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Topic 1: Measurements
Physics: The study of matter and energy.

Physical Quantities: The quantities which can be measured.

Base quantities: 7 quantities which make up all other physical quantities.

Quantity Definition SI Unit

Length (L) Distance between 2 points Meter (m)
Time (t) Interval between any 2 events Second (s)
Mass (m) Quantity of matter Kilogram (kg)
Measure of inertia
Temperature (T,) Degree of hotness or coldness Kelvin (K)
Average K.E. of particles of an object
Electric Current (I) Rate of flow of charge Ampere (A)
Light intensity Amount of light energy passing Candela (Cd)
through a unit perpendicular area
per unit time
Quantity of substance Mass in terms of number of Mole (mol)
particles

Derived Quantities: All the quantities which are made using 1 or more base quantities are called derived
quantities.

Volume = Length × width × height

Distance
Speed =
time

Least count (L.C.):Smallest measurement by an instrument is called its least count.

• Smaller the least count more precise is the instrument.

Zero Error (Z.E.): Zero error occurs when the zero of the scale is not at correct position. It is equal to the reading
shown by the instrument when it is closed or not measuring any value. Zero error can be corrected by adding or
subtracting the amount of zero error.

❖ (ATP Hints)
❖ Parallax error: The error in the reading a measurement when eye is not perpendicular to scale. It also
occurs if there is gap between object and the scale.

Parallax error usually occurs while looking at scales or liquid levels. For colourless liquids take reading of lower
meniscus and for coloured liquids its upper meniscus.
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❖ Dead space error: usually there is a space before the start of a scale of an instrument (usually ruler),
which can be measured by any other scale and added into the reading shown by the scale.

Instruments used to measure length are

❖ Meter rule used to measure short and straight lengths. (L.C. = 1mm or 0.1 cm)
❖ Diameter or circumference of a circular or cylindrical shape using a ruler can be found by measuring the
curved length using a string and then placing the string along ruler or using the ruler along with set
squares or wooden blocks.

❖ To find diameter of a cylinder or sphere, we can wind a thread for 5 complete rounds at the middle of
shape then divide the length by 5 to get diameter and divide the length by 5 to get circumference.

❖ Using a ruler the thickness of a page or wire can be found using formula

❖ thickness of 100 pages thickness of 200 pages

Thickness of 1 page = 100 = 200 (more precise)
thickness of 3 times folded page
o = 8 (𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)

length of 5 rounds around cylinder

o Diameter of a cylinder= 5
❖ Measuring tape used to measure longer or curved lengths. (L.C. = 1mm or 0.1 cm)
❖ For measuring walking distances use Trundle wheel, pedometer, marked string, number of steps counted
(length of step can vary) or number of rounds of a measured wheel etc.
❖ To check if a rod or surface is perfectly horizontal or not, find the heights of both of its ends using set
square with rulers or use the spirit level.
❖ To find internal diameter, external diameter or depth of cylindrical shape Vernier calipers is used.
• Vernier Calipers: Can measure upto(L.C.) 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm Range (0.01 to 20 cm). Vernier Calipers has 2
scales Main Scale and Vernier Scale. Main Scale Reading (MSR) Reading on main scale just before zero of
vernier scale. Vernier Scale Reading (VSR) is the reading of Vernier scale coinciding any reading of main
scale.
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Formula of Vernier calipers: MSR + ( VSR × L.C.)

Reading = 2.7 + (8 × 0.01)= 2.78 cm

Vernier calipers can have the zero error if the zero of Vernier scale is not coinciding the zero of main scale and
the zero error can be removed by adding or subtracting the zero error.

• Micrometer Screw Gauge: can measure upto (L.C. =) 0.01 mm, Range (0.01 to 25 mm).it has 2 scales
called main scale and circular or thimble scale. Main Scale Reading (MSR) is the last reading seen on the
main scale. Circular Scale Reading (CSR) is the reading on circular scale co-inciding the index line.
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Formula of micrometer Screw Gauge: MSR + ( CSR × L.C.)

Reading = 7.5 + (24 × 0.01) = 7.74 mm

• Used to find the thickness of wires or the thin objects like pages.

❖ (ATP Hints)
❖ The digital meters are easier and fast to use as there will no calculation required, no parallex error but are
expansive, need maintenance, need batteries and donot tell zero error.
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❖ Measure the diameter or thickness at three different points of object and take the average.

❖ Instruments used to measure time are Clocks (L.C. = 1 second), Stop Watch (L.C. = 0.01 s), simple
pendulum, phases of moon, position of Sun, calendar and sundial etc.
❖ Simple pendulum consists of a smaller but heavier object (bob) tied to one end of an inextensible string
whose other end is connected to a rigid support.
Time taken
❖ Time period of simple pendulum =
Number of oscillations
❖ Note: More the number of oscillations more precise the calculation. For accurate measurement of time
keep eye perpendicular to the oscillation and start timer from the centre of oscillation.
❖ The time period is not affected by changing the angle of rotation or the mass of the bob but increases
with increase in length of pendulum.
❖ Length of pendulum consists of radius of bob and length of string and hook.

Time Period (T): Time taken to complete one rotation or time for one wave to pass through a point. (unit second)

Prefixes: Symbols used before a unit to make it larger or smaller. Each prefix represents a power of 10.

Prefix Value
deci (d) 10-1
centi (c) 10-2
milli (m) 10-3
micro (µ) 10-6
nano (n) 10-9
pico (p) 10-12
deca (da) 101
hecta (ha) 102
kilo (k) 103
Mega (M) 106
Giga (G) 109
Tera (T) 1012

Topic 2: Mass, Weight and Density

Scalar quantities: The quantities which are described using magnitude (amount, size) only. E.g. length, mass,
time,temperature, distance, speed, volume, density, work, energies, power, pressure and charge etc.

Vector quantities:The quantities which need magnitude as well as direction for complete description are called
vector quantities. e.g. displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, area, moment etc.

Every vector quantity is graphically represented by an arrow line. The length of the line shows its magnitude
according to a scale and arrow shows its direction.

Mass (m) Weight (w = mg)

Amount of matter (measure of inertia) Gravitational pull of earth (force of gravity)
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Scalar Vector (towards center of Earth)

Unit is kg Unit is newton
Remains constant everywhere Changes with the value of g
Measured by 2 sided balances (based on principle of Measured by 1 sided balances like spring balances
moment) (force meter or newton meter), stretched spring
like lever balance, physical balance, beam balance etc balances, compressed spring balance (pan balance,
electronic balance)
Instruments measuring mass give same reading Instruments measuring weight change reading at
everywhere for same object. different places .

Gravitational Field Strength: (g)

“Weight per unit mass.”

w
g=
m

(unit of g is N/kg)

(g is also known as gravitational acceleration, then the unit used will be m s -2) (N/kg = m s-2)

The value of g is 10 N/kg on earth and on the moon it is 1.6 N/kg.

Volume: Space occupied by an object.

Density: Mass per unit volume. Density is scalar. Its unit is kg m-3 .

mass
density =
volume

mass of 1 object mass of 100 objects

density= =
volume of 1 object volume of 100 objects

kg m-3 ÷ 1000 = g cm-3

g cm-3 × 1000 = kg m-3

In denser materials the particles are tightly packed and in low denser materials the particles are loosely packed.

• Increasing the volume of an object decreases its density and vice versa.
w
Mass of solids can be measured using electronic balance (measures weight but gives mass through m= ). Mass of
g

liquids/gases can be calculated by measuring the difference between masses of filled container and empty
container.

• Volume of a regular shaped solid can be measured using a formula. Otherwise volume of an irregular (or
regular) shaped solid can be measured by displacement method or displacement can. Measure the
volume of some water in measuring cylinder and then pour the irregular solid gently into the cylinder and
note the reading, then take the difference between both the readings to get the volume of solid. Volume
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of a liquid can be measured using measuring cylinder, pipette, biuret, beaker and flask etc. The volume of
the gas is the volume of container.

For Displacement can, fill it with water till its spout and put a measuring cylinder beneath it spout. Then gently
immerse the irregular object into the can, the reading of cylinder wil give the volume of the object.

• For a floating object, to find its volume tie it with a heavier object of known volume and pour it into
measuring cylinder or displacement can. Then subtract volume of heavier object from the volume of
water raised to get volume of floating object.
• Density of a same (pure) material remains same no matter what sizes of objects do we have.

For the objects with same materials

ρ1 = ρ2

m m
1= 2
v v
1 2

W w
1= 2
v v
1 2
P1 P2
= (for cubes of same material)
L L
1 2

• Less denser objects rises or floats and more denser object sinks.

Topic 3: mechanics
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Mechanics: the study of motion.

Kinematics: the study of motion without considering the cause and factors of motion.

Dynamics: The study of motion and its causes and factors.

Rest: an object is said to be at rest if it is not changing its position with respect to an observer.

Motion: an object is said to be in motion if it is changing its position with respect to an observer.

Distance: the length covered in moving from a point to another point. Distance is scalar (always positive) and its SI
unit is meter.

• Distance never decreases it either increases or stays constant.

Displacement: The directed distance between 2 points. It is a vector quantity and its unit is meter.

• Displacement can be positive and negative both. If forward displacement is positive then negative
displacement is in backward direction.
• If starting and final positions are same then net displacement is zero.

Speed (v): Distance covered per unit time. Its unit is m/s. it is scalar quantity.

Distance
Speed =
Time

Uniform speed: If the body covers equal distances in equal intervals of time then its speed is uniform.

Non-uniform Speed: If the body covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time then its speed is non-uniform.

Total Distance
Average Speed =
Total Time

m/s × 3.6 = km/h and km/h ÷ 3.6 = m/s

Velocity (v): Rate of change of displacement. (Speed in a specific direction). Unit is m/s. it is vector quantity.

Displacement
Velocity =
Time

m/s × 3.6 = km/h and km/h ÷ 3.6 = m/s

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Uniform velocity: if body covers equal displacements in equal intervals of times then its velocity is uniform. For an
object having uniform velocity its speed and direction both do not change.

• If the direction of motion is reversed, the sign of velocity changes from + to – or the other way.

Net Displacement
Average velocity =
Total Time

Acceleration (a): It is the rate of change of velocity. It is vector quantity. Its unit is

change in velocity
Acceleration =
time

𝐯 –𝐮
a=
t

Uniform acceleration: when velocity changes equally for equal intervals f time then acceleration is uniform.

Positive acceleration is when velocity is increasing and it’s direction is along the motion of object.

Negative Acceleration (retardation / deceleration) is when velocity is decreasing and it’s direction is opposite to
the direction of motion.

Increasing acceleration is when the rate is increasing at which the velocity is changing.

Decreasing acceleration is when the rate is decreasing at which the velocity is changing.

• Acceleration α Resultant Force

1
• Acceleration α
mass
1
• Acceleration α
Time

If the velocity is not changing then acceleration is zero.

Graph is a line or a curve which can describe the relation between 2 or more quantities.

➢ Quantity which is obtained by dividing 2 other quantities, can be calculated by finding the gradient of the
graph of those 2 quantites.

