applied
sciences
Article
Dynamic Modeling and Vibration Characteristics for a
High-Speed Aero-Engine Rotor with Blade Off
Longkai Wang 1,2 , Yijun Yin 1,2, *, Ailun Wang 1,2 , Xing Heng 2 and Miao Jin 2






Citation: Wang, L.; Yin, Y.; Wang, A.;
Heng, X.; Jin, M. Dynamic Modeling
and Vibration Characteristics for a
High-Speed Aero-Engine Rotor with
Blade Off. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674.
https://doi.org/10.3390/app11209674
Academic Editor: Jean-Jacques Sinou
Received: 27 September 2021
Accepted: 15 October 2021
Published: 17 October 2021
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4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11209674
1 Light Alloy Research Institute, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China;
longkaiw@csu.edu.cn (L.W.); walcsu@163.com (A.W.)
2 State Key Laboratory of High Performance Complex Manufacturing, Central South University,
Changsha 410083, China; 193701033@csu.edu.cn (X.H.); jinmiaocsu@163.com (M.J.)
* Correspondence: yinyijun@csu.edu.cn
Abstract: Blade off that occurs during operation will generate a sudden imbalance excitation and
make the rotor become inertially asymmetric, which leads to large instantaneous impact load
and induces more complex rotor dynamic phenomena. In order to study the transient dynamic
characteristics for complex rotors suffering from blade off, a mathematical model for solving the
response of the gas generator rotor in the aero-turboshaft engine is established based on the FE
method and DOF condensation, in which the complex structural characteristics, transient impact
load, and inertia asymmetry of the rotor are considered. The complex impeller structure is modeled
by piecewise linear fitting with cylindrical beam elements and tapered beam elements. Without loss
of generality, the modeling method suitable for complex rotors is verified through a general complex
test rotor with modal experiments. Based on this, the responses are solved for carrying out parametric
studies and an understanding of the transient dynamic characteristics of the rotor under the extreme
working conditions of blade off. The results show that the blade off has a great impact effect on the
time-domain waveform, frequency components, and rotor orbits. At the instantaneous stage after
blade off, the complex motion is composed of synchronous motion and some lower-order natural
modes excited by blade off. Although the transient responses with blade off at different rotational
speeds have similar time-varying characteristics, the impact factor is sensitive to the rotating speed.
Most important is that the parameter of the blade off location will not only have a significant effect
on the impact factor, but also on the frequency spectrum. These dynamic characteristics as well
as impact effect provide certain guidance for the fault recognition and dynamic analysis to these
complex rotors suffering blade off.
Keywords: aero-engine; rotor system; blade off; transient response; impact effect; rotor modeling
1. Introduction
Blade off is a typical extreme load condition [1] that an aero-engine may suffer, which
may lead to severe vibration of the aircraft and even cause the failure of some parts of the
aero-engine. The fracture of a part of the blade or even the entire blade is caused by various
reasons such as the fatigue failure of the blade or the mortice, bird strike, or the impact
of other foreign objects. The blade off event not only can lead to large mass imbalance
and blisk asymmetry but also can impose a large impact load on the rotor system, which
will make the response and dynamic phenomena become more complicated. Because the
blade loss may cause serious damage to the aero-engine, many authorities have made
clear safety requirements [2,3] for the loss of aero-engine blade. In order to ensure the
strength and integrality of the aero-engine [4], considering the testing fee and time cost, it
is necessary to develop an aero-engine model to predict the complex dynamic response
under the condition of blade loss before carrying out a success blade off test. Therefore, the
dynamic characteristic analysis and response prediction based on analytical modeling and
numerical simulation are of great importance for the aero-engine suffering blade off.
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 2 of 22

In view of the fact that the blade loss can easily cause severe vibration which may
cause greater damage to the whole unit and seriously threatens flight safety, a lot of
works on the blade off event have been done by scholars and demonstrated that the
dynamic characteristics of the rotor suffering blade off fault are those primarily affecting
aircraft safety. Obviously, the instantaneous sudden imbalance load due to blade off has a
significant impact on the vibration response of the rotor system. Wang et al. [5], Kailinowski
et al. [6], and Genta et al. [7], respectively, built a dynamic model for a Jeffcott rotor with
blade off fault. Their research results show that the transient unbalance excitation generated
by the blade off causes an instantaneous increase in rotor amplitude, and its vibration
magnitude is closely related to the weight of the lost blade, the axial position, and the initial
operating condition. Kalinowski et al. [6] defined the ratio of the transient response peak
to the steady-state amplitude as the impact coefficient due to sudden imbalance, which is
used to measure the impact effect under blade off fault. An overhung fan rotor was taken
as the research object by Wang et al. [8,9] for investigating the sudden imbalance response
and carrying out a fusing design suffering blade out. Li et al. [10] also investigated the
transient dynamic characteristics of a cantilever single-disk rotor under sudden unbalance
load. In order to analyze the response characteristics of the rotor system under sudden
unbalanced excitation during the blade loss process, Sinha et al. [11,12] simplified the
low-pressure rotor of a turbofan engine with a high bypass ratio to a cantilever rotor
model with blades. Wei et al. [13] constructed a dynamic model of fan shaft-gear system
using a Euler–Bernoulli beam element considering shear deformation. Based on this, they
studied the shaft center orbits under blade loss load and vibration characteristics under
windmill status. By simplifying the turbofan engine low-pressure flexible rotor into a
single-disk cantilever rotor, Hong et al. [14] established a dynamic model with sudden
unbalance excitation, which considered stiffness and mass distribution characteristics and
load transfer characteristics. With the help of Dyrobes dynamics software, Bin et al. [15]
simulated the transient response due to the last stage blade loss in a 600 MW supercritical
steam turbine low-pressure rotor by applying the transient excitation force under the
condition that the rotation speed was fixed at 3000 r/min and disk asymmetry was not
considered. Li et al. [16] studied the dynamic characteristics of a single-disk cantilever
rotor under extreme load with blade loss and carried out the safety design of support.
Wang et al. [17–19] derived the motion equation of a typical disk-type rotor by means of
the lump parameter method [17,18] and finite element method [19], respectively. Based on
the model established, the internal resistance effect [17], imbalance effect [18], and bi-stable
vibration characteristics [19] were studied. Based on Galerkin and Ansys, Wang et al. [20]
investigated the nonlinear dynamics of the blade tip impacted, where the research object
was still the cantilever fan rotor of the turbofan engine. Meanwhile, the impact effect caused
by blade loss was not studied. For these complex vibration signals, Mercorelli [21,22] and
Schimmack et al. [23,24] proposed a method for denoising and harmonic detection by using
a non-orthogonal wavelet packet, which can isolate interference or non-coherent parts well.
In terms of rotor dynamics of turboshaft engines, Lei et al. [25] and Zhang et al. [26]
established a finite element three-dimensional solid model of a turboshaft engine rotor by using
ANSYS. Based on the ANSYS model, they studied the coupling vibration characteristics of a dual
rotor with flexible supports. Based on the modal similarity criterion, Liao et al. [27] designed a
simulated rotor test bench for the turboshaft engine gas generator rotor. Deng et al. [28] used
SAMCEF to construct a dynamic model of a power turbine rotor and modified the supporting
stiffness in consideration of the influence of stator. In summary, the above-mentioned research
mainly focused on the natural characteristics of turboshaft engines with ANSYS. Ma et al. [29]
studied the unbalanced response of a double-disk rotor system with nonlinear support. HAI
et al. [30] used NASTRAN software to solve the modal parameters of the dual-rotor system and
MATLAB to numerically solve the nonlinear dynamic response of the dual-rotor supported
by SFD. Yang et al. [31] took the double-rotor test bench as an example and, based on the
finite element method, constructed the motion equation of the rotor system by using the fixed
interface modal synthesis method and carried out experimental verification. Meng et al. [32]
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 3 of 22

