Professional Documents
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199915424022ca49 Revision Material Part 1 Art Culture Mains 2020
199915424022ca49 Revision Material Part 1 Art Culture Mains 2020
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Vedic Literature
• Shruti literature - which has been heard and embody eternal, self-
existent truth realised by rishis in a state of meditation or revealed to
them by God. Ex Vedas
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• Vedas - comes from the ancient word means ‘vid’(to know) or knowledge.
• Each Veda has 4 parts - last three blend with each other - Samhitas,
Brahmana, Aryankas, Upanishads.
• Rig Veda: It is the sacred text of Hinduism;oldest text in any Indo-European
language.
• a collection of ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns. The hymns are
known as Suktas which are generally used in rituals.
• The Rigveda is further divided into ten parts known as Mandalas.
• Rigvedic hymns were collected by Paila under the guidance of Vyasa,
• As per the Rig Vedic hymns, the entire universe has originated from Prajapati, (the
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initial God can be compared to Zeus in Grek mythology) and this forms the principle
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basis of creation.
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• Indra is the chief deity (King of Kingdom of heaven) cited in the hymns of Rig Veda.
The sky God Varuna, fire God Agni, and the Sun God Surya were some of the other
chief deities mentioned in various hymns of the Rig veda.
• There is a lot of emphasis on lord Shiva but Lord Vishnu who is one of the
Trimurti of Hindu Pantheon of Gods is cited as a minor deity, according to the Rig
Veda.
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• Sama Veda - arranged according to the needs of musical notation.
• The Samaveda consists of some verses, taken from Rigveda and few verses new.
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Yajur Veda - The Vedic collection of sacrificial
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prayers (yajus) used by the
Adhvaryu priest.
• Of the four Vedas, it most reflects the Vedic sacrifice in its ritual character
and full scope.
• The Yajur Veda prescribes the procedures to be adopted at the time of performing
different sacrifices.
• It is a collection of short magic spells used by a certain class of priests at the time
of sacrifices.
Present day relevance
• Atharva Veda
• It is the "knowledge storehouse of atharva as, the procedures for
everyday life”.
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The Atharva Veda is composed in Vedic Sanskrit.
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It is one of the oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in
religious medicine and reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-
European antiquity”
• It contains charms and spells in verses to ward off diseases and evils.
• The Brahmanas: The Brahmanas explain the hymns of the Vedas. They act
as the appendices to the Vedas. They are written in prose and they elaborately
describe the various sacrifices and rituals, along with their mystic meanings.
• The two Brahmanas attached to the Rig-Veda are Aitareya Brahmana and
Kausitaki Brahmana. The Sukla Yajurveda is appended with Satapatha
Brahmana which recommends 'one hundred sacred a il.c
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• The Aranyakas: These are called the forest books mainly written for the
hermits and students living in the jungle.
• It criticizes the rituals and lay stresses on the value of right belief and knowledge.
• The language of Upanishads was classical Sanskrit not the vedic Sanskrit.
• It states that goal of the life is to attain salvation which is possible through self
control.
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They are closely associated with ‘atman’ and ‘brahman’
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• They specify philosophical knowledge and spiritual learning and their main motto is
“Knowledge Awards Salvation”.
• Upanishads are also called Vedanta, because they reveal the final aim of Vedas.
• Oldest Upanishads are Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya. Latest Upanishad is Muktika Upnishad
recorded by Dara Shikoh in 1656.
• Vedangas: These refer to six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and understanding of the
Vedas.
• Shiksha (Phonetics) - Its aim is the teaching of the correct pronunciation of the Vedic hymns and
mantras.
• Kalpa (Ritual Canon) - It contains the sacrificial practice and systematic sutras. There are kinds of
Sutras part of Kalpa: l.co
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• Srautasutras, which are based on the Shruti,thi
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er and teach the performance of the great
sacrifices, requiring three or five sacrificial fires.
• Smartasutras, or rules based on the Smriti or tradition - The Smartasutras have two classes
viz. Grihyasutras, or domestic rules which are basically treating the rites of passage, such
as marriage, birth, namegiving, etc., connected with simple offerings into the domestic fire
and Dharmasutras or customs and social duties.