A
= 𝐶 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 (𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
B
A 1
(𝐵 − 𝐴)𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
= C = gradient 𝑜𝑓
B

➢ If the graph is a curve then gradient will be calculated of the tangent line drawn at the specific point.
➢ Quantity which is obtained after the product (×) of 2 quantities, can be determined by calculating the Area
under the graph.
➢ D × E = F = Area under (D-E) graph

Distance – Time Graph: (d - t)

Gradient (steepness) = speed

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Steeper the graph, faster the speed

Straight line graph : uniform speed

Curved Graph: curved up shows increasing speed and curved down shows decreasing speed.

Graphs i and iv represent constant speed, graph ii shows body at rest and graph iii represents increasing speed
(accelerating)

Displacement – Time Graph:

Gradient (steepness) = velocity

Straight line graph: uniform velocity

Curved Graph: curved up shows increasing velocity and curved down shows decreasing velocity.

In above diagram the four diagrams in a row represent, rest, steady velocity, increasing velocity (accelerating) and
decreasing velocity (decelerating) respectively.
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Speed – Time Graph: (v - t)

Gradient (steepness) = Acceleration

Steeper the graph, higher the acceleration.

Area under the graph: Distance covered

Straight line graph: uniform acceleratioin

Curved Graph: curved up shows increasing acceleration and curved down shows decreasing acceleration.

Velocity – Time Graph: (v - t)

Gradient = Acceleration

Area between the graph and time axis: Displacement

(Area above time axis represents forward + displacement while the Area below time axis represents backward -
displacement)

Straight line graph: uniform acceleration

Curved Graph: curved up shows increasing acceleration and curved down shows decreasing acceleration.
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Gravitational Acceleration (g): it is the acceleration due to gravity. Its value is almost 10 m/s 2 (9.81 m/ s2) on Earth
and 1.6 m/ s2 on the moon.

g is also known as acceleration of free fall or gravitational field strength.

Air Resistance: The force opposing the motion of an object in the air. It depends upon the speed and front surface
area of moving object.

Terminal velocity(vt ): For a free falling body when the drag force (air resistance) becomes equal to its weight
(resultant force= 0) then it moves with a constant velocity known as terminal velocity.

(1) initially at point 1, the speed is zero but acceleration is 9.8 m/s 2 as the only force acting there is
gravity (weight).
(2) from points 1 to 5, the speed increases then then becomes constant and acceleration decreases from
9.8 to zero.
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Thinking distance: The distance covered by the vehicle during reaction (thinking) time of driver. The red area
under the graph in the diagram below represents thinking distance covered during reaction time of first 2 seconds.

Braking distance: The distance covered by the vehicle after applying brakes till it comes to rest. In the diagram
below the blue area under the graph after 2 seconds represents braking distance.

The braking distance can be increased by

• decreasing roughness (friction) of road or tyres.

• Decreasing braking force (applying less force on brakes)
• Using brakes with bad conditions (brakes are not working correctly)
• Increasing speed/weight of vehicle(increasing inertia)

Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance

• Braking distance depends upon the roughness of surface (or tyres),speed of vehicle, condition of brakes,

force applied on brakes and weight of vehicle.

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Topic 4 : Dynamics
Force (F): it is a push or a pull. It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is newton (N). Force can be measured using newton
meter (= force meter = spring balance).

A force can change the shape, position, speed and direction etc of an object.

Resultant force: A force having effect equal to the combined effect of all the forces acting on an object.

Resultant force of 2or more parallel forces is equal to the sum of the magnitude of forces. While for the opposite
forces , the forces are subtracted to get resultant force directed in the direction of larger force.

• If the forces are acting at an angle then the magnitude of resultant force is between the value of Sum and
difference of forces acting. The resultant of the forces acting at angle can be found by using parallelogram
method or head to tail rule.
• Parallelogram method can only be used for resultant of 2 forces only while head to tail rule can add any
number of forces.
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Parallelogram Method: Both vectors are drawn from a point according to a scale in cm and then a parallelogram is
completed which has both the vectors as its sides. The diagonal of parallelogram from the starting point will give
the resultant vector.

In head to tail rule, draw the first vector and then start the tail of second vector from the head of first one and
then start the tail of third from the head of send one and so on. The vector joining the tail of first vector to the
head of last vector is the resultant vector.
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• If there is no gap between the head of last vector and the tail of first one then the resultant is zero and
the forces will be balanced forces.
Newton’s 1st Law of Motion: Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon
by an unbalanced force.

Balanced forces: (conclusion of Newton’s 1st law of motion) The forces which have the zero resultant force.

• The effect of balanced forces is that the object moves at constant velocity or is at rest (means acceleration
is zero).

Inertia: it is the property of an object to resist acceleration.

• Mass is the measure of inertia.

1
Inertia α mass α
acceleration

Jerking and jolting while accelerating or decelerating the motion is caused due to inertia.

Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion: If an onbalanced force acts on an object, an acceeration is produced in the object in
𝐹
the direction of force such that a = 𝑚
Unbalanced forces (conclusion of Newton’s 2nd law of motion) The unbalanced forces have non-zero resultant
force and have the acceleration in the direction resultant force.

Resultant Force = F = ma

The direction of acceleration is always same as that of resultant force. Acceleration is inversely proportional to
the mass of object and directly proportional to the resultant force.
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Newton’s third law of motion: To every action there is an equal but opposite reaction.

When a body A applies force on another body B then at the same time body B will apply an equal but opposite
force on body A.

➢ Action and reaction are the forces and both act at two different objects that is why they do not
cancel each other.
➢ Action and reaction are applied by 2 objects on each other and no 3rd object is involved in action-
reaction.

Types of forces
Drag (viscous) forces (air resistance/ water resistance): The force opposing the motion of an object moving in
a fluid. Drag forces depend upon the speed, surface area of objects and density of the fluid.

Gravitational force: force of attraction between any 2 masses in the universe which is directed towards the centre
of mass attracting.

Upthrust: the upward force applied by a fluid on any object immersed into it. Upthrust is applied by both gases
and liquids and it always opposes weight.

Friction: It is the force which opposes the motion of one surface over the other. Friction depends upon the area in
contact, roughness of surfaces and weight of object. Friction is needed to start / stop any motion, to grip, to
produce heat and fire, to write etc. friction causes tear and wears and wastes energy as heat. It can be reduced by
using lubricants, streamlined shapes, wheels and ball bearings etc.

Tension: It is the pulling force applied on an object through a string, spring or rod etc.

Electrostatic force: Force of attraction or repulsion between charged objects.

Magnetic force: Force of attraction or repulsion between magnetic poles.

Centripetal force: it is the force which causes the object to move along a circular path. Centripetal force and its
acceleration are always towards the center of circular path and perpendicular to the velocity of the object.

Centripetal force between earth and sun is caused by gravitational force.

Centripetal force on turning vehicle is caused by friction.

Centripetal force on turning aeroplane is caused by air resistance.

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Centripetal force on electron moving around nucleus is caused by electrostatic force.

Centripetal force on a stone tied with string is caused by tension.

➢ Centripetal force increases with mass and speed of object but decreases with

radius of circular path.

Topic 5: DEFORMATION (CHANGE IN SHAPE)

Elastic object regains original shape after the force (load) is removed.

Plastic objects donot regain original shape after the applied load (force) is removed.

Rigid object donot change shape when load is applied on it.

Extension(e) = loaded length – unloaded length

Limit of proportionality: Max. load upto which the load and extension are directly proportional to each other.

Hook’s law: within limit of proportionality, load (F) and extension (e) in an elastic object are directly proportional
to each other.

Fαe

F=ke

K is called the spring constant, higher the value of k harder the spring and vice versa. K is also equal to the
gradient of (F-e) graph.

• From the load-extension graph, the limit of proportionality will be the value of load from where the graph
starts to curve.
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• Graph closer to load/force axis represents a harder material which extends lesser.

Connecting elastic objects (springs/rubber bands) in series (one after the other in same line) will make the
combination softer and extension will increase.

Connecting the elastic objects in parallel (side by side) will make the combination harder which extends less.

From the table showing the values of load with related values of extension, the limit of proportionality will be
between the 2 load values between which the extension is not equal (or more than usual). For the example below

it is between 10N and 12N.

Momentum (p): (strength of motion / difficulty in stopping a moving object)

Product of mass and velocity.
p = mv
momentum is a vector quantity and has unit kgm/s or Ns.

impulse = change in momentum = m (v-u) = F x t Impulse can be

defined as the product of force and time. impulse has same unit as
momentum i.e. kgm/s or Ns.
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Law of Conservation of Momentum: Total momentum of an isolated system remains the same.
For 2 objects colliding each other / in explosion / blast, use the formula
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Topic 6 : Moment (Turning Effect)

Moment (Torque): The turning effect of force. It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is N m.

Pivot is the point or line around which an object can rotate. Pivot is also named as axis of rotation.

Moment = Force × perpendicular distance between pivot and direction of force

Principle of moments: For an object in equilibrium

Sum of all clockwise moments = Sum of all anticlockwise moments

F1 × d1 = F2 × d2

M1 × d1= M2 × d2

According to the above diagram, balance a ruler at its center with 2 different weights on either side of pivot, it is
proved that the product F1 × d1 is equal to the product F2 × d2 . it shows that clockwise moment is equal to the
anticlockwise moment.
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➢ Larger force will be closer to the pivot and smaller force will be farther from the pivot.

Note: each force is to multiplied by its perpendicular distance from the pivot. Units of the distances must be
same on both sides of above formula.

Center of gravity: it is the point where the whole weight of the body appears to act. C.o.g. of an object can be in /
out of body. C.o.g. of regular objects lies at the center of the shape.
Center of mass: it is the point where the whole mass of the body appears to lie. C.o.g. = C.o.m.
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For an irregular shape the C.o.g. will be shifted to the position where most of its mass lies.

• Center of gravity of an irregular shape can be found by balancing it on a thin tip, the c.o.g. will be right
above point of balancing.
• For any shape suspended or lifted, its c.o.g. is right above or below point of support.

Experiment: C.o.g. of irregular shape can be found by hanging irregular lamina through 2 or 3 holes alongwith a
plumb-line and draw lines along string of plumb-line each time. The point of intersection of all the lines will be
c.o.g.

c.o.g. of an object shifts towards the side where the mass is shifted.

Tilting:On tilting the object if the line of gravity passes through the base then the object returns to original position
otherwise the object topples over. If the line of gravity passes through edge of the base then the object is just
balanced.

Stability means retaining the position by an object. Stability increases on

• lowering the c.o.g.

• increasing base area of object.

Equilibrium: an object is said to be in state of equilibrium if

• Resultant force acting on it is zero.

• Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments.
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Topic 7: Work-Energy-Power
Work: work is the product of force and distance covered along the force. It is also called the energy transferred.
Its unit is joule (J) and it is a scalar quantity.

Work = force × distance covered along the force

1 Joule is the work done when 1 N force moves an object through 1 m distance in its own direction.

Work done will be zero if the no distance is covered in the direction of force or the no force is applied.

Energy: Ability of a body to do work is called energy. It can be called as amount of work stored in an object. It is
scalar quantity and its unit joule.

Light, sound, electrical energy, heat (thermal) energy, wind energy etc are different forms of energy and each has
unit as joule. Energy by fission process (atomic bomb/nuclear reactor) and fusion process (Star/Sun/ hydrogen
bomb) is nuclear energy.

Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished. Solar energy, hydral energy, wind energy, geothermal energy
and tidal energy are examples of renewable energies.

