A PROJECT REPORT

ON
“CONSTRUCTION OF 2BHK HOUSES”
Submitted for partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of students
DIPLOMA
In
CIVIL ENGINEERING (FINAL YEAR)
Submitted by
D.POOJA REDDY (18069-C-010)
S. ANUSHA (18069-C-033)
Under the guidance of
Mrs. M. VASANTHA
S.L. In civil

Department of Civil Engineering

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC FOR WOMEN
MEDAK – 502110.

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`
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC FOR WOMEN MEDAK
STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION & TRAINING
HYDERABAD, TELANGANA
2020
Medak Dist. 502110

Department of Civil Engineering

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report titled “CONSTRUCTION OF 2BHK
HOUSES” is a bonafide work done as project and submitted by
D. Pooja Reddy 18069-C-010
S. Anusha 18069-C-033

in partial fulfilment of requirement for the award of Diploma in Civil Engineering,

Government Polytechnic for women.

Mrs. M. VASANTHA Mrs. A. PUNYAVATHI

Internal supervisor Head of the Department

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We owe a great many thanks to a great many people who helped and supported us
during the project work.
Our deep sense of gratitude to Sri K. Vijay Kumar (DEE), Sri K. Vijay Kumar (AE),
V. Rashmi, S. Sandhya and A. Shravya - Site Engineers, Greater Hyderabad
Municipal Corporation for their support and guidance. Thanks to all the people at
Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation, for their support during and after the
project work.
We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Mrs. M. Vasantha (SL in Civil),
Department of Civil Engineering, for her constant support, encouragement and
guidance. We are grateful for her cooperation and her valuable suggestions.
We also express our thanks to Mrs. A. Punyavathi, Head of the Department of Civil
Engineering for the encouragement and support given to us.
Finally, we express our gratitude to all other members who are involved either directly
or indirectly for the successful completion of this project.

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 ABSTRACT
The objective of this internship is to study the different phases of construction of
2BHK houses.
Double Bedroom Housing scheme or 2BHK scheme is a housing scheme by
the Government of Telangana in Telangana, India. The free 2BHK scheme provides
2.72 lakh by March 2019 in phase 1 and 3 lakh by 2024 houses in rural and urban
areas at a cost of Rs. 36,000 crores, with a mission to provide housing for all. It aims
to make the city of Hyderabad, slum-free city by 2024.
During the period of internship three sites have visited. One is at Karmanghat, Other at
Bagh Hayath Nagar and finally at Vanasthalipuram near rythu bazar.

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 CONTENTS
CHAPTER – 4 Stages of Construction
4.1 Foundation

4.1.1 Types of shallow foundations

4.1.2 Raft or Mat foundation

4.1.3 Isolated Foundation

4.2 Plinth beams

4.3 Retaining wall

4.4 Columns
4.4.1 Columns at site

4.4.2. Reinforcement details of column

4.5 Slabs and Beams
4.5.1 Types of Slabs according to span
4.5.2 Types of beams
4.6 Shuttering and Formwork
4.6.1 Types of formwork
4.6.2 Order and method of remaining formwork
4.7 Tests of concrete at site
4.7.1 Workability of concrete by slump cone test
4.7.2 Compressive strength of concrete
4.8 Staircase reinforcement
4.9 Concreting and curing 42
4.9.1 RMC placement methods 42
4.9.2 Curing 45
4.10 Lintels and skeletal structure of a building 47
4.10.1 Lintels 47
4.10.2 Skeletal Structure 47
CHAPTER – 5 Conclusion 49
References 50

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 CHAPTER – 4
Stages of Construction
4.1 Foundation:
In engineering, a foundation is the element of the structures which connects it to the ground and
transfer loads from the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally classified as shallow and
deep foundations.
There are various types of foundations in building construction.
• Isolated Foundation (shallow foundations)
• Raft Foundation (shallow foundations)
• Pile Foundation (deep foundations)
All these foundations work to make columns, walls, rooms, and living spaces. Depends on different
types of foundations, workers use various amounts of building materials, for example, in beam work,
workers make pile foundations.

