS)

Fig. 3.1 Typical sequencing of site operation

The time-dependent strain components of concrete considered in these material models

Fig. 4.2 Effects of shorteningon a glazed Facade