Fuel Lecture 1

FUEL
PREPARED BY:
GILBERTO L. BAAT
COLLEGE SENIOR LECTURER
COURSE OUTLINE:
1. Principles of classification of fuels:
2. Classification of fuels:
a. Solid Fuels and their Characteristics
b. Liquid Fuels and their Characteristics
c. Gaseous Fuels and their Characteristics
ca. Identify the composition
cb. Characteristics and application of Natural gas, LPG,
CNG and combustion
3. Combustion of fuel
INTRODUCTION:
A fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon as the
main constituent which on proper burning gives large amount of heat
that can be used economically for domestic and industrial purposes.
INTRODUCTION:
A fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon as the
main constituent which on proper burning gives large amount of heat
that can be used economically for domestic and industrial purposes.
During the process of combustion of a fuel, the atoms of carbon,

hydrogen are combined with oxygen with simultaneous liberation of
heat. The calorific value of a fuel depends mainly on the two elements.
C + O₂ CO₂ + 94 kcals.
2H₂ + O₂ 2H₂O + 68.5 kcals.
Note:
Carbon compounds have been used for many centuries as the
Source of heat and energy.
INTRODUCTION:
The main source of fuel is coal and petroleum. These are
stored fuels available in earth's crust and are generally called fossil
fuels because they were formed from the fossilized remains of plants
and animals.
I- PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS:
Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways:
1. According to the physical state in which they exist in nature – solid,

liquid and gaseous.
Fuels may broadly be classified in two ways:
1. According to the physical state in which they exist in nature – solid,

liquid and gaseous.
2. According to the mode of their procurement – natural (primary fuels

like coal, petroleum and natural gas) and manufactured (secondary fuels
like diesel, gasoline and coal gas).
Calorific Value of a fuel - is the total quantity of heat liberated, when a
unit mass (or volume) of the fuel is burnt completely.“
Calorific Value of a fuel - is the total quantity of heat liberated, when a
unit mass (or volume) of the fuel is burnt completely.“
Units of heat :
1. Calorie - is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of

one gram of water through one degree Centigrade (15-16°C).
2. Kilocalorie - Defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the

temperature of one kilogram of water through one degree Centigrade.
3. British Thermal unit (B.T.U.) - Defined as the quantity of heat required

to raise the temperature of one pound of water through one degree
Fahrenheit (60-61°F).
1 B.T.U. = 252 cal = 0.252 kcal 1 kcal = 3.968 B.T.U.
Gross or higher calorific value (HCV) - is the total amount of heat
produced, when unit mass/volume of the fuel has been burnt completely
and the products of combustion have been cooled to room
temperature"(i.e., 15°C or 60°F ).
Gross or higher calorific value (HCV) - is the total amount of heat
produced, when unit mass/volume of the fuel has been burnt completely
and the products of combustion have been cooled to room
temperature"(i.e., 15°C or 60°F ).
Dulong's formula for calorific value from the chemical composition of fuel:
HCV = 1/100 [8,080 C + 34,500 (H – O/8)+ 2,240 S] kcal/kg
Where:
C, H, O, and S are the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and
sulfur in the fuel respectively. In this formula, oxygen is assumed to be
present in combination with hydrogen as water.
Net or lower calorific value (LCV) - is the net heat produced,
when unit mass / volume of the fuel is burnt completely and the products
are permitted to escape.
Net or lower calorific value (LCV) - is the net heat produced,
when unit mass / volume of the fuel is burnt completely and the products
are permitted to escape.
- In actual use of any fuel, the water vapor and moisture are not
condensed and escape as such along-with hot combustion gases. Hence,
a lesser amount of heat is available.
LCV = [ HCV - 9H/100 x 587] kcal/kg = [HCV - 0.09 H x 587] kcal/kg
- This is based on the fact that 1 part of H by mass gives 9 parts of

H2O, and latent heat of steam is 587 kcal/kg.
Net calorific value = Gross calorific value - Latent heat of condensation
of water vapor produced.
= GCV - Mass of hydrogen per unit weight of the fuel

burnt x 9 x Latent heat of condensation of water vapor.
Natural Fuels Manufactured Fuels
Solid Fuels
Wood Coal Tanbark, Bagasse, Straw
Oil shale Charcoal
Coke Briquettes
Liquid Fuels
Petroleum Oils from distillation of petroleum
Coal tar
Shale-oil Alcohols, etc.
Gaseous Fuels
Natural gas Coal gas Producer gas
Water gas Hydrogen
Acetylene
Blast furnace gas
Oil gas
II- CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS:
1. Solid Fuels and classified as:
a. Natural Fuels
b. Manufactured Fuels
2. Liquid Fuels and classified as:
a. Natural or Crude Oil
b. Artificial or Manufactured Oil
3. Gaseous Fuels
II- CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS: (SOLID FUELS)
Advantages of Solid Fuels:
1. They are easy to transport.

2. They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous
explosion.
3. Their cost of production is low.
4. They have moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages of Solid Fuels:
1. Their ash content is high.

2. Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
3. They burn with clinker formation.
4. Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
4. Their cost of handling is high.
A- NATURAL FUELS:
1. Wood and their Characteristics:
- The most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel is
wood. It is the oldest type of fuel which man had used for centuries
after the discovery of the fire itself.
A- NATURAL FUELS:
1. Wood and their Characteristics:
- The most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel is
wood. It is the oldest type of fuel which man had used for centuries
after the discovery of the fire itself.
Constituents of Wood:
Wood is vegetable tissue of trees and bushes. It consists of
mainly cellular tissue and lignin and lesser parts of fat and tar, as well
as sugar.
Constituents of Wood (%)
Type of Wood Water Sugar Fat-tar Cellular Tissue Lignin
Beach wood 12.57 2.41 0.41 45.57 39.14
Birch wood 12.48 2.65 1.14 55.62 28.21
Fir (Boot) 13.87 1.26 0.97 55.90 26.91
Pine wood 12.87 4.05 1.63 53.27 28.18
Constituents of Wood (%)
Type of Wood Water Sugar Fat-tar Cellular Tissue Lignin
Beach wood 12.57 2.41 0.41 45.57 39.14
Birch wood 12.48 2.65 1.14 55.62 28.21
Fir (Boot) 13.87 1.26 0.97 55.90 26.91
Pine wood 12.87 4.05 1.63 53.27 28.18
Constituents of Cellular Tissue and Lignin of Wood (%)
Constituents Cellular Tissue Lignin

Carbon 44.4 54.58
Hydrogen 6.2 5.8-6.3
Oxygen 49.4 35.39
Constituents of different kinds of Wood (%)
Element Pine Wood Birch Wood Oak Wood

C 50.05 48.45 49.8
H 6.04 5.95 5.81
O+N 43.21 45.26 44.00
Ash 0.70 0.34 0.4
Average Values of Constituents of Wood
Constituents Cellular Tissue

C 50.00
H 6.00
O 43.10
N 0.30
Ash 0.60
Calorific Values of Wood
Kinds of Wood Lowest Calorific Highest Calorific

Value (cal/kg) Value (cal/kg)
Oak 4729 4750
Birch 4695 4831
Elm 4674 4833
Alder 4745 4839
Pine 4818 5310
Fir 4887 4900
Larch 4775 4840
Ash - The ash content of wood is negligible. The ash consists of
mineral water and of mainly potassium carbonate with varying
degrees of calcium, magnesium and sodium carbonate, iron oxides,
alumina and silica. Pure ash is white in color.
Moisture- A freshly felled tree has a 40%-60% of hygroscopic

moisture and d e p e n d o n the species of the tree.
Moisture- A freshly felled tree has a 40%-60% of hygroscopic

moisture and d e p e n d o n the species of the tree.
Characteristics of Flame - The nature of the flame depends on the

tar content of wood. Pine and birch contain more tar and burn with a
thick and bright flame. Aspen and alder burn with a dim, transparent
flame. The length of the flame also depends on the tar content.
Combustion Characteristics - The lighter the wood, the more
intensely it burns with a long flame. This is because air penetrates
easily throughout the whole piece during combustion. If the wood is
heavy (hard), the penetration of air is rendered difficult and a
concentrated flame results with the development of more heat at the
point of burning.
Combustion Characteristics - The lighter the wood, the more
intensely it burns with a long flame. This is because air penetrates
easily throughout the whole piece during combustion. If the wood is
heavy (hard), the penetration of air is rendered difficult and a
concentrated flame results with the development of more heat at the
point of burning.
Ignition Temperature - Wood ignites very easily. That is why it is

used for lighting other fuels. The average ignition temperature of
different kinds of wood is given in the next slide.
Type of Wood Ignition Temperature (oC)

Pine 295
Oak 287
Larch 290
Fir 292
Pine Oak Larch Fir

2. Coals and their Characteristics
Coal - is regarded as a fossil fuel produced from large accumulations
of vegetable debris due to partial decay and alteration by the action of
heat and pressure over millions of years.
2. Coals and their Characteristics
Coal - is regarded as a fossil fuel produced from large accumulations
of vegetable debris due to partial decay and alteration by the action of
heat and pressure over millions of years.
Coal - is a highly carbonaceous matter that has been formed as a

result of alteration of vegetable matter under certain favorable
conditions. It is chiefly composed of C, H, N, and 0, besides non-
combustible inorganic matter.
Classification of Coal are based on their rank:
Rank - is defined as the degree or extent of maturation and is
therefore a qualitative measure of carbon contents.
Classification of Coal are based on their rank:
Rank - is defined as the degree or extent of maturation and is
therefore a qualitative measure of carbon contents.
Low Rank:
1. Peat
2. Lignite and sub-bituminous coals (soft coal)
High Rank:
Bituminous coals and Anthracites (Hard coal)
Two types of Coal analysis:
1. Proximate Analysis - It includes the determination of moisture,

volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon. This gives quick and valuable
information regarding commercial classification and determination of
suitability for a particular industrial use.
Two types of Coal analysis:
1. Proximate Analysis - It includes the determination of moisture,

volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon. This gives quick and valuable
information regarding commercial classification and determination of
suitability for a particular industrial use.
2. Ultimate Analysis - It includes the determination of carbon,

hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen in coal. Since it is used For the
determination of elements present in the coal, it is also called
elemental analysis. This analysis gives exact results and are useful in
calculating the calorific value of coal using Dulong's formula.
B- MANUFACTURED SOLID FUELS:
- They are obtained from the natural fuels like wood and
coal.
B- MANUFACTURED SOLID FUELS:
- They are obtained from the natural fuels like wood and
coal.
1. Charcoal and its Characteristics