4.1.1 Types of shallow foundations:

Individual footing or isolated footing:
Individual footing or isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for building
construction. This foundation is constructed for single column and also called as pad foundation. The
shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads from structure is carried by
the column. Size is calculated based on the load on the column and safe bearing capacity of the soil.

Figure 4. Individual footing

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Spread footing or strip footing and wall footing:
Spread footings are those whose base is more wider than a typical load bearing wall foundations. The
wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the building structure over more area and
provides better stability. Spread footing and wall footing are used for individual column , walls and
bridge piers where the bearing soil layers is within 3m from sufficient to support the weight of the
structure over the base area of the structure.

Figure 5. Spread Footing

4.1.2 Raft or Mat foundation:

Raft or Mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of the
building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls. The use of mat foundation is for
columns and wall foundations where the loads from structure on columns and walls are very high.
This is used to prevent differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or
combined footing) of all load bearing elements of the structure.

Figure 6. Raft foundation

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4.1.3 Types of deep foundation:
Pile foundation:
Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the structure
to the hard rock strata much deep below the ground level.Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy
loads of structure through columns to hard soil strata which is much below ground level where
shallow foundations such as spread footings and mat foundations cannot be used. This is also used to
prevent uplift of structure due to lateral loads such as earth quake and wind forces.

Figure 7. Pile foundation

Drilled Shaft:
Drilled Shafts, also called as caissons is a type of deep foundation and has action similar to pile
foundations discussed above, but are high capacity cast in situ foundation. It resists loads from
structure through shaft resistance and for combinations of both of these. The constructions of drilled
Shafts at caissons are done using an auger. Drilled Shafts can transfer column loads larger than pile
foundation. It is used where depth of hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m.

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 Figure 8. Drilled shafts

4.1.3 Isolated Foundation of the Present building under construction: (At Karmanghat)
Isolated footings (also known as Pad or Spread footings) are commonly used for shallow
foundations in order to carry and spread concentrated loads, caused for example by
columns or pillars. Isolated footings can consist either of reinforced or non-reinforced
material. For the non-reinforced footing however, the height of the footing has to be bigger
in order to provide the necessary spreading of load.

Figure 9. Isolated Footing

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 Figure 10. Reinforcement details of Isolated Footing

4.2 Plinth beams:

It is a reinforced concrete beam constructed in between wall and the foundation. Plinth beam is
provided to prevent the extension or propagation of cracks from the foundation into the wall above
when the foundation suffers from settlement. Plinth beams distributes the load of the wall over the
foundation uniformly.

Figure 11. Plinth Beams of the building

4.3 Retaining wall:

A retaining wall is a structure designed and constructed to resist the lateral pressure of soil, when
there is a desired change in ground elevation that exceeds the angle of repose of the soil.

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 Figure 12. Drawing of a retaining wall

4.4 Columns:
It is a vertical member which resist the compression loads of a structure. It is also known as
compression member. Columns are laid from the foundation level. Generally, the columns are
designed based on self weight of structure, soil bearing capacity and some other specifications.

4.4.1 Columns at site:

It is a vertical member which resist the compression loads of a structure. It is also known as
compression member. Columns are laid from the foundation level. Generally, the columns are
designed based on self weight of structure, soil bearing capacity and some other specifications. As
per the plan five types of columns are executed.
4.4.2 Reinforcement details of columns:
Reinforcement up to first floor
Column No: 1
Column size : 230/600mm
Diameter of bars : @6#12mm @4#16mm
Stirrups : # 8mm @200c/c
Column No: 2
Column size :230/600
Diameter of bars : @4 #12mm, @10
#16mm
Stirrups : #8 @200mmc/c
Column No: 3
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Dimensions : 230/600mm
Diameter of bars : @6#16mm, @ 4#25mm
Stirrups : 8# @200 mm c/c
Column No: 4
Dimensions : 230/600mm
Diameter of the bars : @6#16mm, @ 8#20mm
Stirrups : 8# @200mmc/c

Figure 13. Reinforcement Details of Columns

Figure 14. Curing of Columns

4.5 Slabs and Beams:

Concrete slab is a very common and important structural elements, are constructed to provide flat,
useful surface. The thickness of slab is generally in between 100150mm.Slabs are constructed to
provide flat surface usually horizontal in building floor, roof, bridges and other type of structures.
The slab may be supported by walls, by reinforcement concrete beams usually cast monolithically
with the slab, by structural steel beams, by columns or by the ground. Beams are the horizontal
structure provided to resist the tension. And they are also called as tension members.