used the transfer matrix method to calculate the critical speed, vibration mode, and unbalance
response of a heavy gas turbine rotor.
It can be noted that most researchers or scholars focused their attention mainly
on impact effects originated from the blade off incident but seldom paid attention to
the transient response characteristics of actual rotating machinery suffering from the
blade off event. In most research cases, simple rotors (Jeffcott rotors or single-disk
cantilever rotors) simulated with lower degrees of freedom (DOFs) or oversimplified
rotor models are adopted to explore the dynamic characteristics under extreme working
conditions such as blade loss. The gas generator rotor, which is the core component of
the aero-turboshaft-engine, usually runs between the second-order critical speed and the
third-order critical speed and has richer dynamic characteristics than simple rotors. At
present, works on the dynamic response of the turboshaft aero-engine with blade off are
not reported. In addition, previous research on the dynamic modeling of aero-engine
rotors mainly takes aeronautical twin-rotor engines with intermediary bearing coupling
as the research object and basically simplifies the inherently complex rotor structure to
a straight shaft plus rigid disk associated structure, which neglects the main structural
features of the rotor and is unable to obtain dynamic characteristics consistent with reality.
For the gas generator rotor used in the turboshaft engine, there is very little research on its
dynamic modeling and response analysis. This is no doubt because the previous dynamic
models based on constant-section beam elements or ANSYS solid elements are difficult
for characterizing variable-section rotors with complex profiles, the calculation cost is
very large, and the conclusions or laws obtained provide limited guidance to the actual
engineering. Obviously, the vibration laws obtained by the simplified rotor in the past are
no longer simply applicable to those complex turboshaft engines. Therefore, it is extremely
necessary to establish a dynamic model, with a small calculation time and characterizing
the complex structure of the rotor well, in order to obtain response characteristics that
can guide the actual situation. Therefore, this article focuses on complex rotor dynamics
modeling and transient response analysis, with the purpose of providing more valuable
guidance for engine rotor dynamics design.
In order to better understand the fault features of complex aero-engines when blade
loss occurs during operation, this paper aims at establishing a more reasonable dynamic
model to study the dynamic response of the complicated rotor suffering blade off. Taking
the typical gas generator rotor in an aero turboshaft engine (ATE) as the research object,
a more reasonable rotor dynamical model is proposed based on the FE method and DOF
condensation theory. The model not only considers the complex structural features and
mechanical properties of the rotor, but also the coupling effects of sudden unbalance and
the asymmetric inertia due to blade off. The advantage of this rotor modeling method is that
the mechanical and structural features of the complicated structure can be considered and
characterized with fewer DOFs, which greatly reduce the difficulty of response calculation,
especially for these complex aero-engine rotors. On this basis, numerical simulations and
associated experiments are both performed to verify the validity of the modeling method.
Furthermore, the linear analysis and the vibration mechanism with the blade off incident
in high-speed aero turboshaft engines are studied. The work can provide better theoretical
and technical support for rotor modeling and fault identification of aviation turboshaft
engines suffering from the blade off event.

2. Mathematical Model
The gas generator rotor is the core part for ATEs, in which the vibration intensity of
the rotor directly influences the normal operation of ATEs, and even causes the whole
machine to fail. Figure 1 shows the structural diagram of a gas generator rotor with
3AC1CC + 2GT layout for a typical ATE with a high power-to-weight ratio, which is
composed of a front shaft head, three stage axial compressors, one stage centrifugal
compressor, two stage gas turbines, and a rear shaft head. The 1-0-1 supporting form
with rolling bearings is used to support the rotor. As shown in Figure 1, the gas generator
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 4 of 23

3AC1CC + 2GT layout for a typical ATE with a high power-to-weight ratio, which is com-
3AC1CC
posed of a +front
2GTshaft
layout for athree
head, typical ATE
stage with
axial a high power-to-weight
compressors, ratio, which
one stage centrifugal is com-
compres-
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 posed of a front shaft head, three stage axial compressors, one stage
sor, two stage gas turbines, and a rear shaft head. The 1-0-1 supporting form with rolling centrifugal compres-
4 of 22
sor, twoisstage
bearings usedgas turbines,
to support theand a rear
rotor. shaft head.
As shown The 1-0-1
in Figure 1, thesupporting
gas generator form with
rotor rolling
belongs
bearings is used to support the rotor. As shown in Figure 1, the
to a typical variable cross-section structure rotor, with many conical structures, bladegas generator rotor belongs
to a typical
disks, variable cross-section increase
structurethe rotor, with many conical and
structures, blade
rotor and annular
belongs to acavities,
typical which
variable cross-section difficulty in modeling
structure rotor, with solving.
many As
conical
disks,
mentioned and annular
above, thecavities,
commonly which
usedincrease
stepped the difficulty
cylindrical in modeling
modeling and
method solving.
is difficult As
structures, blade disks, and annular cavities, which increase the difficulty in modeling
mentioned
for accurately above, the commonly used stepped cylindrical modeling method is difficult
and solving.characterizing
As mentionedthe mechanical
above, characteristics
the commonly used of the rotor
stepped and predicting
cylindrical modelingthe
for accurately
vibration characterizing the mechanical characteristics of the rotor and predicting the
method response
is difficult easily, especially the
for accurately transient response
characterizing predictioncharacteristics
the mechanical under the condition of the
vibration
ofrotor
bladeand response
loss. easily,
Therefore,the especially
this the
paper proposestransient response prediction under the condition
predicting vibration responseaneasily,efficient modeling
especially themethod
transient by response
using a
of blade loss.
combination of Therefore,
cylindrical this paperand
elements proposes
conical an efficienttomodeling
elements simulate method
the complexby using
rotor, a
prediction under the condition of blade loss. Therefore, this paper proposes an efficient
combination
inmodeling
which Guyan of cylindrical
DOF elements and conical elements to simulate the complex so rotor,
method byreduction technology isofused
using a combination to reduce
cylindrical the DOFs
elements andofconical
system,elementsthat
in
a to which
mathematicalGuyan DOF
model reduction
with few technology
DOFs but is
which used
can to reduce
truly the
reflect DOFs
the of
dynamic system, so that
character-
simulate the complex rotor, in which Guyan DOF reduction technology is used to
a mathematical
istics of the model with few DOFs but which can truly reflect the dynamic character-
reduce therotor
DOFsisof established.
system, so that a mathematical model with few DOFs but which can
istics of the rotor is established.
truly reflect the dynamic characteristics of the rotor is established.
2 stage AC 3 stage AC 2 stage GT
1 stage AC 2 stage AC 3 stage AC 2 stage GT
1 stage AC 1 stage CC 1 stage GT
1 stage CC 1 stage GT
Gas generator
Gasrotor
generator
rotor

1# bearing 2# bearing
1# bearing 2# bearing
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the turboshaft engine used gas generator rotors.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the turboshaft engine used gas generator rotors.
2.1.
2.1.Mechanical
MechanicalCharacteristics
Characteristicsand andSudden
SuddenUnbalance
UnbalanceExcitation
ExcitationCaused
CausedbybyBlade
BladeOff Off
2.1. Mechanical Characteristics and Sudden Unbalance Excitation Caused by Blade Off
The gas turbine of the gas generator usually works under high-speed,
The gas turbine of the gas generator usually works under high-speed, -temperature, and -temperature,
and The gas turbine
-pressure of the gas the
conditions. generator usually works under high-speed, -temperature,
-pressure conditions. Since Since first-stage
the first-stage gas works
gas turbine turbine at works at the
the highest highest
working working
temperature
and -pressure
temperature conditions. Since
and is in a high-frequency the first-stage
vibration gas turbine works
and high-temperature at the highest
air impact working
envi-
and is in a high-frequency vibration and high-temperature air impact environment, it is
temperature
ronment, and is in a high-frequency vibration and high-temperature air impact envi-
subjecteditto is the
subjected
largest to the largest
thermal thermal
and impact and impact
fatigue. fatigue.
Therefore, Therefore,
the first stage gas theturbine
first stage
may
ronment,
gas itmay
is subjected to the largest thermal and impact fatigue. Therefore, the first stage
be turbine
the earliest be the earliest
possible positionpossible
where the position
blade maywhere be the blade
broken andmay
lostbeinbroken
the rotor and lost
system.
gas
inOfthe turbine
rotor may
system. be the
Of earliest
course, possible
blade loss position
events where
may also the blade
occur at may
other be broken
locations. and lost
course, blade loss events may also occur at other locations.
in the
When rotor system. Of course, blade loss events may alsoinoccur at other mass
locations. of the
Whenthe theblade
bladeisislost
lostatatthe
themoment
momentofoft1t,1as, asshown
shown inFigureFigure2,2,thethe masssize size of the
blisk When the blade is lost at the moment of t1, as shown in Figure 2, the mass size of the
bliskisischanged
changedsuddenly,
suddenly,and andthe theposition
positionofofthethecenter
centerofofmass
massisismoved
movedinstantaneously
instantaneously
toblisk
toa anewis changed
new position,
position,suddenly,
resulting
resulting and a the
in in position
larger
a larger of the center
eccentricity
eccentricity andand ofimpact
mass
impact isload.
load. moved instantaneously
Furthermore,
Furthermore, the in-
the
to a
ertial new
inertial position,
symmetry
symmetry resulting
of the blisk
of the blisk in
is alsoa larger eccentricity
destroyed
is also destroyed soso
that
that and
thethe impact
rotor with
rotor load.
with blade Furthermore,
blade offoffhas the in-
hassignificant
significant
ertial
asymmetric symmetry
asymmetric of the blisk is also destroyed so that the rotor with blade off has significant
characteristics.
characteristics.
asymmetric characteristics.

Intact
blade
Intact Blade off
blade Blade off

Schematicdiagram
Figure2.2.Schematic
Figure diagramofofa ablade
bladeoff
offevent.
event.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of a blade off event.
2.1.1. Sudden Unbalance Excitation
Generally, the mass center and centroid of the rotor are nearly coincident due to
the highly precise machining and initial dynamic balancing technique. Hence, the initial
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 5 of 22

eccentricity is assumed to be zero [3]. As the sudden load caused by the blade off is
time-varying, the sudden unbalance load in x and y directions can be expressed as
 
0, t < t1
 F
 x
 = 2 cos( ω ( t − t ) + φ ), t ≥ t
m loss Rω 1 1
 (1)
0, t < t 1
 Fy =


mloss Rω 2 sin(ω (t − t1 ) + φ), t ≥ t1

where mloss is the mass of the lost blade, R is the blade centroid radius, ω denotes the
rotating speed, R is the distance from the lost blade centroid to the center line of the rotating
shaft, and φ represents the initial phase angle. When the blade is lost at the moment of
t1 , an instantaneous impact load will be generated. Thereafter, the steady-state unbalance
force is maintained, as shown in Equation (1).