- Huge quantities of charcoal are being used till today in blast
furnaces for reducing iron ores. In many homes charcoal is used for
cooking purposes. Charcoal is a produce derived from destructive
distillation of wood, being left in the shape of solid residue.
- Charcoal burns rapidly with a clear flame, producing no smoke
and developing heat of about 6,050 cal/kg.
2. Coke and its Characteristics
- It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in
the shape of solid residue.
2. Coke and its Characteristics
- It is obtained from destructive distillation of coal, being left in
the shape of solid residue.
Coke can be classified into two categories:

a. Soft coke - is obtained as the solid residue from the destructive
distillation of coal in the temperature range of 600-650oC. It
contains 5 to 10% volatile matter. It burns without smoke. It is
extensively used as domestic fuel.
b. Hard coke - is obtained as solid residue from the destructive

distillation of coal in the temperature range of 1200-1400oC. It
burns with smoke and is a useful fuel for metallurgical process.
3. Briquettes and their Characteristics
- Briquettes is used in respect of the dust, culm, slack and
other small size waste remains of lignite, peat, coke. Dust and
rubble result in considerable percentage during mining and
transportation. The briquetting industry is an important step towards
the saving of fuel economy.
- Briquettes is used in respect of the dust, culm, slack and
other small size waste remains of lignite, peat, coke. Dust and
rubble result in considerable percentage during mining and
transportation. The briquetting industry is an important step towards
the saving of fuel economy.
- Good briquettes are quite hard and produced from 5-8%

binders. The binders are asphalt and pitch are most commonly
used, giving fine results.
3. Bagasse and their Characteristics
- Bagasse is the residue of sugar cane. It is a waste in the
sugar mill after extraction of sugar juice. In weight, it is about 20%
of virgin cane.
3. Bagasse and their Characteristics
- Bagasse is the residue of sugar cane. It is a waste in the
sugar mill after extraction of sugar juice. In weight, it is about 20%
of virgin cane.
- By nature, it is fibrous fuel which can be compared to wood.

It contains:
a) 35-45% fiber
b) 7-10% sucrose and other combustible
c) 45-55% moisture
d) Possesses an average calorific value of 2200 cal/kg.
- On moisture-fiber basis the average composition is :
C = 45%, H2 = 6%, O2 = 46% and Ash = 3%

- On moisture-fiber basis the average composition is :
C = 45%, H2 = 6%, O2 = 46% and Ash = 3%
- Bagasse is the main fuel satisfying the needs of sugar

industries. The flue-gas waste heat dryers are used to decrease
the percent moisture of bagasse.
II- CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS: (LIQUID FUELS)
CLASSIFICATION OF LIQUID FUELS:
1. Natural or Crude Oil (Petroleum, Petroleum products, tar and

alcohol)
2. Artificial or Manufactured Oil (Synthetically produced by

Hydrogenation of coal)
Advantages of Liquid Fuels:
1. They possess higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
2. They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
3. Their firing is easy and fire can be extinguished easily by
stopping liquid fuel supply.
4. They are easy to transport through pipes.
5. They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
6. They are clean in use and economic to handle.
4. They are easy to transport through pipes.
5. They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
6. They are clean in use and economic to handle.
7. Loss of heat in chimney is very low due to greater cleanliness.
8. They require less excess air for complete combustion.
9. They require less furnace space for combustion.
Disadvantages of Liquid Fuels:
1. The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to
solid fuel.
2. Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
3. There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of
highly inflammable and volatile liquid fuels.
Disadvantages of Liquid Fuels:
1. The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to
solid fuel.
2. Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
3. There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of
highly inflammable and volatile liquid fuels.
4. They give foul odor.
5. For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners
and spraying apparatus are required.
NATURAL LIQUID FUELS:
1. Petroleum and its Characteristics

- Petroleum is a basic natural fuel. It is a dark greenish brown,
viscous mineral oil, found deep in earth’s crust. It is mainly composed
of various hydrocarbons (like straight chain paraffins, cycloparaffins or
naphthalene, olefins, and aromatics) together with small amount of
organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur.
NATURAL LIQUID FUELS:
1. Petroleum and its Characteristics

- Petroleum is a basic natural fuel. It is a dark greenish brown,
viscous mineral oil, found deep in earth’s crust. It is mainly composed
of various hydrocarbons (like straight chain paraffins, cycloparaffins or
naphthalene, olefins, and aromatics) together with small amount of
organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur.
The average composition of crude petroleum is :
C = 79.5 to 87.1%; H = 11.5-14.8%; S = 0.1-3.5%, N and O = 0.1-0.5%.