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 Figure 15. Compaction of slab using plate vibrator
4.5.1 Types of slabs according to span:
One way slab:
The ratio of length to the width is greater than 2 then it is known as one way slab. The ratio of l y/lx is
greater than 2.In one way slab the main reinforcement is provided only in the bottom. And the
distribution reinforcement is provided at top.

Two way slab:

The main reinforcement is provided at both top and bottom of the slab is known as two way
slab. When the ratio of length to width is less than 2 it is said to be two way slab. But by considering
only span length and width we can‟t decide.

Figure 16. Concreting of slab

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4.5.2 Types of beams:
Beams are two types:
i. Singly reinforced beams and
ii. Doubly reinforced beams

(i) Singly reinforced beams

In this beams the reinforcement is provided at the bottom side i e. only at the tension side.

(ii) Doubly reinforced beams

This are provided when the self weight and the dimensions of the beams are increase.
In this the reinforcement is provided at both tension and compression areas.

Figure 17. Doubly reinforced beams

4.6 Shuttering and Formwork:

i. Formwork is any arrangement done to support the fresh concrete to attain its strength and
structure.

ii. Shuttering is formwork which supports the vertical surface. iii. Centering is formwork

which supports the horizontal surface such as beam, slab.

iv. Staging is providing support using materials such as wooden ballies, pipes, props, jacks which
support both shuttering and centering.

4.6.1 Types of formwork:

Types of concrete formwork construction depends on formwork material and type of structural
element. Formworks can also be named based on the type of structural member construction such as
slab formwork for use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork for use in beams and columns
respectively etc. The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure up to 20 to 25%

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of the cost of the structure or even more. The operation of removing the formwork is known as
stripping. Stripped formwork can be reused. Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-
usable are called stationary forms.
Steel Formwork:
This consists of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small steel
angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts. The
panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms are
largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the shuttering is possible.
This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or curved structures.

Figure 18. Steel formwork

Timber Formwork:
Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber
formwork is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water impermeable cost to the surface
of wood mitigates these defects. Timber for
formwork should satisfy the following requirements. It should be
i. well-seasoned
ii. light in weight
iii.easily workable with nails without splitting
iv. free from loose knots
Advantages of Steel forms compared with timber formwork:
i. Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and their reuses are

more in number. ii. Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.
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iii. The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such surfaces need no

further treatment. iv. Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.

v. Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.

4.6.2 Order and Method of Removing Formwork:

The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:

i. Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be removed first as

they bear no load but only retain the concrete. ii. Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be

removed next.

iii. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should be
removed in the end.

iv. Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow early removal of
formwork.

v. The formwork should under no circumstances be allowed to be removed until all the concrete
reaches strength of at least twice the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of
removal of formwork.

4.7 Tests on concrete at site:

4.7.1 Workability of concrete by slump cone test:

Objective:
The word workability or workable concrete signifies much wider and deeper meaning than the
other terminology consistency often used loosely for workability. Consistency is a general term
used to indicate the degree of fluidity or the degree of mobility.
The factors helping concrete to have more lubricating effect to reduce internal for helping easy
compaction are given below:

1. Water concert
2. Mix proportions
3. Size of aggregate
4. Shape of aggregate
5. Surface texture of aggregate
6. Grading of aggregate

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 7. Use of admixtures

Slump cone test is the most common method used to measuring consistency of concrete which
can be employed either in laboratory or at site work. It is not a suitable method for very wet or very
dry concrete. It neither measure all factors contributing to workability, nor is it always representative
of the placeability of the concrete. It indicates the characteristic of concrete in addition to the slump
value. If the concrete slumps evenly it is called true slump. If one half of the cone slides down it is
called shear slump. In case of a shear slump, the slump value is measured as the difference in height
between the height of the mould and the average value of the subsidence.

