PRODUCTION AND USE OF HOLLOW INTERLOCKING CSEB

FOR DISASTER RESISTANCE

Summary of training course lectures

BLOCKS 245

BLOCKS 295

Auroshilpam, Auroville 605 101, TN INDIA Tel: +91 (0) 413 – 262 3064 / 262 3330 Fax: +91 (0) 413 – 262 2886
Email: earth-institute@auroville.org.in Web: http://www.earth-auroville.com
 PRODUCTION AND USE OF HOLLOW INTERLOCKING
CSEB FOR DISASTER RESISTANCE

Summary of training course lectures

Author: Satprem Maïni

Auroville
April 2005
Revised July 2005

25 pages

AUROVILLE EARTH INSTITUTE

Ref: SL.04

 Humanity as a whole
No rights reserved!

All parts of this publication may be reproduced,

by any means, without the written permission of the author.
Feel free to disseminate this information anywhere!
 CONTENT

1. Earth architecture: Diversity & Universality…………………………………….. 1

2. Building with earth in Auroville………………………………………………….. 2
3. Sustainability and environmental friendliness……………………………………. 2
4. Basic data on CSEB………………………………………………………………. 3
5. The raw material………………………………………………………………….. 3
6. Soil identification………………………………………………………………….. 4
7. Soil stabilisation……………………………………………………………………. 5
8. Stabilisation calculation……………………………………………………………. 6
9. Improving and stabilising a soil………………………………………………….. 8
10. Testing soils………………………………………………………………………. 9
11. Products and equipment…………………………………………………………… 11
12. Blockyard organisation……………………………………………………………. 12
13. Quality control…………………………………………………………………….. 13
14. Cost analysis……………………………………………………………………… 15
15. Economic feasibility study………………………………………………………… 16
16. Earthquakes…………………………………………………………………………. 18
17. Earthquake effects on structures…………………………………………………. 20
18. Principles for earthquake resistance…………………………………………… 20
19. Basic design guidelines for CSEB……………………………………………….. 21
20. Design guidelines for earthquake resistance………………………………….. 22
21. Design guidelines for hollow interlocking blocks………………………………… 24
 PREFATORY NOTE

This document is the summary of the training course lectures on production and use of Hollow Interlocking
Compressed Stabilised Earth Blocks (HI CSEB) for disaster resistance, which was held at the Auroville Earth
Institute.

The whole training session was one of such many ventures launched by the Auroville Earth Institute towards the
propagation of cost effective and appropriate building technologies for meeting the reconstruction of zones
affected by natural disasters.

This summary deals with the production of hollow interlocking compressed stabilised earth blocks and their use in
wall masonry for resisting disasters, like earthquakes, cyclones or tsunami. It presents the various stages of a
manual production line using the AURAM equipment and all the technologies developed by the Auroville Earth
Institute.

This document is not therefore exhaustive, but is rather an adaptation of a particular programme through selected
methods of production and use demonstrated during our regular course at the Auroville Earth Institute.
1. EARTH ARCHITECTURE: DIVERSITY & UNIVERSALITY
 Generalities
 30% of the world and 50% of the developing countries have buildings made of earth.
 Earth has been used all over the world as a building material since centuries.
 A tradition and modernity characterize the earth architecture.

The oldest earthen building in the world is about 3,300 years old. It is the Ramasseum, made of adobes, which
was built in about 1,300 BC in the old city of Thebes. It can still be visited on the left shore of the nil, opposite
Luxor.

In India, the oldest earthen building is Tabo Monastery, in Spiti valley – Himachal Pradesh. It was built with
adobe blocks and stands there since 996 AC.

It is worthwhile to note that along the ages and all over the countries and diversity of cultures, social &
constructive habits; humans have used this material from our Mother Earth. They created their living spaces
and they adapted their architectural and constructive answers according to the behaviour, and properties of
the soil, in relation to its hydrous states. Therefore, humans have transformed this heavy, dark and formless
material into a lighter building material and found out 12 main techniques corresponding to 4 hydrous states.

12 Main techniques corresponding to the 4 hydrous states

1
 TECHNIQUE SOIL DESIGNATION HYDROUS STATE
1. Dug out Concretion
2. Cut blocks Concretion Solid or Dry
3. Filled in Dry Soil
4. Covered Humid Aggregation
5. Compressed (CSEB and rammed earth) Moist Soil Humid
6. Shaped Solid paste
7. Stacked (cob) Semi Solid paste Plastic
8. Moulded (adobe) Semi soft paste
9. Extruded Soft paste
10. Daubed (wattle & Daub) Soft paste
11. Formed (straw clay) Slurry Liquid
12. Poured Slurry
NOTE
Between dry & humid states and plastic & liquid states, there is a certain possible flexibility for each technique: i.e.
the filled in one can be rather humid, or the covered one rather dry, etc. But between humid and plastic the border
is inflexible: impossible to shape anything with a humid earth or to compress a plastic soil.