2.1.2. Inertial Asymmetry of the Blade-Disk System

As mentioned above, the blade off event will make the disk become asymmetric in
structure. The motion equation of the damaged blade-disk system can be deduced by
   
d ∂Td ∂Td
. − =0 (2)
dt ∂qd ∂qd

where q = [xd , yd , θ x d , θ y d ]T . The subscript d is used to identify the disk parameters. xd

and yd are the translational displacements in the x and y directions, respectively. θ x d and
θ y d are the rotational displacements around the x and y directions, respectively. When the
blade loss occurs, the polar moment of inertia of the blisk system is reduced to

Jloss = Jp − mloss R2 (3)

where Jp is the polar moment of the inertia of the intact blisk, and mloss denotes the lost
mass of the blade.
The diameter moments of inertia around the X-axis and Y-axis change to Jx = Jp /2 − mloss R2
and Jy = Jp /2, respectively. Then, the kinetic energy of the damaged blade-disk system can be
expressed in the form
. .2
 . . 2
1 2
Td = 2 mb xd + yd + 21 Jx θ xd cos ωt + θ yd sin ωt +
. . 2  . .  (4)
1
2 Jy θ xd sin ωt − θ yd cos ωt + 21 Jloss ω 2 + ω θ xd θyd − θ yd θxd

where mb is the mass of the blisk after the blade is lost. The average diameter moment
of inertia (Jm ) and the asymmetrical increment of inertia (∆Jyx ) of the blisk system can be
expressed as
1 1
Jx + Jy = J p − ∆J


Jm = (5)
2 2
1 1
∆J = Jy − Jx = mloss R2


(6)
2 2
Equation (6) indicates the asymmetry between Jy and Jx . By substituting Equation (4)
into Equation (2), the motion equation of the damaged blade-disk system can be derived as
.. .
(Mds + Mdv (t))q + (Gds + Gdv (t))q = 0 (7)

where M ds and Gds represent the constant components of mass and gyroscopic matrices,
respectively, and M dv (t) and Gdv (t) denote the corresponding time-varying components
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 6 of 22

of mass and gyroscopic matrices, respectively, of which the time-varying period T = π/ω.
Those matrices are expressed as follows.
 
mb 0 0 0
 0 mb 0 0 
Mds =  (8)
 0 0 Jm 0 
0 0 0 Jm
 
0 0 0 0
 0 0 0 0
Mdv (t) = −∆J 

 0 0 cos 2ωt
 (9)
sin 2ωt 
0 0 sin 2ωt − cos 2ωt
 
0 0 0 0
 0 0 0 0 
Gds =   (10)
 0 0 0 Jloss ω 
0 0 − Jloss ω 0
 
0 0 0 0
 0 0 0 0 
Gdv (t) = 2ω∆J   (11)
 0 0 sin 2ωt − cos 2ωt 
0 0 − cos 2ωt − sin 2ωt

2.2. The Motion Governing Equation of Gas Turbine Rotor with Blade off
Considering the complexity of the rotor structure investigated, the varying cross-section
structures are simulated with a series of cylindrical and conical beam elements; after that, the
system’s DOFs are reduced by Guyan theory. On the basis of this, a typical high-speed
gas generator rotor with complex structures shown in Figure 1 is discretized based on
the FE method and Guyan reduction technology, as shown in Figure 3a. To facilitate the
understanding of the modeling process, the final equivalent mechanical model is presented in
Figure 3b, in which the rotatory inertia, shear effect, and gyroscopic moment are considered.
Each node of the main element has four DOFs (two translational and two rotational DOFs).
In view of the fact that the left and right bearings are rolling bearings, the supports are
modeled as linear spring-damping models, where the supporting stiffness and damping
are 2 × 104 N/mm and 0.5 N·s/mm, respectively. The blades at each stage are regarded as
lumped mass [33] applied to the corresponding nodes, such as nodes 4, 7, 8, and so on.
For a cylindrical or conical beam element shown in Figure 3a, the (8 × 8) inertia or
stiffness matrixes can be expressed in the general form

a11
 

 0 a22 sym 


 0 a32 a33 

e
 a41 0 0 a44 
A =  (12)

 a51 0 0 a54 a55 


 0 a62 a63 0 0 a66 

 0 a72 a73 0 0 a76 a77 
a81 0 0 a84 a85 0 0 a88

Corresponding to Equation (12), the (4 × 4) stiffness and inertia matrixes in XOZ

plane are well documented in any book [34] or reference [35,36] about rotor dynamics.
Once the 4-by-4 matrix is known, the 8-by-8 matrix (Equation (12)) can be obtained
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 7 of 22

according to the relationships between the XOZ and YOZ planes [37]. The gyroscopic
matrix can be written as
 
0

 G21 0 skew sym 


 G31 0 0 

0 G42 G43 0
 
e
G =
 
0 G52 G53 0 0

 

G61 G64 G65

 0 0 0 
 
 G71 0 0 G74 G75 0 0 
0 G82 G83 0 0 G86 G87 0
(13)
−ρI ρI
G21 = 2 (36), 2 (3 − 15Φ ) L,
G31 =
15L(1+Φ) 15L(1+Φ)
−ρI 2 2 −ρI 2 2
G43 = 2 (4 + 5Φ +10Φ ) L , G83 = 2 (−1 − 5Φ + 5Φ ) L ,
15L(1+Φ) 15L(1+Φ)
G61 = − G21 , G71 = G31 , G42 = G31 , G52 = G21 , G82 = G31 ,
G53 = G31 , G64 = G31 , G74 = − G83 , G65 = G21 , G75 = − G31 ,G86 = − G31 , G87 = G43 .

where ρ, I, L, E, and G represent the density, area moment, length, elastic modulus, and
shear modulus, respectively. Φ = 12EI/(0.886AGL2 ).

2# blade 3# blade 4# blade 5# blade 6# blade

x 1# blade
10-4 12-1
8-4 10-3 12-2
5-1 6-3 7-4 9-110-2 12-3 15-2
y z 2-4 10-1 12-4 13-2 16-1
5-2 12-5 14-5 Cyy
2-1 2-5 17-1
2-3 14-4 17-2
1-1 1-2 2-2
17
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 Kyy
C.G.

3-1 9-2
3-2 12-6 13-3
3-3 4-1 5-3 Kxx Cxx
10-5
4-2 6-16-2 7-5 11-1 14-1 15-1
7-6 11-2 14-2
6-4 7-7 11-3
Kb1, Cb1 8-1 14-3 Kb2, Cb2 Support model
7-1
7-2 8-2 11-4 13-1
7-3 8-3

(a)

(i=3…16)
Cyy
K1 K2 Ki K17 K18

…… Kyy
C1 C2 Ci C17 C18

Kxx Cxx
1 2 …… 17 18

(b) (c)

Figure 3. Dynamic model of the rotor-support system with 18 master nodes. (a) FE model with master- and sub-elements.
(b) The mechanical model equal to (a). (c) Supporting model.

Once all of the sub-element beam equations in each main element are deduced into
the 8 × 8 main matrix on the basis of Guyan theory, the mass matrix (M r ), the stiffness
matrix (Kr ), and the gyroscopic matrix (Gr ) for the whole rotor system can be obtained by
assembling all of the main element matrices, and the assembly procedure is depicted in
 Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 8 of 22

Figure 4. Then, based on the rotor dynamics theory, the dynamic governing equation with
72 DOFs describing the rotor motion induced by blade off is deduced as
.. .
(M + Mb (t))q + (C + G + Gb (t))q + Kq = F(t) (14)

where q = [x1 , y1 , θ x1 , θ y1 , . . . , x18 , y18 , θ x18 , θ y18 ]T is the generalized displacement vector.
M and G are the constant components of the global mass matrix and gyroscopic matrix,
respectively, while M b (t) and Gb (t) are the corresponding time-varying components due
to blade-loss, respectively. K denotes the stiffness matrix. F(t) is the sudden unbalance
excitation when blade off occurs in a blade-disk. The structural damping matrix, C, is
obtained by using the Rayleigh damping formulation [38], which can be written as

C = αM + βK (15a)

4πωn1 ωn2 (ξ 1 ωn2 − ξ 2 ωn1 ) ξ 2 ωn2 − ξ 1 ωn1

ppl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674
α= 2 2
, β= 2 − ω2 )
(15b)
(ωn2 − ωn1 ) π (ωn2 n1
where ωn1 and ωn2 are the first- and second-order undamped natural frequencies calculated;
ξ 1 and ξ 2 represent the first two-order modal damping ratios, which are set to 0.02.
The obtained sparse matrices (M, K, G) can improve the calculation speed for vibration
responses. However, the obtained mode shapes are not smooth enough because the
continuous rotor is discrete in a finite number of elements. Similar to other modeling
methods, such as the lumped mass method, finite element method with beam theory,
etc., [3,17,18], this is an inevitable defect, but it will not affect the calculation accuracy of
natural frequency, mode, and response.

