Interactions With Matter

8/8/23, 8:41 PM Interactions with Matter
Interactions with Matter

Interactions with Matter
Objectives:
1. Historical timeline
2. Define Radiobiology
3. Review of Types of Ionizing Radiation
4. Types of Radiation Interactions with Matter
Historical Perspective
1895 – Röentgen discovered x-rays
1896 – First medical use of x-rays
1897 – First therapeutic use of x-rays
- disappearance of a hairy mole after treatment with x-rays
1898 – Becquerel discovered Radioactivity
1898 – Pierre and Marie Curie isolated Radium
https://www.softchalkcloud.com/lesson/files/eUGE1bgmSL4zcH/week_1_print.html 1/23
Review of Cell Biology

Cytology is the study of the structure and function of the cell
The human body contains both somatic and sex cells
Inorganic components
HOH
-70%-80%
Salts
-Potassium inside cell
-Sodium outside cell
Organic components
Proteins
-15%
-Monomers vs. polymers
-Amino acids
Carbohydrates
-1%
Nucleic Acid
-RNA and DNA
Lipids

Review of Cellular Structure

Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
Endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosome
Mitochondria
Lysosome
Golgi complex

Review of Cellular Structure

Nucleus
DNA
-Nitrous bases
-Purines
-Adenine
-Guanine
-Pyrimidines
-Thymine
-Cytosine
Review of Cell Types

A. Germ cells – gamates
Oocytes – female
Spermatozoa – male
Haploid – 23 chromosomes
B. Somatic cells – all other
diploid – 46 chromosomes (2n)
Review of Mitosis
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Peter Made A Touchdown - to remember the order of the four phases
Interphase
-G0
-G1
-S
-G2
Radiobiology defined...
The study of the sequence of events following the absorption of energy from ionizing
radiation, the efforts of the organism to compensate, and the damage to the organism that
may be produced

Review: Types of Ionizing Radiation

Absorption of energy from radiation to biological material may lead to ionization and
excitation

Excitation – raising of an electron in an atom or molecule to a higher energy level without

actual ejection of the electron
Ionization – radiation has sufficient energy to eject one or more orbital electrons from atom
or molecule
-"ionizing radiation"
- releases large amounts of energy
Types of Ionizing Radiation:
Electromagnetic
Particulate

Types of Ionizing Radiation

Electromagnetic Radiation
(photons, no mass, no charge, variable energy)
Two forms: x and gamma rays
these do not differ in nature or properties; their designation reflects the way in which
they are produced
X-rays – extranuclearly (means that they are produced in an electrical device that
accelerates electrons to high energy and then stops them abruptly in a target; energy in
motion is converted into x-rays)
Gamma – intranuclearly (means that they are emitted by radioactive isotopes; represent
excess energy given off as unstable nucleus breaks up and decays in its efforts to reach a
stable form)

Types of Ionizing Radiation: X-rays

X-rays are electrical and magnetic energy as well as streams of photons or packets of
energy
The concepts of x-rays being composed of photons is very important in Radiobiology
Radiotherapy-oriented radiobiology focuses on that portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum energetic enough to cause ionization of atoms. This ultimately results in the
breaking of chemical bonds that can lead to damage important biomolecules. The most
significant effect of ionizing radiation is cell killing which is at the root of nearly all normal
tissue and tumor responses noted in patients.
X-rays absorbed in living material
= energy deposited in tissues/cells
This energy is quantized into large individual packets which are big enough to break a
chemical bond and initiate the chain of events that culminates in a biological change