Internal energy: Sum of K.Es. and P.Es. of all the particles of an object distributed randomly.

Mechanical energy: Sum of P.E. and K.E. of an object.

Potential energy (P.E.): Energy possessed by an object due to its position. P.E. is usually referred as the hidden
energy or energy stored in the body and its types are

Elastic P.E.: Energy possessed by an object due to change in its shape.

Chemical P.E.: Energy possessed by an object due to bonds between particles of an object. Chemical energy is
released when bonds are broken. Energy possessed by food, fuels, batteries and muscles is chemical energy.

Electrical P.E.: Energy possessed due to attraction and repulsion between charges.

Gravitational P.E.:Energy possessed by an object due its height. G.P.E. = mgh = wh

• h is the vertical distance.

Kinetic energy (K.E.):Energy possessed by an object due to its motion. K.E. = ½ mv2
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Law of conservation of energy: Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be changed from one form
to another. Or Total energy of a system remains constant.

For an object not experiencing air resistance,

Falling loss in G.P.E. = Gain in K.E.

Rising Loss in K.E. = gain in G.P.E.

➢ G.P.E. at top = K.E. at bottom

G.P.E. = work done in lifting an object

K.E. = work done in moving or stopping an object

Heat = work done against friction = friction × distance covered along friction

Power (p): Rate of doing work or rate of transfer of energy. It is scalar and it’s unit is watt (W).

Power α Work (energy)

Power α time

1 Watt (W): If an object transfers 1j energy in 1 second then its power is 1 Watt.
𝐖 𝐄 𝐦𝐠𝐡 𝐊.𝐄.
Power = p = = = (lifting) = (moving / stopping)
𝐭 𝐭 𝐭 𝐭

Efficiency: it is the ratio of output (useful) energy to the input energy. It has no unit.

Input energy is the energy supplied to the body (machine).

Output energy is the useful work done by the body (machine).

𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫
% efficiency = × 100 = × 100
input energy input power

Input energy = output (useful) energy + wasted energy (heat)

If the efficiency of an object is 0.5 (50% ) then it shows it wastes half the input energy and convets the other half
into useful output.

0.4 (40%) efficiency shows 60% input energy is wasted and 40% energy is converted into useful output.

Topic 8 : Pressure
Pressure: perpendicular force per unit area. It is scalar and its unit is pascal (Pa).

𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
Pressure =
area

Pressure is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the area at which the force is applied.

➢ Greater the area, lesser the pressure (e.g camel’s feet, rear wheels of tractor, nails bed, ice skating)
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➢ Lesser the area, greater the pressure (e.g blade, heel. Knife, nail)

1 Pascal (Pa): if 1N force acts perpendicularly at 1m2 area then pressure applied is 1 Pa.

Liquid (Fluid) pressure= ρ g h

➢ Liquid pressure depends directly upon density of liquid, gravitational field strength and depth of liquid.
➢ The Liquid applies pressure in all directions to the surfaces in contact. The direction of liquid pressure on
container is sideways and downwards.
➢ Above formula is applicable to find pressure of all fluids (gases and liquids).
➢ Always use h in meters for formula ρgh.

Pascal’s Law: When pressure is applied on a liquid, the liquid transmits this pressure equally in all directions. It
only applies at liquids as liquids are incompressible.

F F
1= 2
A A
1 2

The smaller force applied at smaller area becomes a larger force at larger area and vice versa but the pressure
remains the same at both ends.

Pascal’s law is applied in hydral braking, service stations, hydral press, cranes, shock absorbers and rides at
joylands. Any gas or bubbles inside liquid will not allow all the pressure to be transferred completely.

Gas Pressure: Gas particles moves continuously and randomly at very high speed and collide with each other and
walls of container. Thus gas particles apply pressure. The more frequent the collisions, greater is the gas pressure
and vice versa.

Air Pressure = 100000 Pa = 1.0 × 105Pa = 1 atm

Pressure Gradient: it is the change of pressure per unit distance. It tells the direction and strength of force. The
direction of force is from the region of higher pressure to the region of lower pressure.

The greater the pressure gradient greater is the force and vice versa.

Isobar: it is the imaginary line joining the areas having same atmospheric pressures. Closer isobars represent
higher pressure gradient (greater force of air).
 25

➢ For an object under water,

Total pressure = water pressure + atmospheric pressure

Mercury barometer is a device used to measure air pressure.

Barometer is not constructed using water as it is less denser so a very long tube will be required and it evaporates
and has the air absorbed into it so vacuum is not achieved at the top of water.

➢ In barometer, the atmospheric pressure is measured by using formula ρ g h, where h is difference

between levels of mercury inside tube and the tub. Usually h is 76 cm of mercury.
➢ The value of h is not effected by thickness of tube, length of tube or the tilting of tube.
➢ The h changes inversely with density of liquid used.
➢ ρ1 h1 = ρ2 h2

Manometer measures the difference in pressures of 2 gases (fluids).

Excessive Pressure = ρ g h (h in metre)

 26

Changing thickness of tube does’nt affect hbutchange in liquids (densities) affects the h.

ρ1 h1 = ρ2 h2

Gas laws

Boyle’s Law:For a given mass of gas, its volume is inversely proportional to the pressure applied on it provided the
temperature remains constant.

P1 V1 = P2 V2

Charle’sLaw:For a given mass of gas, its volume is directly proportional to the thermodynamic temperature of the
Gas if pressure on gas remains constant.
 27

𝐕 𝐕
𝟏= 𝟐
𝐓 𝐓
𝟏 𝟐

thermodynamic temperature or absolute temperature means temperature in kelvin scale. In above formula the
temperature will be used in kelvin only.

Topic 9 : Kinetic model of matter

Matter: everything which has mass and occupies space (has density).

Solid is the form of matter which has fixed shape and fixed volume, where as lquid has fixed volume but not a fixed
shape and gas has neither fixed shape nor the fixed volume.

➢ solid particles are tightly packed and donot have gaps that is why solids are incompressible whereas
liquids are incompressible due to repulsion between particles. Gases are easily compressible due to huge
gaps between particles.
➢ Gas particles are very fast and have more K.E. and P.E. whereas the solid particles have lowest K.E and P.E.
 28

➢ Liquid particles vibrate and slide pass each other randomly as well.

Topic 10 : Temperature
Heat: it is the form of energy which flows from a hotter body to a colder body.

Heat is also referred to as the sum of K.E.s of particles of an object.

Temperature (T,): Degree of hotness or coldness of an object. Temperature is also defined as Average K.E. of
particles of an object. Device used to measure the temperature is called thermometer.

There are three temperature scales used, Celcius scale, Kelvin Scale and Fahrenheit scale. The relation between
Celcius and Kelvin scales is

k = c + 273

Thermal property: it is a property of an object which changes with its temperature and is used to estimate the
temperature of object.

Linear thermal properties: These are the properties which change equally for equal changes in temperature and
make a linear graph with temperature. These properties can help measuring the temperature accurately.

𝐋 − 𝐋𝟎
➢ Volume (length) of liquid in uniform glass tube(bore/capillary): = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐋
− 𝐋
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎

𝐋− −𝟏𝟎
𝐋
= × 𝟏𝟐𝟎 + (−𝟏𝟎)
𝐋 𝐋
𝟏𝟏𝟎 − −𝟏𝟎

𝐑
 − 𝐑𝟎
➢ Resistance of an object:  = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐑 𝐑
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎

➢ Pressure of gas at constant volume:

𝐏
 − 𝐏𝟎
= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐏
− 𝐏
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎

➢ EMF (thermocouple) / volts:

𝐕
 − 𝐕𝟎
= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐕
− 𝐕
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟎

➢ For constructing a thermometer we need 2 fixed temperatures.

➢ These fixed temperatures are usually the boiling point and freezing point of water ( but these fixed
temperatures may be other than these).

Sensitivity: it is the change in thermal property per unit change in temperature. A sensitive thermometer can
measure the minor changes in temperatures.

For a liquid in glass thermometer, it is more sensitive if it has

• Narrow bore (capillary)

 29

• Larger bulb (more liquid)

• Wider scale (smaller range)
• the liquid which expands more or the thermal property which changes more with temperature (has
steeper property-temperature graph)

For Quick Response a thermometer should have

• Smaller bulb (lesser liquid)

• Thin wall of bulb
• Prefer mercury over the alcohol or the thermal property which changes faster with temperature (e.g.
resistance, emf)

Linear Scale has equally spaced readings and for linear scale bore or the thickness of capillary must be uniform. For
linear scale linear thermal property is used.

Mercury in Glass thermometer: Expands uniformly with temperature from -39 to 350 ˚C.

- It is poisonous, expansive and has higher freezing point so not good for measuring lower temperatures.

+ it is visible, has higher boiling point and is good for higher temperature measurement. It does’nt wet the
glass and being a metal has a quick response for measuring temperature.

Alcohol In glass thermometer: Expands uniformly with temperature from -114 to 78ˆC.

- It is colourless so colour needs to be added in it for visibility. It has lower boing point so not good for
higher temperature measurement. It is lesser poisonous than mercury but drinking it causes blindness
which leads to death. It wets the glass.

+ it is cheaper and less poisonous than mercury it has lower freezing point so good for measuring lower
temperature measurement.

A Clinical thermometer has a shorter range being sensitive and has constriction which doesn’t allow the liquid
to contract by breaking the liquid thread and there is no change in reading of thermometer. While a
laboratory thermometer is larger in size, has larger range and has no constriction.
 30

Thermocouple: it is quickest and most sensitive thermometer made up of 2 wires of different metals joined
to each other at both ends and with voltmeter connected to one of the wires.

Voltage (emf) shown by voltmeter is directly proportional to the difference in temperatures of both ends.

𝐕 − 𝐕𝟎
= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐕 𝐕
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟎

Thermocouple is made up metals and can be used to find higher temperatures like Lava, but for that purpose
single terminal thermocouple is used which can be a little inaccurate but safe to use.

❖ (ATP Hints)
❖ While measuring the temperature of a liquid, immerse 1/3 of thermometer inside it using a stand and its
bulb is not touching the base or the walls of container.
❖ Use a bore in case of a solid body and insert some oil inside the bore to increase thermal conductivity to
thermometer.
❖ Eye is kept perpendicular to scale at the level of end of liquid thread.
❖ Let the reading of thermometer to be stable before you measure temperature.
❖ Remove the heater or cooler before measuring the temperature of an object or turn them very slow so
the reading is not changed while measuring the temperature.
❖ Room temperature must be stable.
❖ For fair comparison the room temperature, amount of materials or the sizes of containers must be kept
constant.
❖ Use thermocouple or resistance thermometer in situations where temperature is changing quickly.

Topic 11: Transfer of Heat

The rate of transfer of heat is directly proportional to the difference in temperatures of hotter and colder
body.

When a hotter body and a colder body are made in contact with each other, after sometime both objects
come at same temperature and flow of heat is stopped. This state is called as thermal equilibrium.

Law of heat exchange: if no heat is lost to surroundings then

Heat released by hot body = Heat absorbed by cold body

 31

Conduction: it is transfer of heat without any visible flow of material.

➢ It is caused by vibration and collisions of particles of an object.