2. BUILDING WITH EARTH IN AUROVILLE

Slide show of sites from the Auroville area with various techniques:
 Wattle and daub (House and kitchen at Newland community)
 Adobe (House at Samasti community)
 Raw rammed earth (House at Revelation community).
 CSEB for various buildings: - Individual houses in various communities.
- Cost effective houses and moveable houses at Vikas community, etc.
- Apartments at Vikas and Prarthna communities, etc.
- Various schools (Deepanam, Shakti Vihara, etc)
- Collective solar kitchen with a solar bowl for 1000 people.
- Etc.

3. SUSTAINABILITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL FRIENDLINESS

 Earth is a local material.
 Earth construction is a labour-intensive technology and is an adaptable and transferable technology.
 It is a cost and energy effective material.
 It is much less energy consuming than fired bricks (5 or 15 times less).
 It is much less polluting than fired bricks (2.4 or 7.8 times less).
 A study from Development Alternatives (New Delhi - 1998) gives per m2 of finished wall:

ENERGY CONSUMPTION POLLUTION EMISSION (CO2)

CSEB wall = 110 MJ / m 2 CSEB wall = 16 Kg / m2
Kiln Fired Brick (KFB) = 539 MJ / m2 Kiln Fired Brick (KFB) = 39 Kg / m2
Country Fired Brick (CFB) = 1657 MJ / m 2 Country Fired Brick (CFB) = 126 Kg / m2
Note: Kiln fired bricks are often called wire cut bricks.

 Be aware of the management of resources:

It is a crucial issue! If well managed, the production of CSEB will allow new and harmonious developments.
On the other hand, if there is no comprehensive management, it can lead to ecological disasters! Always
respect our Mother Earth!

2
4. BASIC DATA ON CSEB (5% cement stabilised block)
Dry compressive strength c (After 28 days curing) : 3 to 6 MPa
Wet compressive strength c (After 28 days curing) : 1.5 to 3 MPa (Test done after 24 h. immersion)
Dry bending strength b (After 28 days curing) : 0.5 to 1 MPa
Dry shear strength (After 28 days curing) : 0.4 to 0.6 MPa
Water absorption by weight (After 28 days curing) : 8 to 12 % (Test done after 24 h. immersion)
Apparent bulk density (dry) : 1700 to 2000 kg/m3
Energy consumption : 110 MJ / m2
(This value has to be compared with kiln fired bricks = 539 MJ / m2 and country fired bricks = 1657 MJ / m2
Pollution emission (CO2) : 16Kg / m2
(This value has to be compared with kiln fired bricks = 39Kg / m2 and country fired bricks = 126Kg / m2
Notes
- Kiln fired bricks are also called wire cut bricks
- Per m2, CSEB consume 5 or 15 times less energy than fired bricks.
- Per m2, CSEB pollute 2.4 or 7.8 times less than fired bricks.
- 1 MPa = ± 10 kg/cm2

5. THE RAW MATERIAL

 Definition
Soil is the result of the transformation of the underlying rock under the influence of a range of physical,
chemical and biological processes related to biological and climatic conditions and to animal and plant life.

 Fundamental properties
- Granularity or texture = Grain size distribution of a soil. (Percentage by weight of the different grain size)
- Compressibility = Ability to be compressed to a maximum.
It is related to the energy of compaction and the moisture content = OMC
(OMC = Optimum Moisture Content = percentage by weight of water)
- Plasticity = Property of a soil to be submitted to deformation without elastic failure.
- Cohesion = Capacity of its grains to remain together.

 Composition of a soil = It is an earth concrete

- Gaseous components
- Liquid components
- Solid components

Cement is the binder for concrete. In a soil, the binder is replaced by silt & clay. Thus, it is like a concrete, but
silt & clay are not stable under water. Therefore they should be stabilised, to maintain some strength when the
blocks get wet.
The grain size classification adopted by a large number of laboratories is based on the ASTM-AFNOR
standards:
Pebbles Gravel Sand Silt Clay
200 to 20 mm 20 to 2 mm 2 to 0.06 mm 0.06 to 0.002 mm 0.002 to 0 mm
For compressed earth bocks, the pebbles should be removed.