Types of Ionizing Radiation: Particulate

Particulate Radiation
-(sub-atomic particles [p, n, e-], all have mass, may have charge)
-other types of radiation that occur in nature and also are used experimentally and some
in radiation therapy are:
electrons
protons
alpha particles
neutrons
negative π-mesons
heavy charged ions
Particulate Radiation
Electrons – small negatively charged particles accelerated to high energy to high speed by
means of electrical device (betatrons, Linear Accelerators)
- widely used for cancer therapy
Protons – positively charged particle and relatively massive
- requires more complex equipment to accelerate (cyclotron)
- used for cancer treatments at specialized facilities
Alpha Particles – nuclei of helium atoms (2 p + 2 n) accelerated in electrical devices similar
to those used for protons
- emitted during decay of heavy radionuclides (i.e. uranium, radium)
- alpha particles produced by radioactive decay of radon are breathed in and irradiates
lining of lung causing 10,000 – 20,000 cases of lung cancer each year
Neutrons – particles with mass similar to proton but carry no electrical charge
- cannot be accelerated in electrical device
- produced if a charged particle (deuteron) is accelerated to high energy and hit
suitable target material
- emitted as a by-product if heavy radioactive atoms undergo fission
- contribute to exposure of passengers and crew of high flying jet liners
Heavy charged particles – nuclei of elements such as carbon, neon, argon, iron that are
positively charged due to planetary electrons being stripped of them
- to be useful for radiation therapy – they must be accelerated to energies of
thousands of millions of volts so they are only produced at specialized facilities (none
in the U.S. but gaining popularity in Japan and Europe using carbon)
Absorption of X-rays
Absorption of x-rays:
Directly ionizing – charged particles discussed previously
Indirectly ionizing – x and gamma rays (electromagnetic)

The process by which x-ray photons are absorbed depends on energy of the photons
concerned and the chemical composition of the absorbing material
Absorption of X-rays
Compton – high energies (cobalt-60, LA)
- photon interacts with free electron
- production of large number of fast electron, many ionize other atoms of the absorber,
break vital chemical bonds, and initiate the change of events that express biological
damage
Photoelectric – low energies (diagnostic range)
-photon gives entire energy to bound outer electron which is then ejected and interacts
with tissue as with any other electron
- orbital vacancy within atom typically filled by other orbital electron with excess energy
given off as low energy characteristic x-ray
- low energy radiation with little biological consequences
Absorption of Ionizing Radiation:
The harmful effects of ionizing radiation occur when energy is transferred to atoms or
molecules. The interaction can be direct or indirect action.
-The harmful effects of ionizing radiation occur when energy is transferred to atoms or
molecules. Biological effects of radiation principally result from damage to DNA (critical
target). Ionizing radiation either may interact directly with the critical target or may
indirectly with other parts of atoms and molecules in the cell which will ultimately cause
damage to the critical target.
Direct action
If any form of radiation is absorbed in biological material, there is a possibility that it will
interact directly with critical targets within cells.
Atoms of the target itself may be ionized or excited, thus initiating the chain of events
that leads to biologic change

Ionized particles directly transfer energy to important macromolecules. These may be

DNA, RNA, proteins or vital enzymes. The imparted energy can break chemical bonds
with may result in biological damage.

Direct action is the dominate mechanism for energies with high linear energy transfer
(LET) such as neutrons or alpha particles.

Absorption of X-rays:
Indirect action
Ionizing radiation interacts with other atoms or molecules in cell to produce changes
which eventually cause damage to the critical target.
Particularly with HOH, the most common interaction, free radicals may be produced that
are able to diffuse far enough to reach and damage a critical target.
Up to 95% of biological damage caused by ionizing radiation may be due to indirect
action.
The initial interaction occurs with noncritical molecules, such as with radiolysis of water.
The sequence of events begins with photon striking a non-vital molecule (such as
water) and then leads to the creation of a free radical which interacts with other
molecules. Chemical bonds in vital molecules are broken and biological damage occurs.

Something to ponder: Why is indirect action so much more common than direct? What is
the human body primarily composed of, vital molecules or nonvital molecules?

Answer!!

**Because 80% to 85% of the body is composed of water molecules, these nonvital
molecules are much more likely to be ionized. Although direct action may result in
immediate damage to a vital molecule, there are relatively fewer vital molecules in the body.
**Remember also that the initial ionization is only the first event. The free radicals can go on
to damage many molecules, vital or otherwise.

Free Radicals
A free radical is an atom or molecule that carries an unpaired orbital electron in its outer
shell.

The unpaired electron causes a high degree of chemical instability and reactivity.
The free radical will try and stabilize itself by either gaining or losing an electron or it
may share an electron with another atom, typically another free radical, that is looking
for another atom.
A free radical may also try and steal an electron from a neighboring molecule to
stabilize itself thus making its victim an electron short so that it now becomes a free
radical. The new free radical may do the same thing thus starting an enormous chain
reaction called a free radical cascade which happens very quickly and can damage
biological tissue.