• The Dharmasutras are the first four texts of the Dharmasastra tradition and they focus on
the idea of dharma, the principal guide by which Hindus strive to live their lives. The
Dharmasutras are written in concise prose, leaving much up to the educated reader to interpret.
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• Vyakaran (Grammar) includes the Aṣhṭadhyayi, of Panini. Most of the work of very early
Indian grammarians ranging to 8th century BC is lost.
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Gaṇapaṭha: Contains list of classes of primitive nominal stems
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• Chhanda (Vedic meter): It measures and divides Vedic Mantras by number of padas in a
verse. Number of padas divides each verse, hymn, or mantra and number of syllables divides
each pada.
• Jyotisha (Astrology): It describes rules for tracking the motions of the sun and the moon
and the foundation of Vedic Jyotish. Present day relevance
• Epics (Itihasa)
Present Day
Relevance
Present Day Relevance
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Yajurveda
• Sulvasutras: It deals with complex fire altars of various shapes constructed with bricks of
specific shapes and area: the total area of the altar must always be carefully respected. This
proves that despite of no existence of algebra, there was an awareness of precise purely
geometrical calculations.
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Sulva sutras belong to a bigger text Shrauta Sutras
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• The four major Sulva Sutras, which are mathematically the most significant, are those
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• Out of them the oldest belongs to Baudhayana and dates back to 600BC. They discuss the
cases of the Pythagorean Theorem and Pythagorean triples.
• The Baudhayan Sulbasutra 1.48 says: The diagonal of a rectangle produces both areas
produced separately by its two sides. Sulva Sutra also mentions a ritual which included
“Squaring the circle” (and vice-versa), thus geometrically constructing a square having the
same area as a given area.
• Manusmriti It is one of the earliest and most authoritative law texts followed by the
Hindus, covering a wide range of topics such as creation of the world, sacraments
like „Upanayana' and marriage; duties of men and women placed in different strata
of society and stages of life; penitential rites for violation of codes of conduct;
and so on.
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The discourse was recorded and preserved inrthmemory as a dialogue between himself
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and the sage Bhrigu in some 2700 Shlokas. k
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• Manusmriti remained the standard point of reference for all future Dharmasastras.
It was translated in 1794 by Sir William Jones.
• Manusmriti and the Concept of Varna
• In line with the ancient Indian tradition, Manu distinguished between various human
beings on the basis of their basic tendencies and inclinations.
• Though the possession of quality and not the accident of birth was said to determine
one's varna; but in actual fact this salutary advice was followed more in breach than
in observance.
CONTRIBUTION OF VEDIC LITERATURE IN MODERN DAY CONTEXT
Medicine:
• Atharvaveda contains chapters relating to medicine, surgery.
• Ayurveda focusing on usage of natural herbs.
Lanka.
• Dipavamsa is one of the most important works in Pali Literature.
• It details the tooth relic and Bodhi Tree's arrival in Sri Lanka.
• It also deals with the arrival of Buddha's teaching and preachers in Sri Lanka.
• It mentions that Buddha visited Kelaniya and Dighavapi in Sri Lanka.
• Mahavamsa - Mahavamsa means "Great Chronicle".
• Mahavamsa is the most important Pali epic poem which deals about the Kings of Sri Lanka
• The Mahavamsa, Dipavamsa, Culavamsa (small chronicle) all together are sometimes known as
Mahavamsa. It deals with the royal dynasties of not only Sri Lanka but the whole Indian
subcontinent and is known as world's longest unbroken historical accounts. The consecration of
Asoka and details of Selucus and Alexander have been detailed in it.
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• Buddhist Scholars
• Moggaliputta Tissa:
• The most important turning point in the expansion of Buddhism in India was the emergence and conversion
of Asoka the Great (304–232 BC). He embraced Buddhism after 8 years of his coronation; he became a
Buddhist and made it his state religion in 260 BC.
• He convened the third Buddhist council, which was held in Pataliputra in the presidency of Moggaliputta
Tissa.
• Asvaghosa:
• There were total 14 Purvas which were memorized and passed on through the ages,
but later lost into oblivion.