M K

G Common node

8×8 element matrix

(Me/Ke/Ge)

8×8 element matrix

with node coupled

Blade position

Figure 4. Assembly process for the total matrices after Guyan DOF reduction.
Figure 4. Assembly
3. Modeling Methodprocess forthrough
Validation the total matrices
a Test Rotor after Guyan DOF reduction.
In order to verify the modeling method proposed in this paper, a rotor with both
3. conical
Modeling Methodstructures
and cylindrical Validation throughasashown
was designed, Test Rotor
in Figure 5. The dynamic
model of the test rotor is established with 10 main elements, as shown in Figure 5a. The
In order to verify the modeling method proposed in this paper, a roto
conical and cylindrical structures was designed, as shown in Figure 5. The dyn
of the test rotor is established with 10 main elements, as shown in Figure 5a. Th
response function of the test rotor is obtained by hammering method und
 In order to verify the modeling method proposed in this pape
conical and cylindrical structures was designed, as shown in Figure 5.
of the test rotor is established with 10 main elements, as shown in Figu
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 9 of 22
response function of the test rotor is obtained by hammering met
mately free boundary conditions (see Figure 5b). A comparison betw
the calculated
frequency resultsoffor
response function therotor
the test firstis three
obtainednatural frequencies
by hammering method underis shown
three modes
approximately are cylindrical
free boundary mode,
conditions (see Figureconical mode, between
5b). A comparison and bending
the tested mode
and the calculated results for the first three natural frequencies is shown in Table 1. The
be seen from Table 1 that the calculated results agree well with those o
first three modes are cylindrical mode, conical mode, and bending mode, respectively. It
maximum
can be seen from relative error
Table 1 that is within
the calculated 3.2%,
results which
agree shows
well with those that
of the the modelin
tested,
and
and thereliable.
maximum relative error is within 3.2%, which shows that the modeling method is
correct and reliable.

y
x

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

(a)

(b)
Figure 5. The test rotor for the modal test. (a) Rotor model. (b) Rotor test bench.
Figure 5. The test rotor for the modal test. (a) Rotor model. (b) Rotor test ben
Table 1. The first three natural frequencies.

No. Simulation Result (Hz) Experimental Value (Hz) Relative Error (%)
1st order 413 402 2.74
2nd order 1164 1146 1.57
3rd order 5839 5768 1.23

To further verify the effectiveness of the proposed modeling method for complex
rotors, response simulation and corresponding vibration tests were carried out. As shown
in Figure 6, the test rotor is driven by a three-phase AC motor controlled by a frequency
converter, with rolling bearings at both ends (Model: UCP205). The vibration signal of the
bearing seat was collected by a piezoelectric acceleration sensor (sensitivity: 98.1 mV/g),
and the rotor rotation pulse signal was collected by the combination of a non-contact
photoelectric sensor and reflector. In order to simulate the unbalance force caused by blade
loss, a screw was added to the hole corresponding to node 4. Within the speed range
of 1000–3000 r/min, the vibration response was measured at an interval of 100 r/min,
and the amplitude of the steady-state response at every speed was taken to obtain the
amplitude-frequency response curve, which is compared with the simulation result, as
shown in Figure 7. It can be seen from the comparison of the response curves that the
simulation and test results show the same trend of vibration with rotation speed, and
the difference between them is small. The amplitude difference between simulation and
test results is because the test rotor has a certain residual imbalance caused by machining
 amplitude of the steady-state response at every speed was taken to obta
frequency response curve, which is compared with the simulation result
ure 7. It can be seen from the comparison of the response curves that th
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 test results show the same trend of vibration with rotation speed, 10 of 22 and

tween them is small. The amplitude difference between simulation and

cause the test rotor has a certain residual imbalance caused by machinin
and assembling in addition to the unbalance screw applied, which is only applied on the
in addition
simulated to the unbalance screw applied, which is only applied on the
model.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674

Figure
Figure 6. The
6. The test
test rig rig for response.
for response.

Figure
Figure 7. The test rig
7. The testforrig
response.
for response.
4. Numerical Results and Discussion
4. Numerical Results(14)
The motion Equation and Discussion
of the gas turbine rotor system suffering from a blade off
incident is solved numerically by using the Newmark-beta integral algorithm, which is an
The
efficient motion
calculation Equation
algorithm (14) of
and meets thethe gas objective.
research turbineArotor system
time step size ofsuffering
1e-5 s fr
incident
is specified is
forsolved numerically
the numerical byOn
integration. using the of
the basis Newmark-beta
this, the transientintegral
response ofalgorith
efficient calculation algorithm and meets the research objective. A time ste
is specified for the numerical integration. On the basis of this, the transient r
s is solved to show the time-frequency characteristics and the impact effe
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 11 of 22

1.5 s is solved to show the time-frequency characteristics and the impact effect when blade
off occurs at t = 0.05 s. The corresponding parameters for blade off are listed in Table 2.
Taking the rotational speed and blade off location as control parameters in the simulation,
the vibration time-domain waveform, spectrum, and rotor orbit are adopted to investigate
the transient response and blade off mechanism of the high-speed gas turbine rotor system
with complicated structure characteristics. As discussed below, the obtained results reveal
the transient dynamic response and evolution of the rotor system in the case of blade off.

Table 2. Blade released parameters.

Parameter Blade Loss Mass (kg) Radius of Blade Mass Center (mm)
Value 8.46 × 10−3 97.77

4.1. Critical Speeds and Mode Shapes

The critical speeds and corresponding mode shapes are helpful for giving insight
into the dynamic characteristics of the gas turbine rotor with blade off. The first step is
to conduct critical speed analysis. The first three-order critical speeds are calculated,
respectively, to be 10,782 r/min, 22,856 r/min, and 73,527 r/min, which shows that
there are two critical speeds below the maximum speed. Figure 8 represents the mode
shapes corresponding to the first three-order critical speeds, which are respectively the
translational mode, the pitching mode, and the first bending mode, where the first two
can be regarded as rigid modes due to most of the strain energy being concentrated on
the bearings (see Figure 9a,b). According to the rotor dynamics theory, the first two rigid
body modes are most likely to be excited when the rotor is disturbed by internal or external
Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2021,
2021, 11,
11, 9674
9674 12 of
12 of 23
23
interference. Obviously, the modal analysis is helpful for the understanding of the transient
responses which will be discussed later.

(a)
(a)

(b)
(b)

(c)
(c)
Figure 8.
Figure
Figure 8.8.The
The
Thefirstfirst
first three-order mode shapes.
three-order
three-order mode shapes. (a)
mode (a) First order.
shapes.
First order. (b) Second
(a) First
(b) Second order.
order. (c)
(b) (c)
order. Third order.
Second
Third order.
order. (c) Third order.

100
100 Overall: Shaft=14.43%,
Overall: Shaft=14.43%, Bearings=85.57%
Bearings=85.57%
%
energy%

75
75 65.52
65.52
Potentialenergy

50
50
Potential

20.05
20.05
25
25 14.43
14.43
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674
(c) 12 of 22

Figure 8. The first three-order mode shapes. (a) First order. (b) Second order. (c) Third order.

100
Overall: Shaft=14.43%, Bearings=85.57%

Potential energy %
75 65.52

50
20.05
25 14.43

0
shaft 1# Brg 2# Brg
Component

(a)
100
Overall: Shaft=11.32%, Bearings=88.68%
Potential energy %

75 60.47
50
28.2
25 11.32

0
shaft 1# Brg 2# Brg
Component

(b)
100 88.19 Overall: Shaft=88.19%, Bearings=11.81%
Potential energy %

75
50
25 7.71 4.1
0
shaft 1# Brg 2# Brg
Component

(c)
Figure 9. Energy distribution corresponding to the first three modes. (a) First order. (b) Second order.
(c) Third order.

4.2. Evolution of Transient Dynamic Response of Blade off

The transient response induced by blade off is complicated, as the sudden unbalance
not only can produce a large impact force but also a constant unbalance force. In order
to effectively reveal the time-frequency characteristics of the transient response for the
gas generator rotor suffering blade off, on the basis of considering the actual operating
conditions and the fact that the first stage gas turbine is the earliest possible position
where the blade is most likely to be lost during operation, the transient response in 1.5 s is
calculated at the highest speed of the engine with the blade off occurring at the first stage
gas turbine at the moment of 0.05 s.

4.2.1. Time-Domain Response Characteristics

The time-domain responses at different nodes are respectively shown in Figures 10–12,
and corresponding motion orbits are depicted in Figure 13. It can be seen that when the
sudden unbalance is applied on the rotor, i.e., the blade off occurs at the moment t = 0.05 s, the
amplitude of the transient response increases suddenly and quickly reaches a peak point, then
oscillates downward within a certain time range, and finally decays to a stable value after
several revolutions due to the damping existing in the system. Obviously, the system response
finally presents a typical synchronous vibration state due to the large steady-state unbalance
excitation remaining. Figures 10–12 also show that the tendency of the vibration amplitude at
different positions over time is basically the same. The above-mentioned vibration amplitude

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674
12, and corresponding motion orbits are depicted in Figure 13. It can be seen that when
the sudden unbalance is applied on the rotor, i.e., the blade off occurs at the moment t =
0.05 s, the amplitude of the transient response increases suddenly and quickly reaches a
peak point, then oscillates downward within a certain time range, and finally decays to a
stable value after several revolutions due to the damping existing in the system. 13 Obvi-
of 22
ously, the system response finally presents a typical synchronous vibration state due to
the large steady-state unbalance excitation remaining. Figures 10–12 also show that the
tendency of the vibration amplitude at different positions over time is basically the same.
changing
The process with time
above-mentioned indicates
vibration that thechanging
amplitude sudden imbalance has time
process with a significant
indicatesimpact on
that the
the rotor system.
sudden imbalance has a significant impact on the rotor system.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 14 of 23

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 14 of 23
Figure 10. The time-domain response of 1# bearing in the horizontal direction.