Three (3) Classification of Petroleum
1. Paraffinic Base Type Crude Petroleum
- This type of petroleum is mainly composed of the saturated

hydrocarbons from CH4 to C35 H72 and a little of the napthalenes
and aromatics. The hydrocarbons from C18 H38 to C35 H72 are
sometimes called waxes.
2. Asphaltic Base Type Crude Petroleum
- It contains mainly cycloparaffins or naphthene with smaller

amount of paraffins and aromatic hydrocarbons.
2. Asphaltic Base Type Crude Petroleum
- It contains mainly cycloparaffins or naphthene with smaller

amount of paraffins and aromatic hydrocarbons.
3. Mixed Base Type Crude Petroleum
- It contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons and are

generally rich in semi-solid waxes.
MINING AND REFINING OF PETROLEUM:
The crude oil obtained from the earth crust contains water, sulfur
and some unwanted impurities. After removal of water, sulfur and other
impurities, it will go to refining plant called Oil Refineries.
MINING AND REFINING OF PETROLEUM:
The crude oil obtained from the earth crust contains water, sulfur
and some unwanted impurities. After removal of water, sulfur and other
impurities, it will go to refining plant called Oil Refineries.
- Refining of Petroleum – is the process of separation of crude

oil into various useful fractions by fractional distillation and finally
converted into desired specific products having different boiling points.
PROCESS OF REFINING INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING STEPS:
Step -I: Separation of water (Cottrell's process)

- The crude oil from the oil well is an extremely stable emulsion of
oil and salt water. The crude oil is allowed to flow between two highly
charged electrodes, where colloidal water droplets coalesce to form
large drops which is then separated out from the oil.
PROCESS OF REFINING INVOLVES THE FOLLOWING STEPS:
Step -I: Separation of water (Cottrell's process)

- The crude oil from the oil well is an extremely stable emulsion of
oil and salt water. The crude oil is allowed to flow between two highly
charged electrodes, where colloidal water droplets coalesce to form
large drops which is then separated out from the oil.
Step - II: Removal of harmful impurities

a) The presence of NaCI and MgCI in the crude oil can corrode
the refining equipment, hence these salts are removed by electrical
desalting and dehydration methods.
b) The sulfur compounds present in the crude oil is removed by treating
oil with copper oxide, which results in the formation of copper sulfide
(solid), which is then removed by filtration.
b) The sulfur compounds present in the crude oil is removed by treating
oil with copper oxide, which results in the formation of copper sulfide
(solid), which is then removed by filtration.
Step - III: Fractional distillation
The crude oil is then heated to about 400°C in an iron retort,

whereby all volatile substances (except asphalt or coke) are
evaporated. The hot vapors are then passed up a fractionating column,
which is a tall cylindrical tower containing a number of horizontal
stainless-steel trays at short distances. Each tray is provided with small
chimney covered with a loose cap.
When the vapors of the oil go
up in the fractionating column, they
become gradually cooler and get
condensed at different heights of
column.
When the vapors of the oil go
up in the fractionating column, they
become gradually cooler and get
condensed at different heights of
column.
The fractions having higher

boiling points condense at lower trays
whereas the fractions having lower
boiling points condense at higher
trays. The gasoline obtained by the
fractional distillation is called straight
-run gasoline.
CRACKING
- It is the decomposition of bigger hydrocarbon molecules into
simpler, low boiling hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight.
- In gasoline, cracking process is needed for better engine

performance because the gasoline obtained from the fractional
distillation of petroleum has a yield of only 20-30% (Crude oil) and a
quality as straight-run gasoline which is not good and can only used after
proper blending.
CRACKING
- It is the decomposition of bigger hydrocarbon molecules into
simpler, low boiling hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight.
- In gasoline, cracking process is needed for better engine

performance because the gasoline obtained from the fractional
distillation of petroleum has a yield of only 20-30% (Crude oil) and a
quality as straight-run gasoline which is not good and can only used after
proper blending.
-To overcome these difficulties, the higher boiling fractions (e.g.

fuel oil and gas oil) are converted into lower boiling fractions gasoline
(petrol) by cracking process.
Two (2) methods of Cracking:
1. Thermal Cracking
2. Catalytic Cracking
1. Thermal Cracking
- In this process, the heavy oil is subjected to high temperature and
pressure, when the bigger hydrocarbon molecules break down to give
smaller molecules of the paraffins, olefins and hydrogen. The cracked
products are then separated by fractional distillation. This process is
carried out in liquid phase at a temperature of 4 75 - 530° C and under
pressure of 100 kg/cm2 is called Liquid-phase thermal cracking or at a
temperature of 600-650°C (heavy oil is vaporized) and under a low
pressure of 10-20 kg/cm2, such process is called Vapor-phase thermal
cracking.
1. Thermal Cracking
2. Catalytic Cracking
- In this process, cracking is carried out in presence of a catalyst

at lower temperature (300° C to 450° C) and pressures (l to 5 kg/cm2).
- The catalyst like aluminum silicate [Al2(SiO3)] or alumina