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Some Jain traditions say that Jain Scholar Bhadrabahu,
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(one who can recite all sutras), could recite the 14 Purvas.
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• Jain Literature is called Jain Agamas. They are canonical texts of Jainism based on
Mahavira‟s teachings.
• Jain Religious Canon -
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• Kalpa Sutra
• It was written by Bhadrabahu.
• It contains the biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, most
notably Parshvanath and Mahavira, including the latter's Nirvana.
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KAVIRAJAMARGA - It was inspired by or written in part by the famous Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha I,
and some historians claim it is based partly on the Sanskrit text Kavyadarsha. Some historians believe
Kavirajamarga may have been co-authored by a poet in the king's court, the Kannada language theorist Sri
Vijaya.
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Krishnadevaraya was not only an accomplished scholar himself, but was a great patron of learning
and literature. - UPSC 2016
Krishnadevaraya - a great patron of learning and literature
a) Amukta Malyada : a poem written in Telugu language which describes the wedding of Lord Vishnu and Andal.
c) Krishnadevaraya Dinachari - written in Kannada, it was like a PERSONAL DIARY maintained by him.
Krishnadevaraya was thus a great patron of learning and literature and hence was called as Abhinava
Bhoga.
Kakatiyas - Sanskrit & Telugu Literature
• In the field of literature, both Sanskrit and Telugu were given due patronage.
• Andhra under the Kakatiyas witnessed considerable literary activity. Sanskrit occupied the place of pride and was
the language of the educated few. Many epigraphs of this period are written in Kavya-style of Sanskrit. The
noted poets who were the authors of the epigraphs of this age are Nandi, Acchitendra Antantasuri and
Iswarasuri.
• The greatest Sanskrit poets of this age were Vidyanadha and Jayapasenani. Vidyanatha wrote
Parataparudrayasobhushana. Jayapasenani was the author of Nrityaratnauali and Gitaratnavali.
• Kakati Rudra wrote the ”Nitisara” on the basis of the sanskrit text ”neetisaara”(same name) .
• Vidyanath , most popular poet in the court of Prataparudra wrote ”Prataparudra Yashobhushanam”, a text on
alankarashastra.
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• Agastya wrote ”balabhratam” and ”nalakeerthikaumudi”.
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• In the telugu literature, Desa Kavitha movement started with Palkuriki Somana. He wrote ”vipadhakavyas”
like ‘panditarajya charitra’ and ‘basavapuranam’. He also contributed for the ‘sataka literature’ with his
”vrishadeepa satakam”.
• The art of wrtiting plays was perfected by Tripurantaka who wrote the street play ”Premabhiramama”. On the
basis of this text Vinukonda Vallaba raya wrote ”kreedabiramam” .
• Tikkana Somayaji, who adorned the court of the Telugu Chola ruler Manumasiddhi II, wrote the last 15 cantos of
the Mahabharata which was lying unfinished. Sanskrit, which could not find a place in the Muslim-occupied
north, received encouragement at the hands of the Kakatiyas. Prataparudra was himself a writer and he
encouraged other literature.
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• Sangam Literature - source for understanding history of that period
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UPSC - 2013 Question 7@
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Q. Though not very useful from the point of view of a connected political history of South India,
the Sangam literature portrays the social and economic conditions of its time with remarkable vividness.
Comment.
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• Kalidasa's works in numerous Indian and Foreign Languages have spread his fame all of the word and now he ranks among the top
poets of all times. Works of Kalidasa
• Malavikagnimitram is the Sanskrit play, which depicts Agnimitra as its hero. Malvika is a maid servant whom Agnimitra falls in love.
This was known to his chief queen, who imprisons her. Later it was known that Malvika was of a royal birth and she was accepted as
queen of Agnimitra. Malavikagnimitram gives account of Rajsuya Yajna of Pushyamitra Shunga, father of Agnimitra.
• Abhijñanasakuntalam is a Sanskrit play which depicts the story of Dushyanta, king of Hastinapur, and Shakuntala, daughter of the
sage Vishwamitra and the apsara Menaka.