Figure 11. The time-domain response of Node 11 (C.G. position) in the horizontal direction.
Figure 11. The time-domain response of Node 11 (C.G. position) in the horizontal direction.

Figure
Figure 12.The
12.
Figure 12.
The time-domain response of 2# bearing in the horizontal direction.
Thetime-domain
time-domainresponse
responseof
of2#
2#bearing
bearingininthe
thehorizontal
horizontaldirection.
direction.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 14 of 22

Figure 12. The time-domain response of 2# bearing in the horizontal direction.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 15 of 23

0–1.5 s 0–1.5 s 0–1.5s

0.2–0.25 s 0.2–0.25 s 0.2–0.25 s

1.48–1.5 s 1.48–1.5 s 1.48–1.5s

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 13. The
Figure 13. The motion
motion orbits
orbits at
at different
different positions
positions over
over time:
time: (a)
(a) 1#
1# bearing;
bearing; (b)
(b) node
node 11
11 (C.G.
(C.G. position);
position); (c)
(c) 2#
2# bearing.
bearing.

4.2.2. Transient
4.2.2. Transient Orbit
Orbit Characteristics
Characteristics
In addition to the significant impact
In addition to the significant impact ofof blade
blade offoff on the vibration
on the vibration displacement,
displacement, it it also
also
has a significant influence on the trajectory and frequency components
has a significant influence on the trajectory and frequency components in the response. in the response.
By comparing
By comparing the theorbits
orbitsatatdifferent
differenttimes,
times,asasshown
shown inin Figure
Figure 13,13, it can
it can be seen
be seen thatthat at
at the
the moment of the blade loss, the orbit is very turbulent, with a large initial
moment of the blade loss, the orbit is very turbulent, with a large initial vibration ampli- vibration
amplitude,
tude, but gradually
but gradually becomesbecomes a regular
a regular circle,circle,
with with the vibration
the vibration waveform
waveform of a simple
of a simple sine
sine wave. In addition, the motion orbits at different positions are very
wave. In addition, the motion orbits at different positions are very similar, as shown insimilar, as shown
in Figure
Figure 13a–c,
13a-c, while
while thethe maximumresponse
maximum responsedisplacement
displacementand andsteady-state
steady-state amplitude
amplitude of of
the bearings at both ends are greater than those at the center of gravity. The reason for
the bearings at both ends are greater than those at the center of gravity. The reason for this
this
is due to the dynamic characteristics of the gas generator rotor operating at 50,000 r/min.
is due to the dynamic characteristics of the gas generator rotor operating at 50,000 r/min.
The excitation at node 14 cannot effectively excite the third-order mode (see Figure 8c), and
The excitation at node 14 cannot effectively excite the third-order mode (see Figure 8c),
node 11 in the excited second-order mode is much closer to the node point (see Figure 8b),
and node 11 in the excited second-order mode is much closer to the node point (see Figure
so the vibration at the center of gravity is smaller than those at other positions.
8b), so the vibration at the center of gravity is smaller than those at other positions.
4.2.3. Frequency-Domain Response Characteristics
4.2.3. Frequency-Domain Response Characteristics
In order to learn about the instantaneous response frequency component and the
In orderresponse
steady-state to learnfrequency
about thecomponents,
instantaneous response frequency
the time-domain component
responses and thes
within 0.05–0.12
steady-state response frequency components, the time-domain responses within 0.05–0.12
s and 1–1.5 s are respectively taken by FFT to obtain the corresponding frequency-domain
responses, as shown in Figure 14. The results show that some natural vibration modes of
the rotor system are excited by the sudden imbalance induced by the blade off occurring
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 15 of 22

and 1–1.5 s are respectively taken by FFT to obtain the corresponding frequency-domain
responses, as shown in Figure 14. The results show that some natural vibration modes of
the rotor system are excited by the sudden imbalance induced by the blade off occurring
at the first stage gas turbine. The first natural frequency (f n1 , the backward and forward
frequencies are basically the same due to the weak gyroscopic effect on the first natural
mode), the second backward frequency (f n1− ), and the forward frequency (f n2+ ) exist
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 in the spectrums of both bearings, while only the first natural frequency exists 16 in ofthe
23
spectrum of Node 11, which is because the second natural mode is difficult to excite by the
excitation near the C.G. position as mentioned above. Importantly, the high-order natural
frequency
present, and components decay
its vibration faster than
amplitude the lower-order,
remains unchanged.while the rotational
The reason for thisfrequency
is self-ex-
(fplanatory.
r ) is always present, and its vibration amplitude remains unchanged. The reason for this
is self-explanatory.

0.08 0.08 0.08

transient transient transient fr
Amplitude Ax/mm

Amplitude Ax/mm

Amplitude Ax/mm
steady fr steady 0.06 steady

0.04 0.04 fr 0.04

fn1 fn1
fn1 fn2+ 0.02
fn2− fn2+
fn2−
0 0 0
0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200
frequency f/Hz frequency f/Hz frequency f/Hz
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Frequency
Frequency spectrums
spectrums at
at different
differentlocations:
locations:(a)
(a)1#
1# bearing;
bearing;(b)
(b)node
node11
11(C.G.
(C.G.position);
position);(c)
(c)2#
2#bearing.
bearing.

4.2.4. Impact
4.2.4. Impact Effect
Effect Due
due toto Sudden
Sudden Unbalance
Unbalance
In order
In order to to quantitatively
quantitatively evaluate
evaluate the the impact
impact effect,
effect, the
the impact
impact factor
factor [6]
[6] is
is defined
defined
as η = A
as η = Amax /As , where Amax and As are respectively the transient peak amplitudecorre-
max /A s, where A max and A s are respectively the transient peak amplitude and and
sponding steady-state
corresponding amplitude.
steady-state By extracting
amplitude. the instantaneous
By extracting displacement
the instantaneous peak and
displacement
steady-state
peak vibration amplitude
and steady-state in the timeinseries
vibration amplitude the timeof vibration
series ofresponse,
vibrationthe impact the
response, fac-
tors at different
impact factors atlocations
different are obtained,
locations as shownas
are obtained, inshown
Figure in 15.Figure
By comparing the transient
15. By comparing the
peaks, steady-state
transient amplitudes,
peaks, steady-state and the impact
amplitudes, and thefactors
impactat different
factors atlocations,
differentitlocations,
shows that it
the vibration
shows that theresponse
vibrationand impactand
response factors
impactat both ends
factors atare
bothgreater
ends arethan those than
greater at C.G. (node
those at
11), while
C.G. (nodethe 11),values
whileare thesimilar,
values i.e.,are for this kind
similar, of rigid
i.e., for rotorof
this kind located in thelocated
rigid rotor bearinginspan,the
the impact effects on different axial positions are similar with the
bearing span, the impact effects on different axial positions are similar with the range from range from 2.3 to 2.8,
which
2.3 alsowhich
to 2.8, showsalso thatshows
the impact
that the effect is obvious.
impact effect isAlthough
obvious. the difference
Although the of the impact
difference of
effect
the at different
impact effect atlocations
different is locations
small, theismaximum
small, thetransient
maximum responses
transientofresponses
both bearings are
of both
bearings
much higher are much higher
than that than
at the thatabout
C.G., at the 1/2
C.G.,
of about 1/2 of the
the bearings. Thebearings.
reason for Thethisreason
is duefor to
this is due tovibration
the special the special vibration characteristics
characteristics when the rotor when the rotor is
is subjected tosubjected
blade off toonblade off
the first
on thegas
stage firstturbine
stage gasat a turbine
rotational at aspeed
rotational speed
of 50,000 of 50,000
r/min. r/min. The
The vibration modesvibration
shownmodes in Fig-
shown in Figure 16 and the critical speed mode shapes shown
ure 16 and the critical speed mode shapes shown in Figure 8 are sufficient to explain the in Figure 8 are sufficient to
explain
reason for thethese
reason for these
dynamic dynamic phenomena
phenomena appearing, i.e.,appearing, i.e., the
the vibration vibration of
amplitude amplitude
the bear-
of theatbearings
ings both ends atinboth
the ends
pitchingin the pitching
vibration vibration
mode excited mode excited
is greater thanis greater
those nearthan thethose
C.G.
near
of thethe C.G.system.
entire of the entire system.
From the above analyses, it can be seen that the impact has time-dependent characteristics.
From the above analyses, it can be seen that the impact has time-dependent charac-
The large unbalance force as well as the instantaneous impact force caused by the loss
teristics. The large unbalance force as well as the instantaneous impact force caused by
of blade are the fundamental reasons for the sharp increase in vibration response. The
the loss of blade are the fundamental reasons for the sharp increase in vibration response.
above-mentioned time-frequency characteristics can provide a better theoretical basis for
The above-mentioned time-frequency characteristics can provide a better theoretical basis
the fault diagnosis to this type of rotor suffering from blade off.
for the fault diagnosis to this type of rotor suffering from blade off.
Appl.
Appl.Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 1717ofof2323
Appl.Sci.
Sci.2021,
2021,11,
11,9674
9674 16 of 22

4.00
4.00
2.80
2.80 2.61
3.00 2.61

Impact factor
3.00

Impact factor
2.30
2.30
2.00
2.00

1.00
1.00

0.00
0.00

250
250
Transient peak 200
200
186
186 Transient peak
200
Amplitude (μm)

200
Amplitude (μm)

Stable amplitude
Stable amplitude
150
150
9898
100
100 6666 7777
4343
5050
00
1#1#
support
support C.G. position
C.G. position 2#2#
support
support
Location
Location

Figure
Figure 15.
15.15. Response
Response andand corresponding
corresponding impact
impact factors
factors at different
atat
different locations.
locations.
Figure Response and corresponding impact factors different locations.

