Dr.

Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

Unit I
Multidisciplinary nature, Ecosystems and Bio-diversity

Environment Ecosystems Bio-diversity

Definition, Scope and Concept, Structure, function Definition, value of bio-diversity

importance and energy flow in ecosystem
Hotspots and threats to
Need for public Producers, consumers and bio-diversity
awareness decomposers
Conservation

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 What are ecosystems?
Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

Ecology

• The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel in 1869. It is derived from the Greek words Oikos- home +
logos- study. So ecology deals with the study of organisms in their natural home interacting with their
surroundings.

• The surroundings or environment consists of other living organisms (biotic) and physical (abiotic)
components.

• All living organism, whether plant or animal or human being is surrounded by the environment, on which it
derive its needs for its survival.

Ecology
Environment Living organisms

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

Definition of Ecology

Ecology is the study of interactions among

organism or group of organisms with their
environment. The environment consists of
both biotic components (living organisms)
and abiotic components (non – living
organisms). or Ecology is the study of
ecosystems.

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Ecosystem Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology.

A group of organisms interacting among themselves

and with environment is known as ecosystem.

Earth’s natural environment can be seen in four interacting Spheres: 1. Lithosphere (solid- rock, soil etc), 2.
Hydrosphere (water bodies- lakes, revers, streams etc), 3. Atmosphere (the gases layer of the earth) and 4. As
the energy and material flow between above three spheres by living beings (plants, animals,..) called biosphere
Ecosystems are specific areas of the environment that develop a relation as a result of the interaction between
the earth’s four spheres.
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Types of Ecosystem Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:

1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system

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Natural ecosystem Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

Natural ecosystems operate themselves under natural conditions.

Based on habitat types, it can be further classified into two types;
1. Terrestrial and
2. Aquatic

1. Terrestrial ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to land.

Example;

Grassland ecosystem Forest ecosystem,

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Natural ecosystem Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

2. Aquatic ecosystem

This ecosystem is related to water. It is further sub classified into two types based on salt content.

(a) Fresh water ecosystems

(i) Running water ecosystems. (ii) Standing water ecosystems
Examples Rivers, Streams Examples Pond, lake.

(b) Marine ecosystem

Example : Seas and sea shores

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Man – made (or) Artificial ecosystems Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

Artificial ecosystem is operated (or) maintained by man himself.

Example
Croplands, gardens

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Structure of ecosystem Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an ecosystem explains the
relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the biotic (living) components.

Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:

1. Biotic (living) components.
2. Abiotic (Non-living) components

The non-living component of an ecosystem is called

“abiotic component”
Soil, water, light, air, energy, nutrients

The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic

component”.
Plants (Producers), Animals (Consumers) and
Micro Organisms (Decomposers)

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Abiotic (non-living) components Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

The non-living components (physical and chemical) of ecosystem collectively form a

community called abiotic components (or) abiotic community.

Examples
Climate, soil, water, air, energy, nutrients, etc.,

1. Physical components 2. Chemical Components

They include the energy, climate, raw materials
and living space that the biological community
needs.
They are useful for the growth and maintenance
of its member.
Examples
Air, water, soil, sunlight, etc.,
They are the sources of essential nutrients
Examples
•Organic substances : Protein, lipids,
carbohydrates, etc.,
•Inorganic substances: All micro (Al, Co, Zu,
Cu) and macro elements (C,H, O, P, N, P, K)
and few other elements.

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Biotic (living) components Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

The members of biotic components of an ecosystem

are grouped in to three based on how they get food.

•Producer (plants)
•Consumer (Animals)
•Decomposers (Micro-organisms)

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Producers (Autotrophs):

Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis/ chemosynthesis.

-All green plants, trees. (Photo-autotrophs), chemoautotrophic sulphur bacteria (Chemo-autotrophs)

Photosynthesis:
The green pigments called chlorophyll, present in the
leaves of plants, converts CO2 and H2O in the presence
of sunlight into carbohydrates. This process is called
photosynthesis.

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Chemosynthesis Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

Chemo-autotrophs: there are some micro-organisms which can produce food to some extent through
oxidation of certain chemicals in absence of light.