• Vikramorvasiyam is a Sanskrit Drama which depicts the love story of Puruvas a Vedic King and Urvashi. Puruvas is chosen to reflect
the qualitites of Chandragupta Vikramaditya.
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• Raghuvamsa is a Sanskrit epic poem that is a long (19 Sargas) narration of genealogy
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of Lord Rama's Raghu Vamsa beginning with
King Dileep up to Agnivarna. h i16
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• Kumarasambhava is an epic poem which has 17 sirgs, out of which only 8 are accepted as his authorship. Kumara or prince is Kartikeya
and it refers to birth of Kartikeya, son of shiva and Parvati after a lot of Tapasya to win Shiva who had already won Kamdeva (God of
Love). Kartikeya later killed Tarakasur demon who was blessed that he would not be killed by any other than son os Shiva and Parvati.
• Ritusamhara is a mini epic poem in Sanskrit which has 6 Sargas. These Sargas refer to 6 seaosns (Ritu) viz, Grisma (Summer) ,
varsha (Rains), Sharad (Autumn), Hemanta (Cool), Sisira (Winter) and Vasantha (Spring). It mentions the feelings, emotions and
experiences of lovers in 6 seasons. Ritusamhara is considered to be the earliest work of Kalidasa.
• Meghaduta means a messenger of Clouds. It‟s a poem with 11 stanzas. The theme of Meghaduta is a Yaksha, who is subject of Lord
Kubera (King of Wealth). His wife is waiting for him at Mount Kalidasa. Kubera at some place in central India exiled the Yaksha and he
wishes to send his message to his wife. For that, he convinces a cloud to take his message and pass it on to his wife. The poem narrates
about the beautiful sights and visual perceptions he would come across while going northwards to take this message to his wife.
• Asvaghoṣa (Circa. 80 – 150 AD) is considered to be the first Sanskrit Dramatist of the world. He was a born Brahmin,
but later turned into a Buddhist Monk. He was the court poet of the Kushana king Kanishka. Asvaghosha wrote in
Classical Sanskrit.
• His work, Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work. It mainly deals with Buddha's Life.
• Asvaghosa also wrote a Sanskrit Drama “Sariputra Prakaran” which deals about Sariputta or Sariputra the disciple
of Buddha.
• Asvaghosha also wrote the Saundaranandakavya, a kavya poem with the theme of conversion of Nanda,
Buddha‟s half-brother, so that he might reach salvation.
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• Sudraka - The real name of Sudraka was Indranigupta and he was an Abhiras gm
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King of first or second century AD. The
Abhiras were contemporary and vassals of the Satavahans.
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• Sudraka has become immortal in the form of three Sanskrit Plays ascribed to him viz. Mricchakatika (The Little
Clay Cart), Vinavasavadatta, and a bhana (short one-act monologue), Padmaprabhritaka.
• Bhasa - He is most probably senior to Kalidasa and is one of the earliest and most celebrated Indian playwrights.
• His most important works are Swapnavasavadattam (This play is around the Vatsa king Udayana and his queen
Vasavadatta, the daughter of Pradyota, the ruler of Avanti), Panch-ratra, Madhyama-vyayoga,
DutaGhattotkacha, Duta-Vakya, Urubhanga, Karna-bhara and Bal Charita.
600 A.D-1200C A.D
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• Q. The significance of Sanskrit language is evident from its use in the fields of epic
poetry and drama in the Indian Culture. Elaborate.
• Sanskrit Language has been the most important medium in lending continuity to Indian
civilization. Sanskrit is one of our classical languages and considered as mother of all
languages.
• In Indian culture, it has been widely used in the Kavyas (epic poetry), the Nataka
(drama), lyric poetry, popular tales, didactic fables, scientific literature on grammar,
medicine, law, astronomy, mathematics, etc.
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The main purpose of Kavya or Nataka (drama) is to 16
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or entertainment, (Lokaranjana), and also stimulate his feelings, and ultimately give him a
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• Epic poetry/Kavyas: In the Kavya tradition, more care is bestowed on the form, such as
the style, figure of speech, descriptions, etc., and the story-theme is pushed to the
background. Following are the important Kavyas written in Sanskrit language.