(a)(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 16.16.
Figure
Figure Vibration
16. modes
Vibration
Vibration inin
modes
modes different time
indifferent
differenttimeperiods:
timeperiods:(a)(a)
periods: 0.05–0.08
(a) 0.05–0.08s;s;s;(b)
0.05–0.08 1–1.5
(b)
(b) s.s.s.
1–1.5
1–1.5

4.3.
4.3.
4.3. Parametric
Parametric
Parametric Analysis
Analysis
Analysis
4.3.1. Influence of Rotational Speed
4.3.1.
4.3.1.Influence
InfluenceofofRotational
RotationalSpeed Speed
As we all know, the rotational speed has a significant influence on the dynamic
AsAsweweallallknow,
know,the therotational
rotationalspeed speedhas hasa asignificant
significantinfluence
influenceononthe thedynamic
dynamicchar- char-
characteristics. In view of this, this section studies the influence of rotating speed.
acteristics.
acteristics. In In view of this, this section studies the influence of rotating speed. Figure1717
view of this, this section studies the influence of rotating speed. Figure
Figure 17 represents the vibration response in time domain, and Figure 18 shows
represents
represents thethevibration
vibration response
responsein intime
timedomain,
domain, and Figure
andnodesFigure 1818shows
shows thetheresponse
response in
the response in the frequency domain at different when the rotor operates in at
the
the frequency
frequency domain atatdifferent nodes when thetherotor
rotoroperates atat30,000 r/min,
r/min,which isis
30,000 r/min,domainwhich is the different
lowernodes limit of when
the working operates
speed. The 30,000
corresponding which
impact
the
the lower
loweratlimit
limit ofofthetheworking
working speed.
speed.The Thecorresponding
corresponding impact
impact factors
factors atatthe maximum
thein maximum
factors the maximum and minimum operating speeds are both shown Figure 19.
and
and minimum
minimum operating
operating speeds
speeds are
areboth
both shown
shown ininFigure
Figure 19.19.ByBycomparing
comparing the
the time-do-
time-do-
By comparing the time-domain and frequency-domain responses at different speeds,
main
main and
and frequency-domain
frequency-domain responses
responses atatdifferent
different speeds,
speeds, i.e., comparing
i.e., comparing Figure
Figure 5 5with
withit
i.e., comparing Figure 5 with Figure 10 and comparing Figure 14 with Figure 18,
Figure
Figure 1010andand comparing
comparing Figure
Figure 1414withwith Figure
Figure 18, it itcan
18, can bebeseenseen that
that thethe time-domain
time-domain
can be seen that the time-domain and frequency-domain responses at different speeds
and
and frequency-domain
frequency-domain responses
responses atatdifferent
different speeds
speedshave have similar
similar characteristics
characteristics (the
(thevi- vi-
have similar characteristics (the vibration amplitude increases suddenly when blade off
bration
bration amplitude
amplitude increases
increases suddenly
suddenly when
when blade
blade off
off event
event occurs and then decays to a stable value; in addition, the first natural frequency event occurs
occurs and
and then
then decays
decays to toaa
stable
andvalue;
stable value;
the ininaddition,
second addition,
forward the
the first
andfirst natural
naturalfrequency
backward frequency
processionaland
andthe thesecond
secondforward
frequencies forward
can be andand backward
backward
excited by the
processional
processional frequencies
impact load,frequencies can
while the amplitude be excited
can be excited by
with aby the impact load,
the impact frequency
higher-order while
load, whilehas the amplitude
thea amplitude with
faster attenuation witha a
higher-order
rate), whilefrequency
higher-order frequency
for all the hashas a afaster
nodes, faster attenuation
the attenuation
impact factor rate),
rate),
ofwhile
while
50,000 for
forallallthe
r/min nodes,
theis nodes,
greater thethe impact
thanimpact
that
factor
factor of 50,000
of 50,000 r/min
r/min is greater
is greater than
than that
that of of30,000
30,000 r/min
r/min
of 30,000 r/min (see Figure 19), which indicates that the higher the speed, the more (see
(see Figure
Figure 19),
19), which
which indicates
indicates
that
that the
thehigher
susceptiblehigher the
thethe speed,
speed,
rotor thethemore
motion more
statesusceptible
is to the the
susceptible therotor
impact rotor motion
load, i.e.,state
motion stateisistothe
within tothethe impact
impactload,
working load,
speed
i.e.,
i.e.,within
range,within the
thethe working
working
rotor system speed
speed range, the
range, at
operating rotor
thehigher system
rotor system operating
speedsoperating at higher
at higher to
is more sensitive speeds
speeds
impactis more
is more
load,
sensitive
sensitive
which is totoimpact
impactload,
consistent load,
withwhich
which isisconsistent
the results consistent
reported with
withinthe
theresults
resultsreported
[9,14]. reportedinin[9,14]. [9,14].
 Appl.
Appl. Sci.Sci. 11, 11,
2021,
2021, 96749674 17 of 22
18 of
Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2021,
2021, 11, 9674
11, 9674 18 23
18 of 23
of 23

(A)(A) (B)(B) (C)(C)

(A) (B) (C)
Figure 17. 17.
Figure TheThe time-domain
time-domain response of 1#
response ofbearing in the
1# bearing
bearing horizontal
in the
the direction
horizontal when
direction the the
when rotor operates
rotor at 30,000
operates r/min:
at 30,000
30,000 (A) (A)
r/min:
Figure
Figure 17. The
17. The time-domain
time-domain response
response of
of 1#
1# bearing inin horizontal
the horizontal direction
direction when
when the rotor
the rotor operates
operates at
at r/min:
30,000 r/min: (A)
(A)
0.04–0.2 s; (B)
0.04–0.2 s; 0.2–0.25
s; (B) s;
(B) 0.2–0.25 (C)
0.2–0.25 s; 1.48–1.5
s; (C) s.
(C) 1.48–1.5
1.48–1.5 s.s.
0.04–0.2
0.04–0.2 s; (B) 0.2–0.25 s; (C) 1.48–1.5 s.

0.120.12 0.060.06 0.150.15 fr f

0.12 transient 0.06 transient 0.15 frr transient
transient transient transient
Amplitude Ax/mm

Amplitude Ax/mm

Amplitude Ax/mm
transient transient transient
x/mm

x/mm

x/mm
fr steady steady 0.120.12 steady
AmplitudeAAx/mm

AmplitudeAAx/mm

AmplitudeAAx/mm
ffrr steady
steady fr steady
steady 0.12 steady
steady
ffrr 0.090.09
0.060.06 0.030.03 0.09
Amplitude

Amplitude

0.06 0.03 fn1 f Amplitude

0.060.06
fn1n1 0.06
fn1 fn2+ f 0.030.03 fn1 fn1 fn2+
ffn1n2−
n1 f n2+ 0.03 ffn2−
n1
ffn2+
0 ffn2−
n2− n2+
0 0 0 ffn2−
n2−n2+
0
0 0 0
0 0 400 400 800 800 12001200 00 0 400 400 800 800 12001200 0 0 400 400 800 800 12001200
0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200 0 400 800 1200
frequency f/Hz
frequency f/Hz
f/Hz frequency f/Hz
frequency f/Hz
f/Hz frequency f/Hz
frequency f/Hz
f/Hz
frequency frequency frequency

(a) (a) (c) (c) (b) (b)

(a) (c) (b)
Figure 18. Frequency
Figure18.
Figure 18.Frequency spectrums
Frequencyspectrums at
spectrumsatdifferent locations
atdifferent
differentlocationswhen the
locationswhen
whenthe rotor
therotoroperates at
rotoroperates 30,000
operatesat r/min:
at30,000 (a)
30,000r/min: 1#
r/min: (a)
(a) bearing;
(a)1# (b)
1#bearing;
bearing; node
(b)
(b) node
node 11
Figure 18. Frequency spectrums at different locations when the rotor operates at 30,000 r/min: 1# bearing; (b) node
(C.G. position); (c) 2# bearing. 11 (C.G.
11 position);
(C.G. (c)
position); 2#
(c) bearing.
2# bearing.
11 (C.G. position); (c) 2# bearing.