➢ Solids are best conductors(worst insulators) as they have tightly packed particles. Liquids are bad
conductors (good insulators) and gases are worst conductors (best insulators).
➢ Metals are better conductors than other solids as they have free electrons which help transferring
heat through collisions with atoms of conductor.
➢ Good insulators used in daily life usually trap air. In solids metals are very good conductors as they
have vibration of particles as well as the free electrons which move through the solid very fast and
transfer heat by colliding particles of solid.

Convection: It is the transfer of heat through flow of material(fluids).

The material flows due to change in density. As the hotter fluid expands and becomes less dense so hotter
fluid rises and colder fluid has lesser volume and is more denser so colder fluid sinks down.

Continuous Rising of hotter fluid and sinking of colder fluid is called as convection current. To set up a
convection current heat from bottom of fluid or cool from top of fluid.
 32

Note: vacuum is the perfect insulator and allows no conduction or convection as both conduction and
convection need material (particles) to transfer the heat.

Radiation: it is the transfer of heat through infra-red rays. Infra-red rays are type of light and can travel
through vacuum. As light Only infra-red rays carry heat from a hot object.

➢ Black and dull colours are better absorber (when heated) and emitter (when cooled) of infra-red rays
and get both hot and cold quickly as compared to shiny or reflecting surfaces.
➢ Shiny and light coloured surfaces are good reflectors but bad absorber and emitter of radiation.
➢ Every hotter body emits infra-red rays to cool down and colder body absorbs infra-red rays to
become hotter.

Thermal expansion: Expansion of matter on heating

Usually objects expand on heating and contract on cooling. Gases expand (or contract)more than liquids and
liquids expand (or contract) more than solids.

On heating an object, its particles move faster and bonds between particles are stretched and particles move
apart and as a result the object expands, Vice versa for cooling an object.

Thermal expansion is used for measuring temperature in liquid in glass thermometer, fitting utensils, opening
a tight lid and in thermostats (Bimetallic strip).
 33

Thermal expansion can cause problems like cracks in bridges or buildings, bending of railway tracks, sag of
high tension wires etc.

Bimetallic strip is made up of 2 different metals having different thermal expansions joined together.
Bimetallic strip is curved when heated or cooled due to different rates of thermal expansions of both the
metals. Curving of bimetallic strip makes it useful in devices like thermostat and fire alarms etc.

Topic 12:Thermal Properties of Matter

Heat capacity (C):it is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by 1 ˚C (or by 1 k).its
unit is joule per ˚C (joule per kelvin).
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐐
C= = 
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐓𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞

Materials with lower heat capacity (metals) heat up (or cool down) quickly and vice versa.

For same material, heat capacity of an object increases with its mass.

Specific heat capacity (c):It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 ˚C
(or 1 k).Or heat capacity per unit mass of a material. its unit is joule per kg per ˚C (or K).
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐐
c= = 𝐦 
𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 × 𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐧𝐠𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐓𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞

specific heat capacity (c) of object made of same material remains same no matter what sizes or masses they
are.

j/kg C ÷ 1000 = j/g C

j/g C ×1000 = j/kg C

Specific heat capacity can also be defined as the heat capacity per unit mass.

𝐂
c=
𝐦
 34

Changes of states
 35

Steeper the temperature- time curve, greater the rate of flow of heat and vice versa.
 36

During change of state heat released or absorbed causes weakening (or breaking) bonds and formation (or
strengthening) of bonds. It means heat taken in or out changes P.E. of particles but K.E. of particles remains same,
that is why the temperature remains same.

Latent heat of fusion (Lf):It is the amount of heat required to change a solid into liquid (or liquid into solid) at
fixed temperature. Its unit is joule. Lf= Q

Melting: Heat goes in weakening the bonds between the particles ( increasing the potential energy of
particles).

Freezing: Heat taken out, strengthens the bonds and potential energy of particles decreases.

Latent heat of vaporization (Lv): It is the amount of heat required to change a liquid into gas (or gas into
liquid)at fixed temperature. Its unit is joule.Lv= Q

Boiling: Heat goes in breaking the bonds and pushing against atmospheric pressure (increasing P.E. of
particles).

Condensation: Heat taken out makes the bonds formed (P.E. decreases of particles).

➢ In all changes of states at fixed temperatures the K.E. of the particles remains the same, that is why
temperature stays the constant.

Specific latent heat of fusion (lf): It is the amount of heat(Q) required to change 1 kg of a solid into liquid at
fixed temperature. Its unit is joule per kg.
𝐐
lf =
𝐦

Specific latent heat of vaporisation (lv): It is the amount of heat (Q) required to change 1 kg of a liquid into gas
at fixed temperature. Its unit is joule per kg.
𝐐
lv=
𝐦

The material with lower latent heat changes state quicker than other materials due to weaker bonds between the
particles.

Note: if temperature changes then state remains same and when the state is changing, the temperature
remains constant.

➢ lv is greater than lf as lf is used to weaken the bonds while lv is used to break bonds and pushing
against atmospheric pressure.

Evaporation: spontaneous conversion of liquid into gaseous form at any temperature other than boiling point.

Evaporation Boiling
Occurs at all Occurs at fixed
 37

temperatures temperature
Slow process Fast process
Occurs at surface of Occurs throughout the
liquid liquid
Causes cooling Does not causes cooling
Heat is taken from Needs a source of heat
surroundings usually
➢ Evaporation causes cooling of surroundings as liquid particles take heat away from surroundings to
break their bonds and escape into the air.
➢ During evaporation, the most energetic surface liquid particles leave the surface and the average
k.E.(temperature) of the remaining particles is decreased and this causes the cooling of liquid.

To increase the rate of evaporation

• Increase surface area of liquid: so more liquid particles can leave the surface at a time.
• Increase temperature: liquid particles are more energetic and break the bonds easily and quickly.
• Increase air speed (draught): so more air particles strike the liquid surface to carry more liquid particles
away.
• Decrease humidity: if there is less concentration of liquid particles in air, the liquid particles diffuse faster
into air.
• Decrease atmospheric pressure: the liquid particles will need less energy to push against atmospheric
pressure so they break the bonds easily and quickly.
• Use a liquid with lower boiling point: bonds between particles are weaker and the liquid particles break
the bonds easily and quickly.

Topic 13: Waves

Waves: A mechanism of transfer of energy through oscillation of particles or fields.
 38

Wave Motion: Transfer of energy through the medium due to oscillation of particles without any net movement of
medium.

The tem medium refers to material through which the wave travels.

Mechanical waves: waves which need medium to travel.

Electromagnetic waves: waves which don’t need any medium to travel.

2 Types of mechanical waves

1)Transverse waves: waves in which particles of medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave.

Crest: highest point of the medium above rest position.

Trough: lowest point of medium below rest position.

2)Longitudinal waves: waves in which particles of medium vibrate parallel to the direction of wave.

Compression: part of medium where particles are closer.

Rarefaction: part of medium where particles are far apart.

Displacement: Directed distance of a particle from its mean (rest) position.

Amplitude: max. displacement of a particle from its mean position.

Time period (T): time for 1 complete wave to pass through a point.

Frequency (f): number of waves passing through a point in 1 second.

1 Hz = 1 waves per second

20 Hz = 20 waves per second

 39

➢ Time period (/frequency) of any 1 particle of medium is same as the time period (/frequency) of the
wave.

Phase: angle corresponding to the position of a particle in displacement – time graph.

In phase points: points having same displacement and direction on (d-t) graph.

Wavelength (λ): shortest distance between the two points in phase with each other.

Wavefront: Line joining the points in phase with each other.

➢ Gap between neighboring wavefronts is equal to the wavelength.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed of a wave = v = =fλ
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

V=fλ

• Transverse and longitudinal waves are different in shape but their displacement-time graph and
displacement-distance graph are similar in shape.
40
 41

Topic 14: Electromagnetic Waves (lights):

 42

General properties (similarities)

Need no medium to travel. Are transverse in nature.Can travel through the vacuum. Are produced by
interaction of electric and magnetic fields.Are not deflected by electric or magnetic field. Travel at the speed
of light (3 × 108 m/s). Travel in form of rays.

In electromagnetic spectrum, frequency decreases (wavelength increases) from gamma rays (ϒ) to Radio
waves. But all electromagnetic waves travel at same speed (speed of light).

Gamma rays (ϒ): most penetrating waves, used to kill cancer cells, to find cracks in metals, for producing
fluorescent lights.

X-Rays: very penetrating. Used for observing bone structure, crystal structure, checking luggage at air ports
and cracks in metals, for producing fluorescent lights.

Ultra-violet: used for tanning skin, at sunbeds for sterilization( killing bacteria), can produce fluorescent light.

Visible Light: Used for seeing and photosynthesis.

Infra-Red: have heating effect. Used in remotes, infra-red imaging, cooking grills.

Microwaves: used in Ovens, radars, satellites and communication.

Radio waves: used for radio / TV channels, mobiles and communication.

• Radio and Microwaves are used in satellites and communication as they have maximum wavelength and
are dispersed (spread) less and reach stronger to longer distances. Lesser boosters or amplifiers are
required for theses waves.

Topic 15: Sound

Sound: Sensation produced at ear.

Sound travels in form of longitudinal waves and is produced by a vibrating object

When an object vibrates, it produces compressions and rarefactions in air, so a longitudinal wave is setup in air
which carries sound energy to the ear drum of observer.

• Sound cannot travel through vacuum.

 43

Sound can travel through all mediums (all forms of matter).

Speed of sound in different mediums depends upon the density, temperature etc of medium as well as humidity
in air.

Speed of sound is faster in denser medium as the particles are closer.

Speed of sound can be calculated by many a ways, 3 fo them are

Exp.1: use a louder gun and set a student with stop watch at a measured long distance. The student starts the
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
stop watch at seeing the fire or puff and stops at hearing the sound then uses formula speed = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Exp.2: A student with starting gun and stop watch is standing at a distance d from a building and stars the gun
2×𝑑
and stop watch simultaneously and stops the watch at hearing echo and then uses the formula speed = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 44

Exp.3: A student with a staring gun and a stop watch stands between two tall buildings at distances d 1 and d2
and starts gun and watch simultaneously and records time for 2 echos at t 1 and t2. Then uses the formula speed
𝟐 ×(𝒅𝟐−𝒅𝟏)
=
𝒕𝟐−𝒕𝟏

Law of Reflection of sound can be justified by setting up the following apparatus.

Loudness: property of sound which differentiates between a loud sound and a faint sound. It depends upon
amplitude.

Pitch: property of sound which differentiates between a shrill sound and a grave sound. It depends upon
frequency.

Quality of sound: it differentiates between sound having different waveforms (timbres).

 45

Sound is a longitudinal wave and in above diagrams the graphs of sound from CRO are shown which are similar in
shape to transverse wave.

Audible range of sound for human beings is from 20 to 20000Hz.

Infrasonic sound: sound having frequency lower than 20 Hz and is not heard by human beings.

Ultrasound wave: sound wave having frequency above 20000 Hz and is not audible to humans.

Note: frequency of sound = frequency of vibrating object

Ultrasound is produced using Quartz crystals vibrated electrically at frequencies higher than 20000Hz.

Ultrasound waves are used for

cleaning teeth, breaking kidney stone (through resonance i.e. matching frequency)

finding river depth, distance, cracks in metals, to observe soft tissues in organisms (through reflection).

Topic 16: reflection

Reflection: bouncing back of a wave off an obstacle.