• Kalidasa wrote two great epics, Kumarasambhava (the birth of Kumar), and
Raghuvamsa (the dynasty of the Raghus)
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The astronomical constants and the sine etable
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• Division of time and rules for computing the longitudes of planets using eccentrics
• That Aryabhata was aware of the relativity of motion is clear from this passage in his
book “Just as a man in a boat sees the trees on the bank move in the opposite
direction, so an observer on the equator sees the stationary stars as moving precisely
toward the west."
• Varahamihira - lived in Ujjain and was one of the nine jewels (Navaratnas) of the
court of Chandragupta II.
• In his book he has documented valuable ancient literature and given the
references of many of the instruments used by the astronomers before him.
• Similarly he has documented the various methods for the use of these
instruments.
• Pingala (circa. 5th-2nd century BC) used binary numbers in the form of short and
long syllables (the latter equal in length to two short syllables). This was very much
similar to today's Morse code. Binary repersentation has now become the basis of
information storage in terms of sequences of 0s and 1s in modern-day computers.
• Bhaskara (born 1114), who was from the Karnataka region, was an outstanding
mathematician and astronomer. Amongst his mathematical contributions is the concept of
differentials.
• Lilavati on arithmetic
• Bijaganita on algebra
• Ganitadhyaya on astronomy
• Goladhyaya on astronomy
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Bhaskara's epicyclic eccentric theories of planetary motions are more developed than
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• He also provided methods to estimate the motions of the planets. He gave power series
expansions for trigonometric functions, and for pi correct to eleven decimal places.
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Apabhraṃśa in Sanskrit literally means
"corrupt" or "non-grammatical language",
that which deviates from the norm of
Sanskrit grammar.
Apabhraṃśa literature is a valuable
m source for the history of North India for
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hi1 It s a term used by vyākaraṇin (native
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languages spoken in North India before
the rise of the modern languages. In
Indology, it is used as an umbrella term
for the dialects forming the transition
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• Fa-Hien's account on the Gupta • Hiuen Tsang who travelled in India between 628 A.D.and 645 A.D. during the
administration provides useful information. He reign of Harshavardhana, the last great Hindu Emperor of North India (A.D.
characterises the Gupta administration as 606-647). m
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mild and benevolent. There were no • Hiuen Tsang gave manymprominent ail. accounts on administration and society of that
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restrictions on people’s movements and they time: 27
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◦ The socio-culturali1 6 life of North India was also characterized by downhill trends.
enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom. ert
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Harsha’s
ke age was marked by great rigidity in social life. The social
There was no state interference in the
individual’s life. mobility had disappeared. The status of women declined sharply during
• Punishments were not severe. Imposing a fine this period due to the popularity of child marriage and prohibition of
was a common punishment. widow remarriage.
• There was no spy system. The administration ◦ He described that the kingdom was well-governed; it was- free from revolts;
there were a few cases of law-breaking; offenders were given physical
was so efficient that the roads were kept safe
punishments and tortured as well to extract the truth from them while the
for travelers, and there was no fear of traitors were given death sentence or turned out of the kingdom.
thieves. ◦ The burden of taxation was not heavy on the subjects; they were free
• He mentioned that people were generally from the oppression of the government servants and were, thus, happy. The
prosperous and the crimes were negligible. state used to record its every activity. He, however, described that travelling
• Fa-Hien had also appreciated the efficiency of was not very much safe at that time.
the Gupta administration as he was able to ◦ The main source of income of the state was land-revenue.
travel without any fear throughout the Gangetic ◦ He took note of untouchables as scavengers, executioners etc. According
valley. to him, they lived outside the villages and consumed garlic and onion. The
• On the whole, the administration was more Untouchables announced their entry into the town or village by shouting loudly,
liberal than that of the Mauryas. so that the people might keep away from them.
•
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INDIAN
LANGUAGES
IN DANGER
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Architecture 62
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Temple Architecture
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Temple Architecture
The Nagara Temple Style – Northern India ( Dashavtara temple,
Deogarh, Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho, etc
In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a
stone platform with steps leading up to it.