4.004.00
4.00 5×10^4 r/min
5×10^4
5×10^4 r/min
r/min
3×10^4 r/min
3×10^4 r/min
Impact factor

3×10^4 r/min
factor
Impactfactor

2.002.00
2.00
Impact

0.000.00
0.00 1# support C.G.C.G. 2# support
1# support
1# support C.G. 2# support
2# support
Figure
Figure 19. 19. Impact
Impact factors
factors at different
at different speeds.
speeds.
Figure
Figure 19.
19. Impact
Impact factors
factors at different
at different speeds.
speeds.
4.3.2. Influence of Blade off Location
4.3.2. Influence
4.3.2. Influence of Blade
of Bladeoff off
Blade Location
Location axial compressor (1AC) is the most susceptible to
4.3.2. Influence
Considering of that offfirst-stage
the Location
Considering
foreign Considering that
objects, it that the
that
is alsofirst-stage
theonefirst-stage
of the axialmost compressor
axial compressor
likely (1AC)
locations(1AC) is
forthe most
isblade
the susceptible
most
loss susceptible to for-
in the turboshaftto for-
for-
Considering the first-stage axial compressor (1AC) is the most susceptible to
eign objects,
eign
engine. objects,it
Thisisitalso
is
sectionone
also of
one the
of
studies most
thethe most likely
likely
influence locations
locations
of the for blade
for
blade blade
off loss in
loss
locationthe
in turboshaft
the
on turboshaft
the en-en-
dynamic
eign objects, it is also one of the most likely locations for blade loss in the turboshaft en-
gine. This section
characteristics.
gine. This section studies
studiesthetheinfluence
influence of the
of theblade
the bladeoff off
location
location on on thethe
dynamic
dynamic character-
character-
gine. This section studies the influence of blade off location on the dynamic character-
istics.
istics. Figure 20 shows the comparison of impact factors when blade off occurs at 1AC and
istics.
theFigure 20
first-stage
Figure 20
Figure
shows
gas
20 shows the
turbine
shows the comparison
(1GT).
the comparison It
comparison of of
shows impact that
of impact factors
the
impact factorsbladewhenoff
factors when blade
location
when blade off occurs
has
blade off a at 1AC
significant
off occurs
occurs at at 1AC
1ACand
effect
and
and
theonfirst-stage
the impact
the first-stage gas
first-stage gas turbine
factor.
gas turbine (1GT).
When
turbine (1GT).the It
(1GT). It shows
blade
It shows that
off
shows that the
location
that theblade
is
the blade off
changed
blade offlocation
from
off location has
location has1GT a significant
to 1AC, the
has aa significant effect
impact
significant effect
effect
the
on factor
thetheimpact factor. When thetheblade off2.8location 6.84.isInchanged from 1GT to factor
1AC, the impact
on
on theat 1# support
impact
impact factor.
factor. isWhen
increased
When from
blade
the blade off
off tolocation
location iscontrast,
is changed
changed thefrom
from impact1GT
1GT to 1AC,
to 1AC,at 2#the
the support
impact
impact
factor
and at
factor 1#
theat support
center
1# of
support is increased
gravity
is increased from
position from2.8
does to
2.8 6.84.
notto In contrast,
increase
6.84. In but the impact
decrease,
contrast, the factor
although
impact factorat 2#
theat support
decrease
2# support is
factor at 1# support is increased from 2.8 to 6.84. In contrast, the impact factor at 2# support
andsmall.
thethe
and center
This
centerofbecause
is gravity
of gravityposition
the sudden
position does notnot
unbalance
does increase butbut
excitation
increase decrease,
at different
decrease, although
locations
although thethedecrease
has a is is
distinct
decrease
and the center of gravity position does not increase but decrease, although the decrease is
 off occurs at two different locations (1AC and 1GT) are shown in Figure 22. Obviously,
there are big differences in the frequency components between these two cases. It can be
seen from Figure 22 that the sudden unbalance excitation at 1AC can excite the first three-
order natural modes simultaneously (fn1, fn2−, fn2+, fn3−, fn3+), while the excitation at 1GT can
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 only excite the first two modes (fn1, fn2−, fn2+). Furthermore, the amplitudes of the second- 18 of 22
order modes (fn2−, fn2+) excited by the sudden unbalance excitation at 1AC are larger than
those excited by 1GT. For example, when the blade off event changes from 1GT to 1AC,
the amplitude of the second backward precession frequency component increases from
sensitivity
5.27 to each
μm to 12.3 μm. mode
Anotherof the rotor operating
significant at adifference
vibration certain speed. The these
between detailstwo
are cases
as follows.
of
blade off can also be observed in Figure 22a,c, i.e., in all the natural modes excitedcritical
It can be seen from the mode shapes shown in Figure 8 that the first three-order by
modes
sudden can be effectively
unbalance excited
excitation, when by thethe excitation
blade at 1AC,
off occurs while
at 1GT, the the
firstexcitation at 1GT can
natural frequency
only excite the first two modes. In addition, the effects of the sudden
component has the largest amplitude; however, the amplitude of the second forward unbalance excitation
nat-
at different locations on each mode are inconsistent. Namely,
ural frequency component is the largest when the blade off occurs at 1AC. the first-order critical mode
(Figure 8a) is easier to be excited by the excitation at 1GT than that at 1AC, while the
In a word, the above analysis shows that the parameter of the blade off location will
second- and third-order critical modes are just the opposite, especially for the third-order
not only have a significant effect on the impact factor, but also on the frequency spectrum
mode (Figure 8c), which can hardly be excited by the excitation at 1GT since the vibration
characteristics at each node of the rotor. The above-mentioned frequency spectrum differ-
node point is near 1GT. The above reasons will cause the transient response excited by the
ence and impact factor distribution characteristics can provide a better theoretical basis
blade loss of 1AC to be greater than that caused by the loss of the 1GT blade. From the
for the fault recognition and safety design for this type of rotor suffering from blade off.
steady-state vibration mode (Figure 21) caused by the large unbalance excitation at 1AC, it
What needs to be pointed out is that some noise signals are generally mixed in the vibra-
can be seen that the steady-state amplitude of 1# support is smaller than that of the C.G.
tion signals obtained in the actual test. In order to isolate these low-frequency noises, a
position and 2# support. As a result, when the blade loss occurs at 1AC, the large transient
method using non-orthogonal wavelet packet denoising and harmonic detection pro-
response peak and the smaller steady-state vibration amplitude at 1# support cause a large
posed in [21–24] is recommended to eliminate these disturbances, as it can isolate inter-
impact factor. Apparently, the 1# bearing and its supporting structure are most vulnerable
ference or non-coherent
to damage, parts safety
such that some well. design methods need to be adopted.

8.00
1GT 1AC
6.00
Impact factor

4.00

2.00

0.00
1# support C.G. 2# support
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 20 of 23
Figure
Figure 20.20. Impact
Impact factors
factors for for
thethe blade
blade off off occurring
occurring at two
at two different
different locations.
locations.

Figure
Figure 21. Vibration
21. Vibration modes
modes with
with large
large unbalance
unbalance duedue to blade
to blade offthe
off at at the
firstfirst stage
stage axial
axial compressor.
compressor.

0.06 The frequency-domain responses at the instantaneous stage (0.05–0.12 s) when blade
off 1AC
occurs at two different locations (1AC and 1GT) are shown in Figure 22. Obviously,
0.05 1GT
Amplitude Ax/mm

there are big differences fr

in the frequency components between these two cases. It can
0.04
be seen from Figure 22 that the sudden unbalance excitation at 1AC can excite the first
0.03
three-order naturalfn2+modes simultaneously (f n1 , f n2− , f n2+ , f n3− , f n3+ ), while the excitation
1GT canfn1onlyfn2−excite the first two modes (f n1 , f n2− , f n2+ ). Furthermore, the amplitudes of
at0.02
0.01second-order modes (f n2− , f n2+ ) fexcited
the n3− fn3+by the sudden unbalance excitation at 1AC are
larger than those excited by 1GT. For example, when the blade off event changes from 1GT
0
to 1AC, 0 the amplitude
400 of the second
800 backward
1200 precession 1600 frequency component increases
from 5.27 µm to 12.3 µm.Frequency
Anotherf/Hz
significant vibration difference between these two cases
of blade off can also be observed(a) in Figure 22a,c, i.e., in all the natural modes excited by
0.08
sudden unbalance excitation, when the blade off occurs at 1GT, the first natural frequency
1AC
component has the 1GT largest amplitude;
fr
however, the amplitude of the second forward
Amplitude Ax/mm

0.06
natural frequency component is the largest when the blade off occurs at 1AC.
0.04
fn1
0.02
fn3− fn3+
fn2− fn2+
0
0 400 800 1200 1600
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 19 of 22

Figure 21. Vibration modes with large unbalance due to blade off at the first stage axial compressor.