- Definition: Radiolysis is dissociation of molecules by nuclear radiation

Direct action
Atoms of target may be ionized or excited initiating the chain of events leading to biological
change
= direct action

This is the dominant process if radiations with high LET (linear energy transfer) such as
neutrons or alpha particles are considered

Indirect Action
Radiation may interact with other atoms or molecules in the cell to produce free radicals that
are able to diffuse far enough to reach and damage the critical targets
= indirect action

About 2/3 of biological damage by x-rays is caused by indirect action

Indirect Action cont.

Free Radical Production
HOH + ionizing radiation --> HOH+ + e-
Can rejoin without damage
e- can bond with HOH
HOH + e- --> HOH-

Both products disassociate
HOH+ --> H+ + OHI

HOH- --> OH- + HI
** l represents a free radical
Typically the H+ and OH- rejoin to form HOH with no damage

Free Radical Production

Interactions of free radicals
Possible results
1. Hl + OHl --> HOH
2. Hl + Hl --> H2
3. OHl + OHl --> H2O2
4. Join with other normal molecule

Hl + O2 --> HO2
Interaction of Radiation with Organic Molecules

The radiolysis of water helps us understand the link between ionizing radiation and biologic
damage. Radiation can also affect organic molecules in the same manner as inorganic
molecules.
Organic molecules contain carbon and can support life. In this illustration the letters RH
symbolize these molecules. As with water molecules, radiation can cause organic
molecules to form free radicals, symbolized as R* and H*. In the absence of oxygen or a
force to attract an electron, these free radicals may reform back into organic molecules.
If oxygen is present, these free radicals can interact with oxygen and form new free
radicals: RO2* and HO2*. When this occurs, the original organic molecules are
destroyed. The free radicals are able to continue on their path and interact with other
organic molecules. More biologic damage occurs when this happens.
The importance of the interaction of organic molecules and radiation will be discussed in
more detail in the next module in this series.


Radiolysis of Water
The process begins with the incident x-ray photon. Through the photoelectric effect an
electron is ejected from a water molecule. At this point free radicals may be formed, from the
unstable water molecule or from the interaction of the ejected electron with another
molecule. Each of the free radicals is then able to interact with other molecules and destroy
their chemical bonds.

So far, we have talked about free radicals damaging another molecule. However, the
interaction of free radicals and other molecules can be very complex. They create damage
when their excess energy is transferred to other molecules whose chemical bonds are
destroyed. In addition, some of their energy will dislodge other electrons from their orbits,
producing more free radicals. The process continues until all of the energy is expended.

The last important factor is time. Normally, we think of time in terms of hours, minutes, or
seconds. Free radicals exist only for about 10-5 second.
However, the period between the damage caused by the free radicals and the manifestation
of the biological effect may be anywhere from hours to years. Cell killing will be manifested
when the cell tries to divide anywhere from hours to days later. It may take generations to
see the manifestation of a genetic mutation.

Absorption of Neutrons
Indirectly ionizing; interact with nuclei of atom of absorbing material
Part of energy of neutron is given to proton as kinetic energy
Elastic collisions of neutrons with heavier elements in tissue make small contribution to the
dose, although energy is deposited at a high LET


Interactions With Matter

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8/8/23, 8:41 PM Interactions with Matter

Interactions with Matter

Review of Cell Biology

Review of Cellular Structure

Review of Cellular Structure

Review of Cell Types

Review: Types of Ionizing Radiation

Excitation – raising of an electron in an atom or molecule to a higher energy level without

Types of Ionizing Radiation

Review: Types of Ionizing Radiation

Types of Ionizing Radiation: X-rays

Types of Ionizing Radiation: Particulate

Ionized particles directly transfer energy to important macromolecules. These may be

About 2/3 of biological damage by x-rays is caused by indirect action

Indirect Action cont.

Can rejoin without damage

e- can bond with HOH

HOH + e- --> HOH-

HOH+ --> H+ + OHI

Free Radical Production

4. Join with other normal molecule

Interaction of Radiation with Organic Molecules

Interaction of Radiation with Organic Molecules

Interaction of Radiation with Organic Molecules

Interaction of Radiation with Organic Molecules

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