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Ø Further, unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate
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boundary walls or gateways. ke
Ø The second major type of architectural form in the nagara order is the
phamsana. Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina
ones. Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a
single point over the centre of the building. Phamsana roofs do not curve
inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight incline. Ø Mostly the
phamsana design is used for the mandapas while the main garbhagriha il.c
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Ø The third main sub-type of the nagara building is what ert is generally
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called the valabhi type. These are rectangular buildings with a roof that
rises into a vaulted chamber
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DIFFERENCES - NAGARA AND DRAVIDA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
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Pallavas
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• The images of deer, monkey, cat, mouse and other animals are beautifully
carved on this huge rock.
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Vijayanagar Temple Architecture
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• Kalinga temple style is broadly classified into three main categories,
namely Rekha, Pidha and Khakhara.
• Rekha-deul (temple) is distinguished with its square plan topped with a curvilinear tower.
• A Pidha-deul, also referred as Bhadra deul, also has a square plan topped with a pyramidal
tower composed of horizontal tiers arranged in receding manner.
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A Khakhara deul is surmounted with a barrel-shaped (vault-shape) g tower over a
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• Most of the Kalinga temples fall under the Rekha category. Very few temples depict Khakhara
style, usually these temples are dedicated to a form of Devi. Pidha-style is usually used for
jagamohanas but not for the main deul.
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Chalukayas of Badami (Vatapi) ruled Karnataka region around 7th century AD. They were
followed by Western Chalukyas (Kalyani Chalukyas) by around 11th century AD.
The Chalukya temples are noticeable for three basic plans. They are :
1. Design of the floor
2. Projection of architectural articulation
3. Sculpture.
The noticeable aspect is that though ornamentation of Chalukya temples bears elements of Nagara
and Dravidian tradition but they have combined the elements in so prudent way that they become
unique and distinctive feature of their own.
The Vesara style also called the Chalukyan type possessed the Dravidian vimana and the Nagara- type faceted
walls.
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The Dravida influence is mainly visible in vimana of the Chalukya temples gm in first part of the Chalukya rule.
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Combination of Nagara and Dravida style
1. Vesara sikhar or kadamba sikhara: It is a shikhara of Chalukya temple showing northern shikhara shikhara and
southern vimana features.
2. Ornamentation: Miniature decorative towers and ornamentation of walls in Chalukya temples show combination of both
Nagara and Dravida style.
Special departure from Nagara and Dravida tradition: In case of entrance hall to shrine Chalukya temple bears special
uniqueness. It has two or more than two entrances while
• There is a small closed mantapa to the shrine in Nagara temples.
• There is an enlarged, open and closed mantapa in Dravida temples.
Own distinctive features
Ornamentation : In case of ornamentation of temple walls and pillars, Chalukya
temple shows indigenous quality.
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Mantapa : The mantapa has two types of roof – domical ceilings (the
dome like ceilings standing on four pillars are very attractive) or Square
ceilings (these are vigorously ornamented with mythological pictures).
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• Lessons for contemporary water concerns:
• Exclusive construction of canals/waterways for flood season like done during Indus
Valley civilisation.
• Prevention of clogging of water during monsoons and need for efficient sewerage
system esp in cities as in Indus Valley civilisation.
• Diversion of water into fields in villages from water surplus areas to dry agricultural
patches: The Veda mentions well-style irrigation, where Kupa and avata wells once
dug are stated to be always full of water, from which varatra (rope strap)
and cakra (wheel) pull kosa(pails) of water. This water a il.c
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was, state the Vedas, led
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into surmi susira(broad channels) and from there h i1 62
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• Recharge of water in hilly areas and where ground water is receding eg Zing, Zabo,
tank irrigation systems.
• Serve as economical and viable systems eg Johads, talabs/pokhariyan.
• In Tamil Nadu, the Grand Anicut (canal) across the Kaveri river was implemented in
the 3rd century CE, and the basic design is still used today.
•
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JAINA ARCHITECTURE
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JAIN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
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BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE
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MEGALITH CULTURE
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com INDO-ISLAMIC
ail.
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ARABESQUE
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NEO-CLASSICAL
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NEO-GOTHIC
Indo-Sarcenic
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THANKS
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