[A12O3] used in cracking gives higher yield and better quality of
gasoline.
Two types of Catalytic Cracking: .
1. Fixed-bed Catalytic Cracking
- The heavy oil is passed through the heater, where the oil is
vaporized and heated to 400 to 500°C and then forced through a
catalytic champers containing the catalyst of silica alumina gel (SiO2,
Al2O3) or bauxite, is mixed with clay and zirconium oxide maintained at
400 to 500°C and 1.5 kg/cm2 pressure.
During their passage through the tower, cracking takes place

about 30-40% of the charge is converted into gasoline and about 2- 4%
carbon is formed which gets deposited on the catalytic bed.
- The vapors produced are then passed through a fractionating
column, where heavy oil fractions condensed. The vapors are then
admitted into a cooler, where some of the gaseous products are
condensed along with gasoline and uncondensed gases move on.
- The gasoline containing some dissolved gases is then sent to a

stabilizer, where the dissolved gases are removed and pure gasoline is
obtained.
Fixed- Bed Catalytic Cracking
2. Fluid (Moving) - Bed Catalytic Cracking
- In this process, solid catalyst is finely powdered, so that it

behaves almost as a fluid, which can be circulated in gas stream.
- The vapors of cracking stock (gas oil, heavy oil) mixed with
fluidized catalyst is forced up into a large reactor bed in which cracking
of the heavier molecules into lighter molecules occurs at a temperature
of 530°C and pressure of about 3' to 5 kg/cm2.
2. Fluid (Moving) - Bed Catalytic Cracking
- In this process, solid catalyst is finely powdered, so that it

behaves almost as a fluid, which can be circulated in gas stream.
- The vapors of cracking stock (gas oil, heavy oil) mixed with
fluidized catalyst is forced up into a large reactor bed in which cracking
of the heavier molecules into lighter molecules occurs at a temperature
of 530°C and pressure of about 3' to 5 kg/cm2.
- The top of the reactor has a centrifugal separator, which, allows

the low boiling lighter molecules move up to the top of the reactor and
enter into the fractionating column but retains all the catalyst powder in
the reactor itself.
- The carbon deposited on the catalyst powder are burnt off in the
regenerator and the temperature rises to about 590°C or more.
- The carbon deposited on the catalyst powder are burnt off in the
regenerator and the temperature rises to about 590°C or more.
- The cracked gases and gasoline are removed from the top of
the fractionating column and sent to a cooler, where gasoline is
condensed. It is then sent to a stabilizer to recover pure gasoline.
- The product contains a higher proportion of aromatics and iso-

paraffins.
II- CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS (LIQUID FUELS):
Fluid (moving)- bed Catalytic Cracking
Knocking
- Knocking is a kind of explosion due to rapid pressure rise
occurring in an Internal Combustion engine.
- In a petrol engine, a mixture of gasoline vapor and air at 1: 17

ratio is used as fuel. This mixture is compressed and ignited by an
electric spark.
Knocking
- Knocking is a kind of explosion due to rapid pressure rise
occurring in an Internal Combustion engine.
- In a petrol engine, a mixture of gasoline vapor and air at 1: 17

ratio is used as fuel. This mixture is compressed and ignited by an
electric spark.
- The products of oxidation reaction (combustion) increases the

pressure and pushes the piston down the cylinder. If the combustion
proceeds in a regular way, there is no problem in knocking.
- But in some cases, the rate of combustion (oxidation) will not
be uniform due to unwanted chemical constituents of gasoline.
- The rate of ignition of the fuel gradually increases and the

final portion of the fuel-air mixture gets ignited instantaneously
producing an explosive sound known as "Knocking".
- But in some cases, the rate of combustion (oxidation) will not
be uniform due to unwanted chemical constituents of gasoline.
- The rate of ignition of the fuel gradually increases and the

final portion of the fuel-air mixture gets ignited instantaneously
producing an explosive sound known as "Knocking".
- Knocking property of the fuel reduces the efficiency of engine.

So, a good gasoline should resist knocking.
Improvement of antiknock characteristics:
The octane number of fuel can be improved by:

1. Blending petrol of high-octane number with petrol of low octane

number, so that the octane number of the latter can be improved.
1. Blending petrol of high-octane number with petrol of low octane

number, so that the octane number of the latter can be improved.
2. The addition of anti-knock agents like Tetra-Ethyl Lead (TEL).

- The additive Tetraethyl lead (TEL) or (C2H5)4 Pb is an
important to be added to petrol. The Tetra Ethyl Lead is called
Leaded Petrol. . Knocking follows a free radical mechanism, leading
to a chain growth which results in an explosion.
- TEL reduces the knocking tendency of hydrocarbon. If the
chains are terminated before their growth, knocking will cease. TEL
decomposes thermally to form ethyl free radicals which combine with
the growing free radicals of knocking process and thus the chain
growth is stopped.
- TEL reduces the knocking tendency of hydrocarbon. If the
chains are terminated before their growth, knocking will cease. TEL
decomposes thermally to form ethyl free radicals which combine with
the growing free radicals of knocking process and thus the chain
growth is stopped.
Disadvantages of using TEL:
- When the leaded petrol is used as a fuel, the TEL is converted

to lead oxide and metallic lead. This lead deposits on the spark plug
and on cylinder walls which is harmful to engine life. To avoid this,
small amount aromatic phosphates are used as antiknock agent
because it avoids Lead pollution.
OCTANE NUMBER / RATING:
- It is defined as the percentage of iso-octane present in a
mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane. It is used to express the
knocking characteristics of petrol. It has been found that n-heptane
knocks very badly. Its anti-knock value has been given zero.
n - heptane (Octane number = 0)
- It is defined as the percentage of iso-octane present in a
mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane. It is used to express the
knocking characteristics of petrol. It has been found that n-heptane
knocks very badly. Its anti-knock value has been given zero.
n - heptane (Octane number = 0)
- On the other hand, iso-octane gives very little knocking. So, its
anti-knock value has been given 100.
Iso-octane (Octane number = 100)

CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 - CH3
- Octane number (also called Antiknock Rating) is a
measure of the ability of a fuel to resist knocking when ignited in a
mixture with air in the cylinder of an internal-combustion engine.
- Octane number (also called Antiknock Rating) is a
measure of the ability of a fuel to resist knocking when ignited in a
mixture with air in the cylinder of an internal-combustion engine.
- The ratings are based on the pressure at which a fuel will

spontaneously combust (auto-ignite) in a testing engine. It is a
measure of fuel stability.
CETANE NUMBER / RATING
- Cetane number is introduced to express the knocking
characteristics of diesel. Cetane has a very short ignition lag and
hence its cetane number is taken as 100.
n-cetane (hexadecane) CH3 – (CH2)14 – CH3

cetane number = 100
CETANE NUMBER / RATING
- Cetane number is introduced to express the knocking
characteristics of diesel. Cetane has a very short ignition lag and
hence its cetane number is taken as 100.
n-cetane (hexadecane) CH3 – (CH2)14 – CH3

cetane number = 100
- On the other hand 2-methyl naphthalene has a long ignition lag

and hence its cetane number is taken as zero.
CH3
2-methyl naphthalene (cetane number = 0)

Cetane number - is defined as "the percentage of hexa decane

present in a mixture of hexadecane and 2-methyl naphthalene, which
has the same ignition lag as the fuel under test".

The cetane number decreases in the following order:
n-alkanes > Cycloalkanes > alkenes >branched alkanes >aromatics


The cetane number decreases in the following order:
n-alkanes > Cycloalkanes > alkenes >branched alkanes >aromatics
The cetane number of a diesel oil can be increased by adding

additives called Dopes (Ethyl nitrate, Iso-amyl nitrate).
II- CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS (GASEOUS FUELS):
- Gaseous fuels occur in nature or being manufactured from
solid or liquid fuels:
- Gaseous fuels occur in nature or being manufactured from
solid or liquid fuels:
Advantages of gaseous fuel compared in Solid or Liquid fuels:
1. They can be conveyed easily through pipelines, eliminating manual

labor in transportation.
2. They can be lighted at ease.
3. They have high heat contents, so it help in having higher
temperatures.
4. They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby
affecting economy in heat.
5. Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand
like oxidizing or reducing atmosphere, length flame and temperature.
6. They are clean in use.
7. They do not require any special burner.
8. They burn without any shoot or smoke and ashes.
9. They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.
5. Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand
like oxidizing or reducing atmosphere, length flame and temperature.
6. They are clean in use.
7. They do not require any special burner.
8. They burn without any shoot or smoke and ashes.
9. They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.
Disadvantages of gaseous fuel:
1. Very large storage tanks are needed.

2. They are highly inflammable, so fire hazards in their use is high.
A. Natural Gas and its Characteristics:
- Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits

and is obtained from wells dug in the oil-bearing regions. It is called
wet gas and contains gaseous hydrocarbons from C1 to C4. The
wet gas is then suitably treated to remove propane, propene, butane
and butane, which is used as LPG.
A. Natural Gas and its Characteristics:
- Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits

and is obtained from wells dug in the oil-bearing regions. It is called
wet gas and contains gaseous hydrocarbons from C1 to C4. The
wet gas is then suitably treated to remove propane, propene, butane
and butane, which is used as LPG.
- When the natural gas is compressed, it is called Compressed

Natural Gas (CNG). The primary component present in CNG is
methane. It is mainly derived from natural gas.
- The natural gas can either be stored in a tank of a vehicle as
compressed natural gas (CNG) at 3,000 or 3,600 psi or as liquified
natural gas (LNG) at typically 20-150 psi. The composition of natural
gas is :
CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22%

- The natural gas can either be stored in a tank of a vehicle as
compressed natural gas (CNG) at 3,000 or 3,600 psi or as liquified
natural gas (LNG) at typically 20-150 psi. The composition of natural
gas is :
CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22%
The calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m3. It is an

excellent domestic fuel and is conveyed in pipelines.
It is also used in manufacture of chemicals by synthetic

process. It is a colorless gas and is non-poisonous. Its specific gravity
is usually between 0.57 to 0.7.
- Compressed natural gas vehicles require a greater amount of
space for fuel storage than convention gasoline power vehicles.
Since it is a compressed gas, rather than a liquid like gasoline.
- CNG takes up more space for each GGE (Gallon of Gas

Equivalent). This makes it difficult to design smaller vehicles that look
and operate like the vehicles that people are accustomed to.
- Compressed natural gas vehicles require a greater amount of
space for fuel storage than convention gasoline power vehicles.
Since it is a compressed gas, rather than a liquid like gasoline.
- CNG takes up more space for each GGE (Gallon of Gas

Equivalent). This makes it difficult to design smaller vehicles that look
and operate like the vehicles that people are accustomed to.
- CNG is often confused with liquefied natural gas (LNG). While

both are stored forms of natural gas, the key difference is that CNG is
in compressed form, while LNG is in liquefied form.
Comparison of CNG and LPG:
1. CNG has a lower cost of production and storage compared to LNG.