0.06
1AC
0.05 1GT

Amplitude Ax/mm
fr
0.04
0.03 fn2+

0.02 fn1 fn2−

0.01 fn3− fn3+

0
0 400 800 1200 1600
Frequency f/Hz
(a)
0.08
1AC
1GT fr
Amplitude Ax/mm

0.06

0.04
fn1
0.02
fn3− fn3+
fn2− fn2+
0
0 400 800 1200 1600
Frequency f/Hz
(b)
0.15
1AC
1GT
Amplitude Ax/mm

0.1
fr

0.05
fn1 fn2+ fn3−
fn2− fn3+
0
0 400 800 1200 1600
Frequency f/Hz
(c)
Figure
Figure22.
22.Transient
Transient response
response (0.05
(0.05 ≤≤t t≤≤0.12
0.12s)s)ininfrequency
frequencydomain
domainfor forthe
theblade
bladeoff
offoccurring
occurringat
at
two
twodifferent
differentlocations:
locations:(a)
(a)1#
1#bearing;
bearing;(b)(b)node
node11 11(C.G.
(C.G.position);
position);(c)
(c)2#
2#bearing.
bearing.

4.4. Comparison
In a word,of the
Simulation and Test Data
above analysis shows that the parameter of the blade off location
will In
notorder
onlyto
have
verify the reliability ofon
a significant effect thethe impact
rotor modelfactor, but alsothe
established, on unbalance
the frequency
re-
sponse obtained by simulation is compared with the measured data. According tofrequency
spectrum characteristics at each node of the rotor. The above-mentioned the data
spectrum
of difference
the residual unbalanceand displayed
impact factor
by thedistribution characteristics
dynamic balancing canunbalances
machine, provide a better
of 35
theoretical
g·mm and 25basis
g·mmforare
theapplied
fault recognition
to node 7 and
and safety
node 15design
of thefor this type
dynamic of rotor
model suffering
established,
from blade off.
respectively. What
The needs to be pointedresponse
amplitude-frequency out is thatcurves
some noise signals are to
corresponding generally
node 13 mixed
ob-
in the vibration signals obtained in the actual test. In order to isolate these
tained by the simulation and measurement are shown in Figure 23. The comparison anal- low-frequency
noises,
ysis showsa method using
that the non-orthogonal
simulation and testwavelet packet
results are denoising
basically and harmonic
consistent, detection
which indicates
proposed in [21–24] is recommended to eliminate these disturbances, as it can isolate
interference or non-coherent parts well.

4.4. Comparison of Simulation and Test Data

In order to verify the reliability of the rotor model established, the unbalance response
obtained by simulation is compared with the measured data. According to the data
of the residual unbalance displayed by the dynamic balancing machine, unbalances of
35 g·mm and 25 g·mm are applied to node 7 and node 15 of the dynamic model established,
respectively. The amplitude-frequency response curves corresponding to node 13 obtained
by the simulation and measurement are shown in Figure 23. The comparison analysis
shows that the simulation and test results are basically consistent, which indicates that
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 20 of 22
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 21 of 23

the
thatmodel has enough
the model accuracy.
has enough Because
accuracy. node
Because node13 13
is close to to
is close the
thenode
nodeposition
positionofofthe
the
second-order
second-ordermode
modeshape
shape(see
(seeFigure
Figure8b),
8b),there
thereisisno
nosecond-order
second-orderresonance
resonancepeak
peakininthe
the
unbalance response versus speed curves. The response error between
unbalance response versus speed curves. The response error between simulation andsimulation and
measured
measureddata
dataisismainly
mainlycaused
causedbybymachining
machiningand
andassembly.
assembly.Overall,
Overall,thethedynamic
dynamicmodel
model
established in the study is effective and suitable.
established in the study is effective and suitable.

Figure23.
Figure 23.Unbalance
Unbalanceresponse
responsecomparison
comparisonobtained
obtainedfrom
fromsimulation
simulationand
andtest
testdata.
data.

5.5.Conclusions
Conclusions
This
Thispaper
paperfocuses
focusesonon thethedynamic
dynamic modeling
modeling andandtransient response
transient responsecharacteristics of a
characteristics
complicated
of a complicatedgas generator rotor in
gas generator a turboshaft
rotor engine with
in a turboshaft engine blade
with off. It is proposed
blade that the
off. It is proposed
finite element
that the finitemethod
elementwith methodcylindrical and conical
with cylindrical andelements
conicalcombined
elements with the reduction
combined with the
of
reduction of system degrees of freedom is used to establish the dynamic modelrotors,
system degrees of freedom is used to establish the dynamic model of the complex of the
in which the
complex complex
rotors, in whichstructural characteristics,
the complex structuralsudden unbalance
characteristics, excitation,
sudden and inertia
unbalance excita-
asymmetry can be
tion, and inertia considered.
asymmetry canThen, the validity
be considered. of the
Then, themodeling
validity ofmethod
the modelingproposed for
method
complicated rotors is verified through experiments with a general
proposed for complicated rotors is verified through experiments with a general complex complex rotor. On the
basis
rotor.ofOnthethe
established
basis of the dynamical
establishedmodel used formodel
dynamical blade off usedtransient
for blade response analysis,
off transient re-
the vibration mechanism of blade off for the actual rotating
sponse analysis, the vibration mechanism of blade off for the actual rotating machinery machinery is studied byis
time-frequency analysis. Furthermore, parametric studies including the rotational speed
studied by time-frequency analysis. Furthermore, parametric studies including the rota-
and blade off location are carried out in detail. The main conclusions are as follows:
tional speed and blade off location are carried out in detail. The main conclusions are as
(1) The validity of the rotor modeling method is verified by a test. The proposed
follows:
dynamic model can reflect the dynamic characteristics of the complicated rotor
(1) The validity of the rotor modeling method is verified by a test. The proposed dy-
well. It is suitable for vibration analysis because the complex rotor structure
namic model can reflect the dynamic characteristics of the complicated rotor well. It
is characterized with fewer degrees of freedom. Based on the dynamic model
is suitable for vibration analysis because the complex rotor structure is character-
established, the natural characteristics and transient response evolution, including
ized with fewer degrees of freedom. Based on the dynamic model established, the
the time-domain, frequency-domain, and orbit, of a high-speed gas generator rotor
natural characteristics and transient response evolution, including the time-domain,
with blade off are revealed.
frequency-domain, and orbit, of a high-speed gas generator rotor with blade off are
(2) The impact effect due to blade off has time-dependent and location-dependent
revealed.
characteristics. When the blade off occurs, the amplitude of transient response
(2) increases
The impact effect due
suddenly and toreaches
blade off tohas time-dependent
a peak point soon and and location-dependent
then oscillates downward
characteristics. When the blade off occurs,
to a stable value with several revolutions. The instantaneous the amplitude of transient
impact response
force duein-to
creases suddenly and reaches to a peak point soon and
blade off is the fundamental reason for the sharp increase in vibration response, then oscillates downward to
a stable
and the value with several
generated revolutions.
large unbalance Theblade
after instantaneous impact damping
off and system force due to areblade
the
off is the fundamental reason for the sharp increase
reason for the finally stable amplitude reached. The blade off excites some in vibration response, and the
generated large
lower-order unbalance
natural modes, after
such blade
thatoff
theand systemresponse
transient dampingcontains
are the reason for
some lower
the finally stable amplitude
natural frequency components. reached. The blade off excites some lower-order natural
(3) Themodes, such that
responses therotor
of the transient
with response contains some
blade off occurring lower natural
at different rotational frequency
speeds have
components.
similar characteristics, while the rotational speed has a significant influence on the
(3) impact
The responses of the
factor, i.e., the rotor
higher with
the blade
speed,off theoccurring
greater the at different rotational speeds
impact factor.
(4) Thehaveparameter
similar characteristics,
of the blade off while the rotational
location will not only speed hasaasignificant
have significanteffectinfluence
on theon
the impact factor, i.e., the higher the speed, the greater the
impact factor, but also on the frequency spectrum characteristics at each node of the impact factor.
(4) rotor.
The parameter
The transientof theresponse
blade off excited
locationby will
thenot onlyoff
blade haveof a1AC
significant
is greater effect onthat
than the
impact by
caused factor,
the butlossalso
of the on 1GT
the frequency
blade. The spectrum
sudden characteristics
unbalance excitation at eachat node
1ACofcan
the
rotor. The transient response excited by the blade off of 1AC is greater than that
caused by the loss of the 1GT blade. The sudden unbalance excitation at 1AC can
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9674 21 of 22

excite the first three-order natural modes simultaneously (f n1 , f n2 − , f n2+ , f n3 − , f n3+ ),

while the excitation at 1GT can only excite the first two modes (f n1 , f n2 − , f n2+ ).
(5) When blade off occurs at 1AC, 1# bearing and its supporting structure are most likely
to be damaged and some safety design needs to be adopted because it has the largest
transient and steady-state amplitude and a high impact factor.
(6) The above-mentioned transient response time series, frequency spectrum difference,
and impact factor distribution characteristics between two blade off cases can provide
a good theoretical basis for the fault recognition of these complex rotors suffering
from blade off. At the same time, the modeling method can be applied to other types
of rotors.

Author Contributions: L.W., Writing—original draft, Investigation, Methodology, Data visualization,

Validation. Y.Y.: Validation, Writing—review and editing. A.W.: Editing, Funding acquisition. X.H.:
Data curation. M.J.: Data visualization, Funding acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Major State Basic Research Development Program of
China (No. 2013CB035706) and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of
Central South University (No. 2019zzts256).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in
this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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