Light is reflected off the polished and shiny surfaces.

Reflection of light off a smooth surface is regular reflection.

Reflection of light of a rough surface is a diffused/scattered/irregular reflection.

 46

Laws of reflection: i) incident wave, reflected wave and normal line are coplanar.

ii) Angle of incidence = angle of reflection

during reflection v, f, λ remain same only direction changes.

Image formed by Plane Mirror is of same size and distance from mirror as that of object. This image is virtual
(can’t be seen on any screen), upright but sideways (laterally) inverted (left and right are interchanged).

Image is formed perpendicularly behind the mirror and can be located by joining any 2 reflected rays behind the
mirror.
 47

Reflection of light can be used for seeing own reflection, decoration, security, lighting and increasing area of vision.

Topic 17: Refraction

Refraction: Bending of wave due to change in its speed when it enters region from another.

During refraction direction, speed and wavelength are changed but frequency remains constant.

For the wave entering the medium perpendicularly (along the normal line) the speed and wavelength of wave
changes but the direction and frequency remain same.

Laws of refraction:

i) incident wave, refracted wave and normal are coplanar.

sin 𝑖
ii) = constant (= refractive index of enetering medium in case of light refraction)
sin 𝑟

Refractive index of entering medium = n = sin 𝑖

sin 𝑟

Refractive index has no unit.

In Denser In Rarer medium /

medium/Shallower deeper water
water
Bends towards normal Bends away from
normal
Speed decreases Speed increases
Wavelength decreases Wavelength increases
Unchanged Frequency Unchanged Frequency
Larger refractive index Smaller refractive index
 48

𝑉2
n1 =
sin ∠2
= = 𝜆2 (light entering from medium 2 into medium 1)
sin ∠1 𝑉1 𝜆1

Refractive indices of neighboring mediums are reciprocal of each other.

➢ Different medium have different refractive index.

➢ Same medium has different refractive index as if the light is entering into the medium from different
mediums.
➢ Higher refractive index means speed of light changes more and the light bends more and vice versa.

Total internal reflection: if the light entering from a denser medium into a rarer (lighter) medium, makes angle of
incidence greater than critical angle then light is reflected back into denser medium.

Critical angle (Ĉ):the angle of incidence made in denser medium for which the angle refraction in rarer medium is
90˚.

The value of Ĉ for the glass is 42 degree and for the water is 49 degree.

1
Refractive index of denser medium = n= sin Ĉ

Effects/ uses of total internal reflection: rainbow, mirage, in endoscopy, in fibre optics etc.
 49

➢ In total internal reflection all the light is reflected back into the denser medium and in normal reflection,
not all the light is reflected.
➢ Total internal reflection occurs when light is entering rarer medium from a denser medium and the
normal reflection of light occurs off shiny surfaces.
➢ Total internal reflection occurs when angle of incidence is greater than critical angle but normal reflection
occurs at all angles.

Note: use sensors and CRO to demonstrate reflection and refraction of sound and invisible waves

Topic 18 : Dispersion of light

Dispersion of light: splitting up of white light into its component colours after passing through prism or any other
object.

Band of colours obtained is called the spectrum. In spectrum frequency (/refractive index) decreases (wavelength
increases) as we move violet to red.

Light splits up into different colours as white light is made up of 7 different colours and each colour has different
wavelength (/ refractive index) and bends at different angle so this way colours are separated from each other.
𝟏
Bending (refractive index) α
𝝀

Bending (refractive index) α f

Topic 19: Lenses

Lenses: Transparent materials which can show an object bigger or small using refraction.

Converging Lenses: Theses lenses are thicker in the middle. These lenses are used to treat long sightedness.

Diverging lenses: These lenses are thinner in the middle. These lenses are used to treat short sightedness.
 50

Centre of the lens is called optical centre. The ray passing through optical centre, does not bend as it is along the
normal.

Principle focus: the point where the rays join or appear to join after passing through a lens.

Focal length (f): distance between focus and optical centre.

➢ A thicker lens has shorter focal length and bends light more as compared to a thinner lens.

Principle axis: line passing through the focus and optical centre of the lens.
 51

➢ To form an image at least 2 rays are required and the image is formed where the rays join (real image)
or appear to join (virtual image).

Real image can be formed on a screen and is formed when rays from an object join each other, whereas Virtual
image cannot be formed on any screen and rays on appear to come from the point where virtual image is
formed.

Linear magnification: it is the ratio of size of image to the size of object. It has no unit.
𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Linear Magnification = =
𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
52
53
 54

❖ (ATP Hints)
❖ For laws of reflection or refraction, draw the boundaries of mirror, glass slab or prisms at starting.
❖ Distances between pins must be greater than 5 cm and align the pins from the bottoms of pins keep
angle of incidence greater for accuracy.
❖ For measuring magnification or object/image distance, the image must be sharp and focused (dark
room) and measure the distance of object/image from the center of lens by placing the ruler closer and
using set square (or optical bench).

Quantity Unit Formula

Time period (T) Second (s) 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 1 𝜆
𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 = 𝑓 =𝑣

Frequency (f) Hertz (Hz) 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 1 𝑣

= =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇 𝜆
 55

𝑣 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Wavelength (λ) Meter (m) =
𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠

Topic 20 : Static Electrictiy

Static electricity: It is the charge accumulated on an object.

It is usually accumulated due to friction and causes sparks, cracking and attraction etc.

Charging by rubbing: When 2 objects are rubbed together and exchange of electrons occurs then both the objects
get equally but oppositely charged.

• No charging occurs with metal as one of objects rubbing as metals are good conductors and neutralize the
charge of other object by absorbing it.
• If there is no friction or less friction then electrons are not transferred and no charging occurs.

The object which releases electrons gets positively charged (usually glass, fur etc) and the one which gains
electrons gets negatively charged (usually ebonite wood, silk etc.)

Electrostatic force : Force of attraction or repulsion between 2 charge objects.

• Same (like) charges repel each other.

• Opposite (unlike) charges attract each other.
 56

1 coulomb (C): If 1 ampere current passes through a conductor for 1 second then charge flown through the
conductor is said to be 1 coulomb.

Electrostatic induction: When a charged object is brought closer to a neutral object equal but opposite charges are
formed at 2 different ends of the neutral object, this process is called electrostatic induction.

Earthing (grounding): Process of removing the excess charge on an object by means of the transfer of electrons
between it and another object of substantial size.
 57

Effects and applications of static electricity

Lightening:

Electric precipitator:

Electric spray gun:

Photocopier: All types of printing involves static electricity, a schematic diagram of photocopier is shown below.
 58

Van de graaff generator:

Electric field: Area surrounding a charged object within which any other charged object can feel its electrostatic
force.

Electric field line: The path followed by a unit positive charge inside an electric field.
 59

The direction of electric field is from positive charge (high potential) to the negative charge (low potential).

Topic 21: Current Electricity: The charge in motion.

Current(I): The rate of flow of charge.

𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞
Current =
𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝐐
I=
𝐭

Conventional current: Current caused by the flow of positive charge. It is directed from positive charge (high
potential) to the negative charge (low potential).

Electronic current: Current due to flow of electrons and is directed from negative terminal to positive terminal.
 60

NOTE: we study only conventional current so from now on the word current means the conventional current.

1 Ampere (A): If 1 coulomb charges passes through a conductor in 1 second then current flown is 1 ampere.

Sources of current: The devices which convert the non-electrical energy into electrical energy.

Chemical energy of cells/batteries, mechanical energy of generator, light energy by solar cell and heat by
thermocouple are converted into electrical energy.

Electrical energy: Kinetic energy of moving charges.

Electromotive Force ( emf, E) Potential Difference ( P.D. , V)

Volt supplied by a source of current (battery etc) Volt consumed by an electric component (wire, bulb
etc)
Non-electric energy converted into electric energy Electric energy converted into non-electric energy
Energy supplied to the charge Energy supplied by the charge

Electromotive force (emf): Work done in moving a unit positive charge through out a circuit. OR It is the non-
electrical energy converted into electrical energy which is used to move a unit positive charge from negative
terminal of battery to its positive terminal (or through out the circuit). Emf is the work done by the source.
𝑾
ε = emf = Unit : Volts (V)
𝐐

Potential difference(V): Work done by a unit positive charge in moving through an electric component. OR It is the
electrical energy converted into non-electrical energy used to move a unit positive charge from one point to
another point. P.D. is the work done by charge.
𝑾
V= Unit : Volts (V)
𝐐

Note: Volts supplied by a source of current is Emf and the volts used by an appliance is potential difference.
 61

• Ohm’s Law: The current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
(V) applied across its ends, provided if there is no change in physical properties ( temp., volume and state
etc) of conductor.

VαI

V=IR
 62

Only pure metals at constant temperature obey ohm’s law and are called ohmic conductors.

V=IR

Here in this formula above, R is the constant of proportionality and it itself is a very important quantity called
Resistance.

Resistance (R):“Opposition to the flow of current”. It is caused by the collisions of conducting electrons with atoms
of conductor.
𝑽
R=
𝐈

Resistance can also be defined as, “Potential difference per unit current.”

Unit: ohm(Ω)

1 ohm (Ω): if 1 volt is applied across a conductor and 1 ampere current passes through it then its resistance is 1
ohm.

Metals have very low resistance (e.g. 10-4Ω) while insulators have very high resistance (e.g. 107Ω)

Resistance controls the current in a conductor

Greater the resistance, smaller the current and vice versa.

The resistance of metals increases with temperature as at higher temperature the atoms of metals vibrate faster
and collide with conducting electrons at higher rate.

While the resistance of semiconductors decreases with increase in temperature.

Resistors: The devices which are used to provide resistance in a circuit. The electrical devices (lamp, motor etc) can
be used as resistors.

Fixed resistors(ususallycolour coded ) provide constant resistance to obtain a fixed value of current in a circuit.
 63

Colour coded Carbon resistors are used as fixed resistors which have usually 3 colour bands. First 2 bands
represent numbers and third band represents number of zeros.

Variable resistors (dimmer, rheostat etc) can change the resistance to have different amount of current.

Thermistors are heat sensitive resistors and their resistance decreases with increase in temperature and vice
versa. The resistance of thermistors (semiconductors) decreases with increase in temperature as the temperature
increases more the electrons get free.
 64

Light dependent resistors (LDR)(semiconductor) are light sensitive resistors and their resistance decreases with
increase in intensity of light and vice versa.

For conductors of same material,

Resistance α length of conductor (R α L)

1 1
Resistance α Area of cross section (thickness)𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (R α )
A

𝐿
Rα
A

𝐿
R =ρ
A

Resistivity: it is the resistance of unit volume (1m3) of a substance. Its unit is Ωm. the resistivity of the same
material remains same, irrespective of its size.
 65

𝑅𝐴
Resistivity = ρ =
L

For 2 conductors made up of same materials

𝑹𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑨𝟐
=
𝐋𝟏 𝐋𝟐

Direct current (DC): It is the current which does not change direction and size. (By cell and battery)

Alternating current (AC): It is the current which keeps changing direction and size. (home supply)

Circuit : It the path through which the current can flow.

Closed circuit: Complete path for current without any break.

Open circuit: incomplete (broken) path through which the current cannot flow.