Sulphur bacteria
CO2 + 4H2S + O2 CH2O + 4S + 3H2O

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Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feederDr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend directly (or) indirectly
on the producers.
-Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
-Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
Depending upon the food habits, the consumers are divided into four types.

i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)

ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)

iii. Omnivores (With plant & meat eaters)

iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

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i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour) Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

 Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.

 They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant eaters.
-Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.

ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)

 Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.
 They directly depend on the herbivores for their food.
-Lion, Frog, snake & foxes, etc.

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iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to devour)
Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

 Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
 They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their food.
- chicken, human, dog, rat etc.

iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)

 Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores.
-beetles, termites, ants, earthworms, etc.

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Decomposers (or) Saprotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos =Dr.feeder)
Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

 Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and

consumers and decompose them into simple compounds

 During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released

 The organisms which break down the complex compounds into

simple products are called decomposers (or) reducers.
-micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.

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 Functions of Ecosystem
Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

To understand clearly the nature of ecosystem its functioning should be thoroughly understood. The
function of an ecosystem is to allow flow of energy and cycling of nutrients. Functions of an ecosystem
are of three types.

1. Primary function
The producers (plants) can make their food themselves through photosynthesis. This process is
called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.

2. Secondary function
The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their own food. They are always depending
upon the producers for their energy. This is called secondary function of eco system.

3. Tertiary function
Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and producers and decompose them into
simpler compounds. During the decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.

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Functional aspects of Ecosystem Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

 Every ecosystem performs under natural conditions in a systematic way.

 It receives energy from the sun and passes it on through various biotic components and in fact, all
life depends upon this flow of energy.

 Besides energy, various nutrients and water are also required for life processes which are exchanged
by the biotic components within themselves and with their abiotic components within or outside the
ecosystem.

 The biotic components also regulate themselves in a very systematic manner and show mechanisms
to encounter some degree of environmental stress. The major functional attributes of an ecosystems
are as follows:

1. Food chains
2. Food webs
3. Pyramids
4. Cycling of nutrients (Biogeochemical cycles)
5. Energy flow
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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Food chains

The process of transfer of food (energy) from one

organism to a series of organisms is called as “food
chain”.

A food chain always starts with a plant life and end

with animal life. Thus, a food chain is a picture (or)
model that shows the flow of energy from
autotrophs (producers) to series of organisms in an
environment.

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Types of food chains Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains.
1. Grazing food chain:
It starts with starts with green plants (producers) and goes to decomposer food chain (or) detritus food
chain through herbivores and carnivores.
It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain and b. Aquatic food chain
Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain Food chain in water is called Aquatic food chain

Grossland food chain

A grazing food chain in a pond ecosystem.

Forest food chain

Marine Food chain

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

2. Detritus food chain:

Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter (plants and animals) and goes to decomposer through
consumers. Detritus food chains, independent of solar energy, but they depend on influx of dead organic
matter.

3. Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this food chain either consumer
(or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to smaller organisms. A parasitic food chain involves host
parasite hyper parasites’ links.

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Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

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Food webs Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

 Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web

(WWW) etc., So, food web is a network of food chains.

-Grass may be eaten by insects, rats, deer's, etc., these may be

eaten by carnivores (snake, tiger). Thus there is a interlocking
of various food chains called food webs.

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Difference between food chains and food web

In a linear food chains if one species gets affected (or) becomes extinct, then the species in the
subsequent tropic levels are also affected. But, in a food web, if one species gets affected, it does
not affect other tropic levels so seriously. There are number of options available at each tropic
level.

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Significance of food chains and food webs

 Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the ecosystem because the two most
important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling take place through them.

 The food chains also help in maintaining and regulating the population size of different animals and
thus, help maintain the ecological balance..

 Food chains show a unique property of biological magnification of some chemicals. There are
several pesticides, heavy metals and other chemicals which are non-biodegradable in nature. Such
chemicals are not decomposed by microorganisms and they keep on passing from one trophic level
to another. And, at each successive trophic level, they keep on increasing in concentration. This
phenomenon is known as biomagnification or biological magnification.