2. It does not require an expensive cooling process and cryogenic
tanks.
3. CNG requires a much larger volume to store the same mass of

natural gas and the use of very high pressures (3000 to 4000 lbf/in², or
205 to 275 bar).
Properties of CNG:
l. CNG is; the cheapest, cleanest and least environmentally impacting

alternative fuel.
2. Vehicles powered by CNG produce less carbon monoxide and

hydrocarbon (HC) emission.
3. It is less expensive than petrol and diesel.
4. The ignition temperature of CNG is about 550°C. CNG requires

more air for ignition.
B. Manufactured Gases and their Characteristics:
- Manufactured gases are obtained form solid and liquid fuels.
Important manufactured gaseous fuels:

1. Coal gas
2. Blast furnace gas
3. Water gas
4. Producer gas
5. Oil gas
1. Coal Gas its Characteristics
- Coal gas is obtained when it is carbonized or heated in
absence of air at about 1300oC in either coke ovens or gas-making
retorts.
- In gas making retort process coal is fed in closed silica
retorts, which are then heated to about 1300oC by burning producer
gas and air mixture. Its calorific value is about 4,900 kcal/m3.
1. Coal Gas its Characteristics
- Coal gas is obtained when it is carbonized or heated in
absence of air at about 1300oC in either coke ovens or gas-making
retorts.
- In gas making retort process coal is fed in closed silica
retorts, which are then heated to about 1300oC by burning producer
gas and air mixture. Its calorific value is about 4,900 kcal/m3.
- Coal gas is a colorless gas having a characteristic odor. It is

lighter than air and burns with a long smoky flame.
Uses of Coal Gas:
a. Illuminant in cities and town.
b. A fuel.
c. In metallurgical operations for providing reducing atmosphere.
Uses of Coal Gas:
a. Illuminant in cities and town.
b. A fuel.
c. In metallurgical operations for providing reducing atmosphere.
2. Blast Furnace Gas and its Characteristics
- It is a by product flue gas obtained during the reduction of ion

ore by coke in the blast furnace. Its calorific value is about 1,000
kcal/m3. It contains about 20-25% carbon monoxide along with CO2,
N2, etc.
- 1/3rd of this gas is used for preheating air used in blast
furnace itself while the remaining 2/3rd is available for use in boilers
or after cleaning in gas engines.
- It is also used for burning in a special type of stoves (called

Cowper’s stove) where the furnace is preheated.
- This gas contains much dust and is usually cleaned before

use by dust settlers, cyclones or electrolytic precipitators.
3. Water Gas and its Characteristics
- Water gas is essentially a mixture of combustible gases CO

and H2 with a little fraction of non-combustible gases.
- It is a mixture of combustible gases, CO(41%) and H2 (51%)

with small amount of noncombustible gases, CO2(4%) and N2(4%).
Its calorific value is about 2800
3. Water Gas and its Characteristics
- Water gas is essentially a mixture of combustible gases CO

and H2 with a little fraction of non-combustible gases.
- It is a mixture of combustible gases, CO(41%) and H2 (51%)

with small amount of noncombustible gases, CO2(4%) and N2(4%).
Its calorific value is about 2800
- It is made by passing alternatively steam and little air through

a bed of red hot coal or coke maintained at about 900 to 1000oC in a
rector (consists of a steel vessel about 3 m wide and 4 m in height).
Uses of Water Gas:
a. Source of hydrogen gas.

b. An illuminating gas.
c. Fuel gas.
d. Synthesis of ammonia.
Uses of Water Gas:
a. Source of hydrogen gas.

b. An illuminating gas.
c. Fuel gas.
d. Synthesis of ammonia.
4. Producer Gas and its Characteristics
- It is a mixture of combustible CO and H2 associated with non-

combustible gases N2 and CO2. It is prepared by passing air mixed
with little steam (about 0.35 kg/kg of coal) over a red-hot coal or
coke bed maintained at about 1100oC in a special reactor called Gas
Producer.
Uses of Producer Gas
a. It is cheap, clean and easily preparable gas.

b. It is used (i) for heating open-hearth furnaces (in steel and
glass manufacture), muffle furnaces, retorts (used in coke and
coal gas manufacture).
c. Used as a reducing agent in metallurgical operations.
Uses of Producer Gas
a. It is cheap, clean and easily preparable gas.