( Open means off, closed means on)

 66

Series circuit: The circuit which has only one path for current to flow. A series circuit uses less wires and switches
but one break in the circuit makes all the circuit co out. In a series circuit

➢ current is same in all components

➢ The potential difference is divided. So the series circuit can be used as a potential divider. The greater the
resistance more the potential difference across it. If three resistors R1, R2, R3 are connected in series then
voltage across each resistor can be obtained like

𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
V1= × 𝑽, V2 = ×𝑽
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑

Resistors connected in series behave like a large resistor and the current is minimum in series circuit.

Equivalent resistance= Re = R1 + R2 + R3
 67

Series circuit also acts a potential divider like in the diagram below the V out increases as it gets dark and vice versa
because the Resistance of LDR decreases with increase in light.

In the diagram below the V2 increases with the decrease in temperature.

In the diagram below Vout increases from zero to Vin as the slider contact is moved from the bottom of resistor to
its top.
 68

Parallel circuits have more than 1 paths for current to flow. Parallel circuit has separate switches and paths for
each appliance and if any path is broken the other paths are not affected.

➢ In parallel circuit the potential difference is same for all but the current is divided.

Resistors connected in parallel behave like a small resistor and the current flowing through a parallel circuit is
maximum.

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝐑𝐞 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑
 69

• Cells connected in series make a battery. When cells are connected in series, their voltages are added.
• Cells connected in parallel, give the voltage same as that of a single cell but work for longer.
 70

Greater the resistance of the circuit, more is the heating produced by it.

Usually the nichrome wire is used in iron, electric kettle and heater as nichrome wire has higher resistance and
produces a huge amount of heat.

Filament lamp:it is mainly consisted of a tungsten filament which has a very high resistance and gets hot with even
a lower current. It approximately gives 90 % energy in form of heat and remaining in form of light.

Fluorescent lamp:it consists of a discharge tube having gas filled in at a very low pressure and when electron beam
passes through it the gas atoms get excited and emit mostly (80%) ultraviolet radiation on de-exciting which is
converted into visible light by a layer of zinc sulphide. It is far more efficient than filament lamp.
 71

Electron volt: electron volt is the energy used to move an electron through a conductor across which a potential
difference of 1 volt is applied.

1 ev = 1.6 × 10-19 j

Kilo- watt hour is a large unit of energy used to measure the electrical energy used by electrical appliances at
home etc.

1 kilo-watt hour (1 kWh) is the energy used by an electrical component of 1000 W power in 1 hour.

1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 j

Fuse and circuit breakers are the devices used to stop the excessive current in a circuit.

Live wire is the wire carrying high potential and gives current to the appliance while the Neutral wire is carrying
almost the zero potential and takes current away from appliance. Earth wire is carrying zero potential and
connects the metal case of any appliance to the earth.
 72

Short circuit: a circuit having negligible resistance and carrying too large current. It occurs when the live wire gets
in contact with neutral wire or metallic casing (earth wire). It also occurs if positive and negative terminals get in
direct contact with no resistance (appliance) between them. The short circuit can cause fire and sparking.
 73

Circuit breaker, fuse and switch are all connected to the live wire in a circuit, otherwise the electric component
will be at high potential and will give shock.

Fuse: Fuse is used in the circuit to stop excessive current to flow in the circuit. It consists of a thin metal wire
encapsulated in a glass tube, which melts due to a larger current than its rating.

Fuse symbol

Fuse picture

Miniature Circuit Breaker: Circuit Breaker does the same work as fuse but rather than blowing up it trips (breaks)
the circuit and need not to be replaced every time when the circuit trips.

Rating of fuse and circuit breaker is usually just larger than the normal current passing through the circuit.
 74

❖ (ATP Hints)

❖ Ammeter is always connected in series with the component through which the current passes and with
corresponding terminals of battery.
❖ Voltmeter is always connected parallel to the component or the cell.
❖ Knock the ammeter or voltmeter to reduce friction at the needle of meter.
❖ Keep the switch off while connecting the components to avoid spark or the shock.
❖ Usually connect a variable resistor in a circuit to avoid higher current or overheating and start the
experiment with maximum resistance then decrease the resistance gradually to increase the current.
❖ Avoid higher voltage or current to prevent spark or overheating.
❖ Range of electric meters should be just above the maximum value use to have larger deflection. Greater is
the deflection, the greater will be the accuracy.
❖ Avoid parallax error by keeping eye perpendicular to the scale.
❖ Check the connection are tight if circuit is not working.
❖ Use crocodile clips for connections.

Quantity Formula SI Unit

Coulomb (C)
𝑾
Charge (Q) Q=I×t= 1C = 1A × 1s
𝐕

Ampere (A)
𝐐 𝑽 𝐩 𝟏𝐂
Current (I) I= = = 1A =
𝐭 𝐑 𝐕 𝟏𝐬

𝑾
Elelctromotive force (emf) Emf = Volt (V)
𝐐

𝑾 𝐏
Potential difference (V) V= = 𝑰𝑹 = Volt (V)
𝐐 𝐈

𝐕 V2 𝐏
Resistance (R) R= = = Ohm (Ω)
𝐈 𝐏 I2

Power supplied (p) P = VI Watt (W)

Electrical energy supplied (E) E = p × t = VIt = V Q Joule (J)

V2
Power dissipated/lost (p) P = I2 R = Watt (W)
𝐑

𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬 × 𝐡𝐫𝐬
Kilowatt-hour (kWh) No. of kWh = kWh
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
 75

Topic 22 : magnets
Magnets which are naturally found are the oxides of iron and artificial magnets are usually made up of steel and
alnico. A freely suspended magnet is naturally oriented with two of its ends in the direction of North and South
poles of Earth and these ends are called poles of magnets.

All the strength of a magnet lies at its poles.

Same poles repel each other and opposite poles attract each other.

Magnetic materials are attracted by the magnets. Usually iron, nickel, cobalt and any mixture of metals (alloys)
containing any of these 3 metals are magnetic.

Soft magnetic materials (soft iron) are strongly attracted by the magnets and behave like a strong magnet (have
poles) when are near to a magnet or are in contact with a magnet and are called induced magnets. Soft magnetic
materials are easy to magnetize and demagnetize and are preferred to make electromagnets, used as core of
transformer and for magnetic shielding etc. Electromagnets can be very strong and can be magnetized or
demagnetized by switching on / off the current.

Hard magnetic materials (steel) are attracted weakly by the magnets but retain the magnetism for longer time if
remain attached to a magnet for some time. Hard magnetic materials are preferred to make permanent magnets.
Hard materials are magnetized using stroke method (single / double) or keeping them inside a coil carrying DC.
 76

A magnet is made up of a large number of tiny magnets (domains). If these tiny magnets are aligned in the same
direction then material is magnetized and if these tiny magnets are in random arrangement then the material is
not magnetized.

A magnet can be demagnetizedby heating, hitting or keeping it inside a coil carrying AC and pulling the magnet
outwards slowly or decreasing strength of AC gradually.

Magnetization: A steel bar can be magnetized by Stroke method. In single stroke method, one pole of a magnet is
slide passed over the steel bar for several time and steel bar is magnetized. In double stroke method opposite
poles of 2 magnets are slide passed over the steel bar in opposite directions.

Placing a steel bar inside a coil carrying DC also makes it a magnet.

Magnetic field: Area surrounding a magnet within which a magnetic material can feel the effect of the magnet is
called its magnetic field. The direction of magnetic field is from North to South pole.

Magnetic field Line: the path followed by the north pole of a magnet inside a magnetic field is called magnetic field
line.
 77

The pattern of magnetic field can be made by sprinkling iron fillings on a magnet or by using compass needle as
shown in figure.

The strength of the magnetic field lies at the poles of a magnet where the field lines are closer and the field is
weakest at the center of the magnet where field lines are farthest. Straight lines represent a uniform field where
as curved magnetic lines represent a non-uniform field.

Topic 23: Electromagnetism

When the current flows through any conductor, it behaves like a magnet and a magnetic field is produced around
the magnet. The pattern of magnetic field depends upon the shape of the conductor.

Whenever the current (DC) flows through a wire a circular magnetic field is produced around the wire. This circular
field does not have any field.
 78

Right hand grip rule: if the wire is gripped in right hand with thumb directed along the current then the curl of
fingers shows the direction of magnetic field. This field has no poles.

Magnetic field around a bent wire (coil/solenoid) is similar to the field produced by a bar magnet and has poles.

Right hand grip rule: Grip the coil in the right hand with the fingers curled along the direction of current the
erected thumb points towards the north pole of the field.
 79

Usually an electromagnet is made up of coil carrying direct current and having soft iron as core inside it.

Strength of an electromagnet can be increased by

• Increasing number of turns of coil (length of wire)

• Increasing current
• Using soft iron as core

2 closer current carrying wires ( or coils ) having currents in the same direction attract each other and having
currents in the opposite directions repel each other.
 80

➢ A current carrying wire (or coil) when placed in a magnetic field feels a force. The force is perpendicular
to both the direction of current and magnetic field and its direction can be obtained using Fleming’s left
hand rule.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: Point first finger along the direction of magnetic field, the second (middle) finger along
the direction of current then the pointing thumb shows the direction of force acting on the conductor.

Strength of the force can be increased

➢ Increasing current
➢ Using stronger magnet
➢ Increasing length of wire (no. of turns of coil) inside magnetic field
➢ Making wire perpendicular to the magnetic field

For a rectangular coil carrying current in a magnetic field experiences a couple (2 equal and opposite forces having
different line of actions).

Moment of couple = 1 0f force × perpendicular distance between forces

Motor: A device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Principle: when current flows through the coil it behaves like a magnet. The sides of coil perpendicular to magnetic
field experience opposite forces according to Fleming’s left hand rule. These 2 forces form a couple and make the
coil rotate.
 81

Split ring commutator reverses direction of current and allows rotation without twisting wires.

Carbon (graphite) brushes are slippery and conductor and allow smooth rotation of coil keeping it in contact with
the battery.

➢ Gap between 2 split (half) rings is to make sure that no split ring is in contact with both +/- terminals at
the same time (to avoid short circuit)
➢ After passing through every vertical position, the split rings change their terminals and the direction of
current and the force on sides of coil are reversed to give a continuous rotation.
➢ At vertical position, none of split ring is in contact with any of brushes, to make sure no current passes
through coil and coil continues its rotation due to its own inertia (momentum) before the split rings
change terminals.

When the coil is in horizontal position, its moment is maximum as the perpendicular distance between
forces acting at both arms is maximum.
 82

To increase the moment (torque/turning) of the coil

➢ Increase the current

➢ Use stronger magnet
➢ Increase number of turns of coil (length) inside magnetic field
➢ Increase the width of coil (to increase torque of couple)
➢ Use soft iron core
Topic 23 : Electromagnetic Induction
Magnetic flux: It is the number of magnetic field lines passing through an area.

Magnetic flux = magnetic field strength × area facing the field

Change in magnetic flux = cutting magnetic field lines

• Magnetic flux is changed if either magnetic field strength or the area facing magnetic field is changed.

Electromagnetic induction: when there is a change in magnetic flux passing through a conductor an emf (current)
is induced in the conductor.
 83

The magnitude of induced emf can be increased

➢ By increasing strength of magnet/electromagnet

➢ By increasing number of turns of coil (length of wire)
➢ By increasing relative speed of magnet \ coil (increasing rate of change of magnetic flux)

Reversing the direction of motion, reverses the direction of induced current as direction of induced current for
increasing flux is opposite to that of decreasing flux.