Apparatus:
The slump cone apparatus for contacting the slump test essentially consist of a metallic mould in the
form of a frustum of a cone having the internal dimensions as under: bottom diameter 20cm, top
diameter 10 cm height 30cm and the thickness of the metallic sheet for the mould should not be
thinner than 1.6 mm. The slump cone apparatus along with the tamper of 16mm in diameter and 600
mm length. The tamping end of rod shall be rounded to a hemispherical tip.
Reference IS 1199::1953 method of sampling and analysis of concrete.

Procedure:
1. If this test is being carried out in the field .the sample mixed concrete shall be obtained. In the
case of concrete containing aggregate of Maximum size more then 38mm,the concert shall be
wet-sieved through one and half inch screen to exclude aggregate particles bigger than
38mm.
2. The internal surface of the mould shall be thoroughly cleaned and freed from superfluous
moisture and any set concert before commencing the test. The mould shall be on a smooth,
horizontal, rigid and non absorbent surface ,such as a carefully levelled metal plate, the
mould being firmly held in place while it is being.
3. The mould shall be filled in our for layers, each approximately one-quarter of the height of
the mould. Each layer shall be tamped with twenty-five strokes of the rounded end of the
tamping rod. The strokes shell be distributed in a uniform manner over the cross section of
the mould and for the second and subsequent layers shell penetrate into the underlying layer.
4. The Bottom layer shell be tamped throughout it‟s depth .after the top layer has been rounded,
the concrete shall be struck off level with a trowel or the tamping rod, so that the mould is
exactly filled.

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 5. After the top layer has been rodded, strike off the surface of the concrete by means of
screeding and rolling motion of the tamping rod.
6. Any mortar which may have leaked out between the mould and the base plate shall be
cleaned away. The mould shall be removed from the concrete immediately by rising it
slowly and carefully in the vertical direction. This allows the concrete to subside and the
slump she‟ll be measured immediately by determining the difference between the height of
the mould and that of the highest point of the specimen being.
7. The above operations shall be carried out at a place free from vibration or shock, and within a
period of two minutes after sampling.

Figure 19. Slump cone test specimen

Records and observations:
The pattern of the slump is of true slump/ shear slump /collapse slump. The slump measured shall be
recorded in terms of millimeters of the subsidence of the specimen during the test. The subsidence is
the vertical difference between top of the mould and the displaced original center of the top surface
of the specimen in mm.

Table 2. Slump values

Workability Compacting Slump(mm)
factor
Very low 0.78 0-25
Low 0.85 25-50
Medium 0.92 50-100

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 High 0.95 100-175

4.7.2 Compressive strength of concrete:

Introduction:
Compressive strength of concrete cube test provides an idea about all the characteristics of concrete.
By this single test one judge that whether Concreting has been done properly or not. Concrete
compressive strength for general construction varies from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30 MPa (4400 psi)
and higher in commercial and industrial structures. Compressive strength of concrete depends on
many factors such as water-cement ratio, cement strength, quality of concrete material, quality
control during production of concrete etc.
Test for compressive strength is carried out either on cube or cylinder. Various standard codes
recommends concrete cylinder or concrete cube as the standard specimen for the test. American
Society for Testing Materials ASTM C39/C39M provides Standard Test Method for doing.
Compressive strength is the ability of material or structure to carry the loads on its surface without
any crack or deflection. A material under compression tends to reduce the size, while in tension, size
elongates. Compressive strength formula for any material is the load applied at the point of failure to
the cross-section area of the face on which load was applied.
Compressive Strength = Load / Cross-sectional Area
Procedure:
For cube test two types of specimens either cubes of 15cm X 15cm X 15cm or 10cm X 10cm x 10cm
depending upon the size of aggregate are used. For most of the works cubical moulds of size 15cm x
15cm x 15cm are commonly used.

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 Figure 20. Cube Mould

This concrete is poured in the mould and tempered properly so as not to have any voids. After 24
hours these moulds are removed and test specimens are put in water for curing. The top surface of
the specimen should be made even and smooth. This is done by putting cement paste and spreading
smoothly on whole area of specimen.