b. It is used (i) for heating open-hearth furnaces (in steel and
glass manufacture), muffle furnaces, retorts (used in coke and
coal gas manufacture).
c. Used as a reducing agent in metallurgical operations.
5. Oil Gas and its Characteristics
- Oil gas is obtained by cracking kerosene oil. Oil in a thin

steam is allowed to fall on a stout red hot cast iron retort, which is
heated in coal fired furnace.
- The resulting gaseous mixture passes out through a bonet
cover to a hydraulic main, a tank containing water. Here tar gets
condensed. Then at the testing cap, the proper cracking of oil is
estimated from the color of the gas produced.
heated in coal fired furnace.
- The resulting gaseous mixture passes out through a bonet
cover to a hydraulic main, a tank containing water. Here tar gets
condensed. Then at the testing cap, the proper cracking of oil is
estimated from the color of the gas produced.
- A good oil gas should have a golden color. By proper adjusting

the supply of air, gas of required color can be obtained. The gas is
finally stored over water in gas holders. It is used as laboratory gas.
III- COMBUSTION OF FUEL
- Combustion - is the process of burning any combustible
substance in the presence of oxygen, which liberates energy in the
form of heat and light.
- For efficient combustion, it is essential that the fuel must be

brought into intimate contact with enough air or oxygen.
- Combustion - is the process of burning any combustible
substance in the presence of oxygen, which liberates energy in the
form of heat and light.
- For efficient combustion, it is essential that the fuel must be

brought into intimate contact with enough air or oxygen.
- A combustion reaction - is a reaction in which a substance

reacts with oxygen gas, releasing energy in the form of light and heat.
Combustion reactions involve O2 as one reactant.
- The combustion reaction of hydrogen gas will produce water
vapor.
- The combustible substance usually present are mainly C, H,

S and O. But N, CO2 and ash are incombustible matters present in
the fuel. Do not take any oxygen during combustion.
END
OF
PRESENTATION

Fuel Lecture 1

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FUEL

During the process of combustion of a fuel, the atoms of carbon,

1. According to the physical state in which they exist in nature – solid,

1. According to the physical state in which they exist in nature – solid,

2. According to the mode of their procurement – natural (primary fuels

1. Calorie - is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of

2. Kilocalorie - Defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the

3. British Thermal unit (B.T.U.) - Defined as the quantity of heat required

HCV = 1/100 [8,080 C + 34,500 (H – O/8)+ 2,240 S] kcal/kg

LCV = [ HCV - 9H/100 x 587] kcal/kg = [HCV - 0.09 H x 587] kcal/kg

- This is based on the fact that 1 part of H by mass gives 9 parts of

= GCV - Mass of hydrogen per unit weight of the fuel

1. They are easy to transport.

1. Their ash content is high.

Constituents of Cellular Tissue and Lignin of Wood (%)

Constituents Cellular Tissue Lignin

Constituents of different kinds of Wood (%)

Element Pine Wood Birch Wood Oak Wood

Average Values of Constituents of Wood

Constituents Cellular Tissue

Kinds of Wood Lowest Calorific Highest Calorific

Moisture- A freshly felled tree has a 40%-60% of hygroscopic

Moisture- A freshly felled tree has a 40%-60% of hygroscopic

Characteristics of Flame - The nature of the flame depends on the

Ignition Temperature - Wood ignites very easily. That is why it is

Type of Wood Ignition Temperature (oC)

Pine Oak Larch Fir

Coal - is a highly carbonaceous matter that has been formed as a

1. Proximate Analysis - It includes the determination of moisture,

1. Proximate Analysis - It includes the determination of moisture,

2. Ultimate Analysis - It includes the determination of carbon,

1. Charcoal and its Characteristics

Coke can be classified into two categories:

b. Hard coke - is obtained as solid residue from the destructive

- Good briquettes are quite hard and produced from 5-8%

- By nature, it is fibrous fuel which can be compared to wood.

C = 45%, H2 = 6%, O2 = 46% and Ash = 3%

C = 45%, H2 = 6%, O2 = 46% and Ash = 3%

- Bagasse is the main fuel satisfying the needs of sugar

1. Natural or Crude Oil (Petroleum, Petroleum products, tar and

2. Artificial or Manufactured Oil (Synthetically produced by

1. Petroleum and its Characteristics

1. Petroleum and its Characteristics

The average composition of crude petroleum is :

C = 79.5 to 87.1%; H = 11.5-14.8%; S = 0.1-3.5%, N and O = 0.1-0.5%.

1. Paraffinic Base Type Crude Petroleum

- This type of petroleum is mainly composed of the saturated

- It contains mainly cycloparaffins or naphthene with smaller

- It contains mainly cycloparaffins or naphthene with smaller

3. Mixed Base Type Crude Petroleum

- It contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons and are

- Refining of Petroleum – is the process of separation of crude

Step -I: Separation of water (Cottrell's process)

Step -I: Separation of water (Cottrell's process)

Step - II: Removal of harmful impurities

Step - III: Fractional distillation

The crude oil is then heated to about 400°C in an iron retort,

The fractions having higher

- In gasoline, cracking process is needed for better engine

- In gasoline, cracking process is needed for better engine

-To overcome these difficulties, the higher boiling fractions (e.g.

- In this process, cracking is carried out in presence of a catalyst