Faraday’s law: The magnitude of induced emf in a conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linkage.

Lenz’s law: Direction of the induced field is such as to oppose the cause producing it.
 84

• This opposition of induced field causes kinetic energy to be wasted during the motion and this wasted
energy is in fact converted into electrical energy to produce induced Emf.

Fleming’s right Hand Rule: To find the direction of induced current Fleming’s right hand rule is used with the first
finger along magnetic field (N->S), thumb along force on conductor and the second (middle) finger shows the
direction of induced current.

Generator: A device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

 85

Principle: When the coil rotates inside a magnetic field, the area facing the magnetic poles keeps changing so the
flux changes and Emf is induced in the coil.

Slip rings allow the rotation of coil without twisting of wires and keep intact with carbon brushes.

During rotation the same side of coil changes its direction (magnetic flux through the coil increases and decreases
continuously ) that is why the emf induced is AC.
 86

In the above diagram, in positions 1,3,5 the coil is vertical and does not cut any magnetic line so no no emf is
induced at these positions. While at positions 2,4 the coil is horizontal and cuts the magnetic lines at maximum
rate so emf induced is maximum at these positions. Due to same sides moving in opposite directions in positions 2
and 4 , emf induced is in opposite directions in both positions.

Increasing the speed of rotation of coil increases the magnitude of induced emf and its frequency but increasing
the number of turns of coil or using a stronger magnet will cause only the induced Emf to increase without any
change in frequency.

Transformer: A device which transfers electrical energy between 2 or more circuits through electromagnetic
induction.

Iron core (laminated) is used to strengthen the magnetic flux linkage passing through secondary coil due to the
current in primary coil.

Principle: The change in magnetic flux due to change in current (AC)of primary coil causes the Emf to be induced in
secondary coil.
 87

Due to AC in primary coil the magnetic field and magnetic flux through secondary coil increases and decreases in a
regular pattern which causes induced emf to change its direction in the similar pattern so the emf induced in
secondary coil is an AC.

• If the number of turns of secondary coil are more than primary coil then𝑽𝑺 is greater than 𝑽𝒑 and the
transformer is called step up transformer. Step up transformer transmits energy at higher voltage (but
lower current) for longer distances so that power lost is reduced.
• If the number of turns of primary coil is greater than secondary coil then the transformer is called as step
down transformer (𝑉𝑝> 𝑉𝑆) which transmits energy at lower voltage but higher current and is suitable for
smaller distance transmission.

𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝐼𝑆
=
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑠 = 𝐼𝑝

➢ For longer distances (from power stations to city grids) the electricity is transferred at higher voltage
which reduces the current and power loss through the wires. (Step Up Transformer)
➢ For shorter distances (from city grids to places Inside city) the electricity is transferred at lower voltage so
appliances are not damaged.(Step Down transformer)

Topic 24: ELECTRONICS

Study of the behavior of electrons is called electronics.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

 88

Thermionic emission: When a metal is heated, its free electrons absorb energy and leave the surface of metals.
This process is called thermionic emission and these emitted electrons are called thermions.

A metal filament is very thin and longer in length as compared to its apparent length so it has a very high
resistance and gets hot with even a very small current and emits electrons. Reversing the terminals of battery of
filament doesn’t affect.

The filament is placed inside a discharge glass tube and a very high positive voltage (anode) is applied to attract
the electrons to accelerate them. Same amount of negative potential is applied at grid which makes electrons not
to get scattered in directions other than anode. Reversing the poles at anode and grid will cause no electrons beam
to flow.

Very low gas pressure or vacuum inside tube helps electrons flow without any hurdle as any atoms present can
block the way of electrons.

Electrons are negatively charged and deflected by electric field (from negative to positive terminal) and magnetic
field (according to Fleming’s left hand rule with direction taken opposite to conventional current).

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a graph plotting device and can be used to examine the change in any quantity
after converting into electric signals.

CRO consists of Electron gun (filament circuit + grid + anode), 2 pairs of deflection plates (X plate and Y plates) and
a graph sheet likefluorescent screen (made of zinc sulphide which shows a bright dot where electron beam hits the
screen) with all these are fitted inside a glass discharge tube with a very low gas pressure.

X- plates are placed horizontally on both side of electron beam and are connected to a special AC voltage of saw
tooth form called as Time Base Generator (TBG) and the function of TBG is to make the dot on screen move
horizontally. If the time period of TBG is kept very small (and frequency higher) then dot on screen appears as line.
 89

The time period settings of the graph on screen can be adjusted using X-control.

X shift : The voltage across X plates can also be used to change the position of dot on screen horizontally and this
change is called as X shift.

Similarly the voltage across Y plates moves the dot/graph vertically and causes Y shift.

Any electrical signal to be examined is Y input (Y plates) of CRO.

Y- plates are placed right above or below electronic beam and DC voltage across Y plates causes the dot or line on
screen to move vertically according to the settings on Y controls while the AC voltage across y plates causes the dot
to vibrate vertically and the line on screen to change in waveform.
• Time = number of horizontal divisions x time base settings
• Voltage = number of vertical divisions x y-settings

• Decreasing the y-settings will increase the height of graph and vice versa.
• Decreasing the x-settings increases the width of graph and vice versa.

Potentiometer consists of a longer wire across which a potential difference V is applied and any 2 points of the
wire can be used to have the desired part of voltage V which depends upon the distance between 2 chosen
points.(V α R α L)
 90

Capacitor: Device used to store the charge (electric energy). It also delays the time while discharging and it can
convert AC into DC. It usually consists of 2 metal plates charged oppositely.

Reed Relays are the smaller current circuits used to switch On/Off the circuits carrying larger currents. It has relay
coil (electromagnet) inside it.

Reed Swicth: it consists of 2 iron terminals with a little gap enclosed inside a glass case with low air pressure.
When a magnet comes near due to induced magnetism the terminals get in contact and the circuit is completed
and when the magnet is taken farther then contacts get demagnetized and circuits is broken.
 91

Semiconductor diode:Semicondutor diode

• Makes current flow only in one direction.

• Converts AC into DC (rectification)

it is semiconductor mixed with impurities from 3rd and 5th groups of periodic table and has PN junctions with
metallic terminals.

• If P-N terminals of diode are connected with same terminals of batteries and is said to be forward biased
and acts like a small resistor and conducts current.
• If junctions of diodes are connected to opposite terminals of battery then it is said to be reversed biased
and acts like a large resistor and almost conducts no current.
 92

Light emitting diode (LED): This is a diode made up of specific material which gives light when forward biased.it
allows current to flow in one direction only and converts Ac into DC.

Topic 25: Nuclear Physics

Atom is the smallest particle of matter which can exist as a unit.

Atom consists of a nucleus with electrons revolving around it. Proton and neutrons are called as nucleons as they
exist inside nucleus. Positive charge of proton is same as the negative charge of electron that is 1.6 × 10-19 C. As the
number of protons and electrons is same in a normal atom that is why atom is overall neutral.

Electron, proton and neutron are called sub-atomic particles.

Mass of 1 proton = mass of 1836 electrons

Mass of 1 neutron = mass of 1838 electrons

Mass of 1 electron = 9.01 × 10-31 kg

Atomic number (Z): it is the number of protons or electrons present in atom. It is also called as proton number.

Atomic mass number (A): it is the sum of number of protons and neutrons present inside an atom. It is also known
as nucleon number.

Number of neutrons = A – Z

General Symbol of a nucleus = AXz

Isotopes: Atoms having same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called isotopes. Isotopes
have same chemical properties but different physical properties such as boiling point, density etc.
 93

Geiger-Marsden experiment (Rutherford experiment): discovery of nucleus

In this experiment positive alpha particles were bombarded on a very thin gold foil and around the foil and source
of alpha particles photographic plate was settled to detect the alpha particles as these are invisible.

• Most of the alpha particles passed straight through gold foil (shows most of the atom is empty)
• A few alpha particles were deflected (shows there is a small solid part inside atom)

A very few alpha particles were deflected almost backwards (rebounded) at angles greater than 90˚ (shows the
small solid part inside atom is positively chargedand is a lot heavier than alpha particles)

This small solid part was later called as nucleus of atom.

Radioactivity: it is spontaneous emission of radiation from unstable nuclie having nucleon number above 82.

(Rare isotopes of lighter elements are also radioactive and are called radioactive isotopes)

Nuclear decay: The conversion of an unstable nucleus into a stable nucleus after emitting radiation is called
nuclear decay.

Note: a radioactive can emit 1 or more types of radiations until it becomes stable and all radiation emit from
nucleus only.

When different sources are kept near electric field and magnetic field (Fleming’s left hand rule) the radiations
adopt 3 different ways showing there are 3 types of nuclear radiation.
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Alpha Particles (α = 4He2 )

Alpha particles are physically similar to the nucleus of Helium and are composed of 2 protons and 2 neutrons and
have positive charge 2 times of that of protons. Alpha particles have speed around (1.4 to 1.7) × 107 m/s. they are
deflected by electric and magnetic fields both. Alpha particles have very high ionization ability but very less
penetration and can even be blocked by paper sheet and in air can travel 7 to 10 cm. They are detected by fogging
of photographic plates and fluorescence of zinc sulphide.

A A-4 4He
Xz ------------→ Yz-2 + 2 (α)

Beta Particles (β = 0e-1 ):

Beta particles are physically similar to electrons which are emitted from nucleus when a neutron splits up into a
proton and electron (β). Beta particles have negative charge equal to that of electrons and are lighter than alpha
particles so they have 100 times less ionization ability than alpha particles but higher penetration and can be
blocked by thick metal like 5mm thick aluminium etc. they emit from the source with almost the speed of light and
are detected by photographic plate and fluorescence of barium platinocynide. Beta particles are deflected by
fields.

A A 0e
Xz ------------→ Yz+1 + -1 (β)

Gamma Rays (ϒ): Gamma rays are most powerful electromagnetic waves (lights) and are neutral and had no effect
by fields. They have speed of light and have very less ionization ability but very high penetration power and can
only be blocked by most dense materials like lead. They are invisible and can be detected by photographic plates
and barium platinocynide.

*A A
Xz ------------→ Xz+ ϒ ray

Nuclear Decay is spontaneous (has no effect of temp., pressure etc and can be started or stopped) and random
(count rate keeps changing, we can’t predict which nucleus will decay or when a nucleus will decay) in nature.

Count rate noticed by GM tube without any radioiactive source is due to background radiation.

Background radiation are caused by radioactive traces found in our surroundings and their source can be the
rocks, soil, earth’s crust, fossils, nuclear wastes, nuclear test site and cosmic rays of sun etc. they have constant
count rate from 20 to 50 counts per minute.
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Half-life (T1/2 ) : It is the time interval after which the count rate or number of undecayed nuclie reduces to half of
its value. It is same for same material and different materials have different half-lives which can range from few
seconds to thousands of years.

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
Number of half-lives = 𝐝𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 𝐡𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐟𝐞

Radioactive nuclei having shorter half-life run out quickly so are used in nuclear medicines so that they don’t stay
for longer in human body.

Count rate of materials having very long half-life stays same for longer time.

Nuclear reactions: Formation or breaking of a nuclei.