These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or 28 days curing.
Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the Specimens fails. Load
at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete.
Specimen:
Six cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above Mixing of Concrete
for Cube Test:
Mix the concrete either by hand or in a laboratory batch mixer.
Hand Mixing:
• Mix the cement and fine aggregate on a water tight none-absorbent platform until the mixture
is thoroughly blended and is of uniform color.
• Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse aggregate
is uniformly distributed throughout the batch.
• Add water and mix it until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the desired
consistency.

Sampling of Cubes for Test:

 Clean the mounds and apply oil
 Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5 cm thick
 Compact each layer with not less than 35 strokes per layer using a tamping rod
(steel bar 16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end)
 Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel Curing of Cubes:
The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period the specimens are marked
and removed from the molds and kept submerged in clear fresh water until taken out prior to test.

Precautions for Tests:

The water for curing should be tested every 7 days and the temperature of water must be at 27+-2oC.
Procedure for Concrete Cube Test:

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  Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water from
the surface.
 Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
 Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
 Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the
opposite sides of the cube cast.
 Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
 Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the specimen.
 Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140 kg/cm 2/minute till
the specimen fails.
 Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure. Note:
Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If strength of any specimen varies
by more than 15 percent of average strength, results of such specimen should be rejected. Average of
three specimens gives the crushing strength of concrete.

Calculations of Compressive Strength:

Size of the cube =15cmx15cmx15cm
Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen )=225 cm2
Characteristic compressive strength(f ck)at 7 days = Expected maximum
load = fck x area x f.s
Range to be selected is …………………..
Similar calculation should be done for 28 day compressive strength
Maximum load applied =……….tones = ………….N
Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm2) =……………N/mm2
Reports of Cube Test:
• Identification mark
• Date of test
• Age of specimen
• Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen
• Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and the type of fracture if they are unusual
Results of Concrete Cube Test:
Average compressive strength of the concrete cube = ………….N/ mm2 (at 7 days)

Average compressive strength of the concrete cube =………. ....N/mm 2 (at 28 days) Compressive
Strength of Concrete at Various Ages:

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The strength of concrete increases with age. Table shows the strength of concrete at different ages in
comparison with the strength at 28 days after casting.
Table 3. Compressive Strength of Concrete at Various Ages

Age Strength percent

1 day 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%

Table 4. Compressive Strength of Different Grades of Concrete at 7 and 28 Days

Grade of Minimum Specified
Concrete compressive characteristic
strength compressive strength
N/mm2 at 7 days (N/mm2) at 28 days

M15 10 15

M20 13.5 20

M25 17 25

M30 20 30

M35 23.5 35

M40 27 40

M45 30 45

4.8 Staircase reinforcement:

Steps for installation of steel reinforcement:

• Unbending of extended steel bars from Plinth beam at early steps of staircase.
• Marking of bar and spacing on stairway.
• Alternate bending of extended bars from base at Plinth level.
• Splitting of alternate bars with the help of extra rebar
• Arranging rebar at landing area in cress cross pattern is set by the labour. The labour makes a
check shape pattern.
• Tying of rebar at landing area.

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 • Tying of extended rebar at initial steps of staircase – Extended bars are bended by labours
using instruments.
• Arrangement and lapping of stairway rebar.
• Tying of stairway rebar with distribution rebar.
• Twisting of Stairway rebar at landing area.
• Binding of rebar at landing area. The laborers tie the rebar.
• Tying and twisting landing bar as tension bar (at stairway and landing junction). xiii. Fixing
of additional top distribution rebar and tying work by laborers.
• Bending rebar – extended for next stairway element.
• Preparation of spacing hook between extended bar to maintain constant space after bending.
• Twisting of extended bar as top (tension) rebar at early step of staircase.
• Binding of extended rebar with extra top distribution rebar at early step of staircase.
• Design of chairs under top extended rebar at initial step of staircase. Then, some binding
work by laborers.
• Arrangement of cover block at several locations.
• Installation of staircase rebar / reinforcement is finished.