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Ecological Pyramids: Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

 The concept of ecological pyramids was first

developed by British ecologist Charles Elton in
1927.

 Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic

representation of tropic structures in which the
tropic levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in
successive stages.
Formation of an Ecological Pyramid

 “Graphical representation of structure and
function of tropic levels of an ecosystem, starting
with producers at the bottom and each successive
tropic levels forming the apex is known as an
ecological pyramid.”
• The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
• ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic
level in the ecological pyramid.
• iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic
level in the ecological pyramid.
• iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic
level in the ecological pyramid.

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Types of Ecological pyramids Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in organism population,
there are three types of ecological pyramids:

1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of energy.
3. Pyramid of biomass.

1. Pyramid of numbers:
 It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic
level.

 It is expressed in numbers per unit area.

 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid

of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
The number of individual organisms gradually
decreases from lower tropic level to higher tropic
level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”.

A grassland ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers.

A pond ecosystem show an upright pyramid of numbers.

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from

lower tropic level to higher tropic level, is known as “inverted
pyramid of numbers”.

Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
2. Pyramid of Energy:

• It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.

• It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
• In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level.
• At each successive tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat,
respiration, etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of the energy passes on. Hence, there
is a sharp decrease in energy at each and every producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores.
Therefore, the pyramid of energy is always upright as shown in below figure.

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3.Pyramid of biomass
 It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological material (or) organism) present
in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in gram per unit area.
 The pyramid of biomass can also be upright or inverted.
A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass. In this
ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to
consumer levels
Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to
consumer level are called as Inverted pyramid of biomass.
Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of
biomass.
In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to
consumer levels as shown in the following figure.
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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Nutrient flow (OR) Nutrient cycling (Or) Biogeochemical cycle in the ecosystem

Nutrients: The elements, which are essential for the survival of both plants and animals are called are
called nutrients.

Macronutrients: The elements needed in large amounts are called macronutrients

---Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus.

Micronutrients: The elements, needed in small amounts are called micronutrients.

---Boron, cobalt, strontium, zinc, copper

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Nutrient flow (OR) Nutrient cycling (Or) Biogeochemical cycle in the ecosystem

The cyclic flow of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic components is known as nutrient cycle (or)
biogeochemical cycles.

The nutrients enter into produceres and move through the food chain and ultimately reach the consumer.

The bound nutrients of the consumers, after death, are decomposed and converted into inorganic substances,
which are readily used up by the plants (procedures) and again the cycle starts.

The major nutrients like C, H, O and N are cycled again and again between biotic and biotic component of
the ecosystem.

Water also moves in a cycle, known as hydrological cycle. The nutrients too move through the food chain
and ultimately reach the detritus compartment (containing dead organic matter) where various micro-
organisms carry out decomposition.

Various organically bound nutrients of dead plants and animals are converted into inorganic substances by
microbial decomposition that are readily used up by plants (primary producers) and the cycle starts afresh.

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Nitrogen cycle

 Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as N2 in large amount (78%) and it is fixed either by the physical
process of lightening or biologically by some bacteria and/or cyanobacteria (blue green algae).

 The nitrogen is taken up by plants and used in metabolism for biosynthesis of amino acids, proteins,
vitamins etc. and passes through the food chain. After death of the plants and animals, the organic
nitrogen in dead tissues is decomposed by several groups of ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria
which convert them into ammonia, nitrites and nitrates, which are again used by plants.

 Some bacteria convert nitrates, into molecular nitrogen or N2 which is released back into the
atmosphere and the cycle goes on.

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

Nitrogen cycle—a gaseous cycle with major reserve as N2 (78%) in the atmosphere. Circulation of N- between living
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components and soil/atmosphere is mediated by a group of micro-organisms which convert one form of N into another.
 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Carbon Cycle

Carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide is taken up by green plants as a raw material for photosynthesis, through
which a variety of carbohydrates and other organic substances are produced.

Through the food chain it moves and

ultimately organic carbon present in the
dead matter is returned to the atmosphere
as carbon dioxide by microorganisms.

Respiration by all organisms produces

carbon dioxide, Combustion of fuels also
release carbon dioxide and it is used up
by plants.