In these reactions charge numbers and mass numbers both are conserved.

Fission Reaction (atomic bomb / reactor):

It is the process in which a larger unstable parent nucleus is split into 2 stable smaller daughter nuclie after striken
by a slow neutron. As a result a large amount of nuclear energy (as heat) and 2 or 3 more neutrons are released.
The emitted neutron can start a chain reaction to cause an explosion (atomic bomb). This chain reaction can be
controlled in a nuclear reactor where Boron / Cadmium rods are used to absorb excessive neutrons.

1
N0 + 235U92 -------→92Kr36 + 141
Ba56 +3 1N0 + energy

Fusion reaction (sun / Stars / hydrogen bomb):

In this process 2 or more lighter nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus. To overcome repulsion this process
needs immensely high temperature about 1 million Celsius which is obtained by a fission explosion and very high
pressure and the density. Then fusion occurs which as a result releases far more energy than a fission reaction.
This process has not been controlled yet.

Einstein’s Mass-Energy relation (E=mC2):Energy produced in each of fission and fusion reactions is produced due
to mass lost in these reactions which is converted into energy according to above formula. In these reactions the
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mass of products is always less than reactants.

• Energy and mass both are inter-converted according to the above formula.

Hazards of nuclear radiation: Radiation can damage body depending upon its amount, the part of body and time
of exposure. Damages can be loss of hair, small blood vessels and nerve cells are damaged, failure of heart,
nausea, eye cataracts, DNA structure disturbed.

Radioactive sources should be kept in lead boxes and persons dealing with these sources should use tongs, gloves
and safety suit lined with lead and goggles.

Space Physics
Cosmology : Study of origin and evolution of the universe.
Astronomy : Study of the objects beyond earth.
Types of Celestial Objects : ( in increasing order of size ) Comet < Asteroid < moon < planet < star < galaxy <
Universe
A Star is a collection of very hot gases. A galaxy consists of billions of stars. Universe is collection of billions of
galaxies.

Star Formation: Stars are formed from the very large clouds of hydrogen and helium gases and dust found in space
Nebula. Due to gravitational pull when these gas particles collapse and get closer, the volume of gas decreases
which results in increase temperature of gas and fusion process stars. The fusion process results as the formation
of heavier elements and immensely large amount of heat and light. Gravitational force of attraction between the
particles and expanding force of heat balance out each other. The collection of gas assumes a fixed shape and
starts shining and is called a star.
➢ Hydrogen acts like a fuel in fusion process.
Death of a star: With the passage of time, hydrogen gets short and the fusion reaction gets slower. It
makes the star a bit colder and gravity overcomes the heat expansion. Due to gravity the whole mass of
the star accumulates at the center and the leftover hydrogen concentrates which increases the rate of
fusion and heat expansion over comes the gravity and makes the star expand into a very large size Red
Giant.

➢ For a star of average size like our Sun, after losing the heat it contracts from Red Giant into the
white dwarf and then into a black dwarf.

➢ For a larger star like 2 to 3 time of the Sun, it explodes into supernova explosion after the stage of
red giant and then turns into a Neutron star.

➢ For even larger star, it changes into a Black Hole after contracting from supernova explosion.
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Solar System consists of Sun, planets (MVEMJSUN) / dwarf plant, moons, asteroids and comets.

➢ Planets rotate around the Sun in elliptical paths called as orbits and Sun is not exactly at the
center of orbits.

➢ As the planets get closer to the Sun during rotation, they get faster due to gravity and vice
versa.

➢ Closer planets are more solid and faster as compared to the farther planets.
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➢ Season on the earth is caused by the tilt of it’s axis of spin (23.5⁰).

➢ Moons are the solid objects of Rock and dust which revolve around the Planets.

➢ Orbital time period of the moon is equal to the spinning time period of the moon, that is why
we see always see the same side of the full moon.
➢ Asteroids are rocks of different sizes revolving around the sun and planets.

➢ Comets are made up of dust and snow and have unusual orbits around the Sun.
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Doppler’s effect: change in wavelength or frequency of a wave due to relative motion of the observer
or the source.
➢ Red shift: increase in wavelength or decrease in frequency of a wave/ light due to increase in
the distance between the source and the observer.
➢ Blue shift: decrease in wavelength or increase in the frequency of the wave / light due to
decrease in the distance between the source and the observer.

➢ Most of the galaxies display red shift shows that universe is constantly expanding and a very
long time (13.8 billion years) ago all the universe would have been concentrated at one
place, before a the Big bang happened.

➢ Light year: distance travelled by light in one year.

➢ 1 light year = 9.46 x 1015 m

Quantity Formula Unit

Formula of Vernier calipers: MSR + ( VSR × L.C.) According to L.C.
to measure length
Formula of micrometer Screw Gauge : MSR + ( CSR × L.C.) mm
Thickness of wire, paper sheets etc
Time period of simple pendulum Time taken
T = Number of oscillations second
Weight (force of gravity) w = mg Newton
Gravitational field strength w
g= m
N/kg
Gravitational acceleration
m s-2
density mass mass of 1 object mass of 100 objects kg m-3
ρ= = =
volume volume of 1 object volume of 100 objects
kg m-3 ÷ 1000 = g cm-3

m m
2 different objects 1 2 ρ = density
made up of same materials ρ1 = ρ2 v = v
1 2 w = weight
W w P P m = mass
1 2 1 2
v = v L = L v = volume
1 2 1 2
P = pressure
Speed (Avg) Distance m/s
v=
Time
m/s × 3.6 = km/h
Speed = Gradient of (d-t) graph
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Velocity (Avg) Displacement m/s
v= Time
m/s × 3.6 = km/h
Velocity = Gradient of (d-t) graph
Acceleration (Avg) change in velocity 𝐯 –𝐮 resultant Force m s-2
a= = t =
time mass
a = Gradient of (v-t) graph and (v-t) graph
Resultant Force F = ma newton
F=P×A
Momentum (p) Momentum = p = mv Kg m/s or Ns
Impulse (change in momentum) = ∆p ∆p = m (v- u) = F x t Kg m/s or Ns
Impulsive / resultant force (F) ∆𝐩
F == = Rate of change of momentum
t
Law of conservation of momentum m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Moment (Torque) Moment = Force × perpendicular distance between pivot Nm
and direction of force

Principle of moments Sum of all clockwise moments = Sum of all anticlockwise

moments
F 1 × d1 = F 2 × d 2
M1 × d1= M2 × d2

Work W = force × distance covered along the force joule(J)

Gravitational potential energy G.P.E. = mgh joule

Kinetic energy . K.E. = ½ mv2 joule
G.P.E. at top = K.E. at bottom
power 𝐖 𝐄 𝐦𝐠𝐡 𝐊.𝐄. Watt (W)
Power = p = = t = t (lifting) = (moving /
t t
stopping)

𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫

effeciency % efficiency = × 100 = × No unit
input energy input power
100

Pressure 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 pascal(Pa)

Pressure = area
Liquid Pressure Liquid pressure = ρ g h Pascal (Pa)
(gas pressure is measured using
liquid so gas pressure has same
formula)
Pascal’s law (only for Liquids) F F
1 2
A = A
1 2

Manometer Excessive Pressure = ρ g h

2 fluids having same pressure ρ1 h1 = ρ2 h2

Boyle’s law (only for Gas at constant P1 V1 = P2 V2
temperature)
Charle’s Law (only for gas at V V Temp. in kelvin only
1 2
=
constant Pressure) T
1
T
2
k = c + 273

L − L R − R
Temperature  
In celcius only
L for liquid in glass = L
0
L × 100 = = R
0
R × 100
100 – 0 100 – 0
R for resistance thermometer P − P V − V
 0  0
P for gas pressure = P − P × 100 = V − V × 100
100 0 100 0
V for thermocouple L − L

= L
−10
L × 120 + (−10)
110 − −10

Heat capacity Thermal energy Q Joule per celcius

C = Change in Temperature = 
Joule per kelvin
Specific heat capacity Thermal energy Q Joule per kelvin per kg
c = mass × Change in Temperature = m 

Latent heat (0f fusion / vaporisation) Lf = Q Lv = Q joule

Specific latent heat (of fusion / Q Q Joule per kg
lf = m lv = m
vaporisation)
Time period (T) 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 1 𝜆 Second (s)
𝑇 = 𝑛𝑜. = =𝑣
𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑓
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Frequency (f) 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠 1 𝑣 Hertz (Hz)

f= =𝑇=𝜆
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Wavelength (λ) 𝑣 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ Meter (m)
𝜆 = 𝑓 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑠
Refractive index sin 𝑖 No unit
n = sin 𝑟 = constant (= refractive index in case of
𝟏
light refraction of entering medium) Bending α 𝝀
𝑉2 𝜆2 Bending α f
sin ∠2
n1 = sin ∠1 = 𝑉1= 𝜆1 (light entering from medium 2

into medium 1)

Coulomb (C)
Charge (Q) 𝑾 1C = 1A × 1s
Q=I×t=
𝐕

Ampere (A)
Current (I) 𝐐 𝑽 𝐩 𝟏𝐂
I= =𝐑= 1A = 𝟏𝐬
𝐭 𝐕

Elelctromotive force (emf) 𝑾 Volt (V)

Emf = 𝐐

Potential difference (V) 𝑾 𝐏 Volt (V)

V= = 𝑰𝑹 =
𝐐 𝐈

Resistance (R) 𝐕 V2 𝐏 Ohm (Ω)

R= 𝐈 = = I2
𝐏

E = emf
Power supplied (p) P = EI Watt (W)

Electrical energy supplied (E) E = p × t = VIt = V Q Joule (J)

resistivity 𝑅 𝐴 Ωm
L
For series circuit 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐
V1 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑 × 𝑽 , V2 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑 × 𝑽
Equivalent resistance = Re = R1 + R2 + R3

For parallel circuit 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏

= + +
𝐑𝐞 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

For 2 conductors made up of same 𝑅1 𝐴1 𝑅2 𝐴2

=
material have same resistivity L1 L2

Power dissipated/lost (p) V2 Watt (W)

P = VI = I2 R = 𝐑

Kilowatt-hour (kWh) 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬 × 𝐡𝐫𝐬 kWh

No. of kWh = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
1 ev = 1.6 × 10-19 j
Transformer 𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝐼𝑆 Magnetic flux = magnetic field
= = strength × area facing the field
𝑉𝑆 𝑁𝑠 𝐼𝑝
General Symbol of a nucleus = AXz Z = number of protons
A = number of nucleons (P + N)
Number of neutrons = A – Z
Alpha, beta and gamma emission AX A-4Y 4 He (α)
z ------------→ z-2 + 2
equations AX A Y + 0e
z ------------→ z+1 -1 (β)
*AX A
z ------------→ Xz + ϒ ray

𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 No = initial number of

Number of half lives = 𝐝𝐮𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝟏 𝐡𝐚𝐥𝐟 𝐥𝐢𝐟𝐞
1 undecayed nuclie
N= No (𝟐)n
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N = present number of
undecayed nuclie
n= number of half lives
Fission reaction of Uranium 1N + 235U 92 141Ba
0 92 ------------→ Kr36 + 56
+3 1N0 + energy
Orbital speed of a planet around a 𝟐𝛑𝐫 r = average distance between
V= 𝐭
star the star and planet
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