Figure 21. Reinforcement details of staircase

4.9 Concreting and Curing:

The placement methods of ready mix concrete plays an important role as it affects the strength and
durability of concrete structures. The time of delivery, quality checks and time of placements affects

23
the ready mix concrete. Ready mix concrete is a concrete which is manufactured as per required mix
ratio in batching plant and then is transported to construction site on continuously mixing trucks.
4.9.1 Ready Mix Concrete Placement Methods:
I. Ready Mix Concrete placement methods include following basic principles:
1. When arriving to the site the concrete transport certificate must be checked for desired
characteristics of ordered concrete (quantity, class, maximum aggregate size, slump, temperature,
type cement etc.) and time duration of transport.
2. Concrete shall be delivered to the site and discharged from the truck completely and in the
forms ready for vibration within 1-1/2 hours after batching.
3. Concrete shall be placed in maximum 15 minutes after its arrival to the site, and the finishing
of placement will take place before the cement starts setting.
4. Concrete shall be stored / deposited as near as (physically and economically) possible to its
final position, in crane hoisted buckets, concrete pumps, chutes etc.
5. The receptacles used for the transport and deposition of concrete shall be cleaned and washed
out at the end of each day‟s work and whenever concreting is interrupted for more than 30 minutes.
6. If the concrete, due to transport, is segregated. It should be mixed again on clean platforms,
without adding water, if not possible the batch should be refused.
7. As placing begins the consistency of the delivered concrete should be checked with a slump
cone for conformance with specifications and the required number of samples must be taken (1
sample = 3 specimens) according to the volume of concrete placed.
8. Concrete shall be placed to prevent segregation. The concrete shall not be permitted to strike
against forms and ricochet on bars and form faces. The free fall of concrete should in no case exceed
1.5 m. For greater heights, as in walls or columns, metal or rubber hoppers, chutes or flexible hoses
must be lowered into the formwork to control the rate of fall of the concrete, if not the concrete will
flow rapidly entering the forms invariably resulting separation and honeycombing.
9. In some cases, when it may not be possible to use chutes inside the formwork, concrete may
be deposited through openings in the side of the form, known as cleanout windows. They provide an
outside pocket from which the concrete can flow into the form at a controlled rate, rather than
allowing it to enter directly into the form at a high velocity.
10. When concrete is dumped from a cart or wheelbarrow, there is a tendency for the heavier
particles to separate from the mass. To prevent this, the concrete should be discharged against a
striking (baffle) board.

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11. Concrete shall not be allowed or caused to flow horizontally or on a slope in the forms.
Concrete placing on a slope shall begin at the lower end of the slope and progress upward. If
necessary, boards forming the sloping surfaces may be placed as concreting progresses
11. When unloading concrete on the surface of a cast member, the direction deposition should be
into the face of previously placed concrete and not away from it.
12. Concrete shall be placed as nearly as possible in its final position. It should not be placed in
large quantities in one position or allowed to flow or be worked over more than 1.5 m. The mortar
will tend to flow ahead of the coarser materials, thus causing stone pockets and sloping work planes.
13. The concrete should be spread and deposited in horizontal uniform thick layers, according to
the type of vibrating equipment used (it should be usually between 200 – 400 mm thick).
14. Placing of concrete shall be so regulated that the pressures caused by the wet concrete shall
not exceed those used in the design of forms.
15. Concreting should be as continuous as possible to avoid planes of weakness. When the
concrete placement stops do to different reasons a construction joint will be made;
16. Efforts should be made to consolidate the concrete by using different means of vibration
(manual or mechanical) according to type of member, site possibilities, volume of works etc.

Figure 22. Placing of concrete

II. When fresh Ready Mix Concrete is to be placed on hardened concrete surface
1. It is important to secure a good bond and a watertight joint.
2. The hardened concrete shall be level, rough, clean, and moist. Some of the aggregate particles
must be exposed by cutting away part of the existing surface by sandblasting cleaning with
hydrochloric acid, or by using a wire brush. Any laitance or soft layer of mortar must be removed
from the surface.