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus is mainly present in the rocks and fossils. The phosphorus is present in all biotic components in
different forms.
e.g.: Bones, teeth, etc.
Phosphate rocks is excavated by man for using
it as a fertilizers.

Farmers use excess of fertilizers for the crops.

The excess phosphate fertilizers move with the
surface run-off reaches the oceans and are lost
into the deep sediments.

Sea birds eat sea – fishes, which are

phosphorus rich, and the excreta of the birds
return the phosphorus to the land.

Thus the sea birds, are playing an important

role in phosphorus cycling animals and plants
use these dissolved phosphates during the
biosynthesis.
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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Energy flow in the ecosystems

Energy is the most essential requirement for all living

organism.

Solar energy is the only source to our planet earth.

Solar energy is transformed to chemical energy in

photosynthesis by the plants (called as primary
producers). Though a lot of sunlight falls on the green
plants, only 1% of it is utilized for photosynthesis. This
is the most essential step to provide energy for all other
living organisms in the ecosystem.

Some amount of chemical energy is used by the plants for their growth and the remaining is transferred to
consumers by the process of eating. Thus the energy enters the ecosystems through photosynthesis and
passes through the different tropic levels feeding levels.
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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
Energy flow and Thermodynamics

The flow of energy through an ecosystem follows the two laws of thermodynamics.

1. I law of thermodynamics
It states chat “energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only converted from one from to
another”.
Illustration
Energy for an ecosystems comes from the sun. It is absorbed by plants, herein it is converted into stored
chemical energy i.e., solar energy in converted into chemical energy.

2. II law of thermodynamics
It states that, “Whenever energy is transformed, there is a loss of energy through the release of heat”.
Illustration
This occurs when energy is transferred between tropic levels. There will be a loss of energy (about 80-90%) in
the form of heat as it moves from one tropic level to another tropic level. The loss of energy takes place
through respiration, running, hunting etc.,

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Energy flow models Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

The flow of energy through various trophic levels in an ecosystem can be explained with the help of various
energy flow models.

1. Universal energy flow model:

Energy flow through an ecosystem was explained by E.P.
Odum as the universal energy flow model

As the flow of energy takes place, there is a gradual loss

of energy at every level, thereby resulting in less energy
available at next trophic level as indicated by narrower
pipes (energy flow) and smaller boxes (stored energy in
biomass).

The loss of energy is mainly the energy not utilized

(NU). This is the energy lost in locomotion, excretion
etc. or it is the energy lost in respiration (R) which is for Universal energy flow model applicable to all living
maintenance. The rest of the energy is used for components (I = Energy input; A: assimilated energy ; P
production (P). = Production ; NU = Energy not used.

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR

2. Single channel energy flow model:

The flow of energy takes place in a

unidirectional manner through a single channel
of green plants or producers to herbivores and
carnivores.

One-way energy flow model showing unidirectional flow through primary producers, herbivores and
carnivores. At each successive trophic level there is huge loss of energy (I = Solar energy input ; GPP =
Gross primary production ; NPP = Net primary production ; NU = Energy not used ; NA = Energy not
assimilated e.g. excretion ; R = Respiratory loss).

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 Dr. Chetti Prabhakar, NITKKR
3. Double channel or Y-shaped energy flow model:

In nature, both grazing food chain and detritus food

chain operate in the same ecosystem. However,
sometimes it is the grazing food chain which
predominates.
It happens in marine ecosystem where primary
production in the open sea is limited and a major
portion of it is eaten by herbivorous marine animals.
Therefore, very little primary production is left to be
passed on to the dead or detritus compartment.
On the other hand, in a forest ecosystem the huge
quantity of biomass produced cannot be all consumed
by herbivores. Rather, a large proportion of the live Y-shaped or 2-channel energy flow model showing energy flow
biomass enters into detritus (dead) compartment in the through the grazing food chain and the detritus food chain (R =
Respiration, D = Detritus or dead matter).
form of litter. Hence the detritus food chain is more
important there.
The two channel or Y-shaped model of energy flow
shows the passage of energy through these two chains,
which are separated in time and space.
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