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3. When concrete is to be placed on a hardened concrete surface a layer of mortar must be placed on
the hard surface first. This provides a cushion on which the new concrete can be placed and stops
aggregate from bouncing on the hard surface and forming stone pockets.
4. The mortar should be approximately 50 mm deep leveling concrete.
5. The concrete shall be placed continuously from one side or end of the section to the other, using
precaution to put the full load upon any given area of form as rapidly as possible.
6. The rate of delivery of concrete to the work shall be such as to insure continuity of placement. No
partially completed surface shall be allowed to stand more than 45 minutes before continuing the
placing of concrete thereon.
7. The mixing drums of transit-mix trucks shall be thoroughly washed after discharging each load to
prevent the accumulation of adherent layers of concrete.
8. Concreting of any unit or section of the work shall be carried out in one continuous operation or
until an authorized construction joint is reached.
4.9.2 Curing:
Curing is very important during the construction period. If it is not done properly, cracks can
appear and even the strength and life of the building components can be affected. Curing ensures that
certain chemical reactions take place which strengthen the structure. It is done for about 28 days so
that the concrete achieves complete strength.

There are two types of chemical reactions take place during curing, one that releases heat during
the process (Exothermic) and another that absorbs heat (Endothermic). The mixing of cement with
water is an exothermic reaction due to the presence of lime stone. Because of this heat generation,
the water in the mortar or concrete mix evaporates even before the compound gains strength. But for
the structure to gain maximum strength, chemical reactions in a cement compound must go on and
this can happen only in the presence of water and at an ambient temperature. Hence there is a need to
preserve the water content and the ambient temperature and this is achieved by regular curing.

Curing should start from the very next day after the concrete has been poured. Initially more
water will be absorbed by the concrete elements, but after a week, the water required will be much
less. If there is water runoff when water is poured on a new construction, curing should be stopped.
The hotter the outside temperatures more amount of curing is required. Curing should be done at
least twice a day though three times is better. Ensure that your Contractor entrusts this job on one
person, so that it is not forgotten.

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 Figure 23. Pond pits for curing of slab

4.10 Lintels and skeletal structure of a building:

4.10.1 Lintels:
A lintel is one type of beam which used to support the above wall when openings like doors,
windows etc. are necessary to provide a building structure. The main function of the lintel is to take
loads coming from above wall and transfer its load to the side walls. The lintel beam generally ends
into the masonry wall so as to convey the weight carried by them to the masonry walls and its width
is same to the wall width. The lintel can also be used as decorative architecture element.

Figure 24. Lintel reinforcement

4.10.2 Skeletal structure:

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Most of the high rises building uses RCC techniques. In an RCC framed structure, the load is
transferred from a slab to the beams then to the columns and further to lower columns and finally to
the foundation which in turn transfers it to the soil. The walls in such structures are constructed after
the frame is ready.

Cement concrete is strong in compressive strength but weak in tensile strength. To increase tensile
strength we use mild steel bars in cement concrete. Steel bars used in cement concrete provide good
strength to the structure. Usually steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond
or cohesion between the concrete and steel. Care must be taken that there should be no joints in steel
bars used for RCC work. Therefore, you might have observed that steel used for RCC work is long in
length. If full length steel bars are not available, proper overlap should be given in steel bar and
overlap should be staggered. Care must be taken that steel should not disturb during concreting. Steel
rods should be properly binded and proper planks or plates must be provided for walking. Curing of
all concrete is done at least for 20 days.

Figure 25. Skeletal structure of building

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 CHAPTER - 5

Conclusions
Besides construction details and process, we also learn that in the construction field,
organization and proper project planning of work is also important throughout the whole process.
The architect and contractor need to have a well communication and planning about the whole
project. A well planning will smoothen the progress and reduce unnecessary faulty structure. Work
after site visit is also influence our knowledge. We learn more details about different elements and
process when doing research. Research and report writing help us to understand the details and
process well by simplifying the information we get.

Overall, the construction process is a complicated process. Every single steps and procedure is
very important and have to be carry out with caution and specificity to ensure the final product is
saving to present to the community and also meet the client’s requirement. We cleared our many
doubts regarding building construction. During the period of one month all the company staff helped
us a lot to provide all the information about any query.

REFERENCES
[1] https://theconstructor.org/concrete/ready-mix-concrete-placement-tips/6882/

[2] https://civiltoday.com/construction/building/170-lintel-definition-types

[3] Data collected from construction site.

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