 Good soil for Compressed stabilised earth blocks

It is more sandy than clayey!
It has a particular proportion of the four components: gravel, sand, silt and clay (Pebbles are screened).
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
15% 50% 15% 20%

3
 Typical soils
According to the percentage of the four components, the soil will be classified as:
Gravely, sandy, silty or clayey soil.
The name of this classification is given by the component which influences the most the behaviour of the soil.
Note that the soil has to be evaluated as whole and not as separate components. Therefore, it is necessary to
examine how these various components combine with each other. For example, a soil might have more gravel
than normal, but if the clay is very plastic and with the proper proportion, the soil might not be called gravely
but probably good soil.
A soil will have sometimes 2 components influencing its behaviour: one very influent and another one to a
lesser extent. Therefore, a more accurate classification will be defined as follows:
Silty sand soil = Soil mainly sandy with an influent proportion of silt.
Sandy silt soil = Soil mainly silty with an influent proportion of sand.

 Structure of a soil
It is how the grains are assembled: - Granular structure = A lot of voids (i.e. gravel)
- Fragmented structure = Discontinuous (i.e. gravel and clay only)
- Continuous structure = The best = proportion of the best soil

6. SOIL IDENTIFICATION
 Sensitive analyses:
They follow the four fundamental properties of the earth. One more test has to be practiced for determining the
humus content. They can be practiced by anybody:
- Granularity = - The soil is dry / solid or humid: look and touch it to examine the percentage and
size of the four components.
- Compressibility = - Add a little water to get a moist soil and compress it by hand to try to make ball.
- Plasticity = - Add more water and make a ball.
- Try to pull the ball like rubber elastic.
- Stick a knife into it and cut it with the knife.
- Water absorption in a small print done with the thumb in the ball.
- Cohesion = - Add much more water to loose the cohesion and to wash the hands.
- Humus Content = - An important test is to check the humus, which may give problems with the
stabilization: Take a moist soil and smell it.

The aim of these sensitive analyses is to find out in which categories goes the soil sample: Gravely,
Sandy, Silty, Clayey or combined soil i.e. sandy clay. Then, according to this classification, one must
look into the recommendations for stabilization and soil improvement.

Note that the soil identification should be practiced twice: first on the raw soil, before doing any
modification, and also after correcting the soil (i.e. after sieving).

 Laboratory Tests
They follow the four fundamental properties of the earth, but they need special equipment:
- Granularity = Grain size distribution (sieving + sedimentation).
- Compressibility = Proctor for getting the OMC.
- Plasticity = Atterberg’s limits For example: Sand 0 < IP < 10
(LL, PL, IP) 0 < LL < 30
(SL, LS, LA, CA.) Silt 5 < IP < 25
20 < LL < 50
Clay 20 < IP
40 < LL
- Cohesion = = 8 test (mortar < 2 mm)
4
7. SOIL STABILIZATION
 Definition
It aims to stabilise under water the binders, which are the silts and clays, in order to obtain lasting properties
and strength when the soil gets wet.

 Procedures
PRINCIPLE ACTIONS
- Density and mechanical strength are increased.
Mechanical The soil is compacted. - The water resistance is increased.
- The permeability and porosity are decreased.
The texture of the soil is corrected - The soil is sieved to remove the coarse particles.
Physical by adding or removing - Different soils are mixed to get a better texture.
aggregates, which are inert - Gravel or sand is added to reinforce the skeleton.
materials. - Clay is added to bind better the grains.
Processed products, which are
Chemical active materials like chemicals, - They help binding the grains of the earth.
are added to the soil.

 6 Methods
Densification – Reinforcement – Cementation – Linkage – Imperviousness – Waterproofing
DEFINITION EXAMPLES
- Compaction
Densification Create a dense medium, blocking pores & capillary - Adding components
- Mixing different soils
- Straw
Reinforcement Create an anisotropy network limiting movement - Fur
- Synthetic fibres
- Cement
Cementation Create an inert matrix opposing movement
- Fly ash

Linkage Create stable chemical bonds between clay and sand - Lime

- Bitumen
Imperviousness Surround every earth grain with a waterproof film - Resins
- Various chemicals
- Paints, plaster *
Waterproofing Avoid the water absorption and adsorption by the surface
- White wash
Note: * Avoid bitumen and synthetic paints or plasters for earth walls.

 Stabilisers
Fibres (natural or synthetic), cement, lime, fly ash, natural products (straw, fur, blood, juice of plants, latex,
etc.), resins, and synthetic products

 Suitability of stabilisers and their percentage

SUITABILITY MINIMUM % AVERAGE % MAXIMUM %
Cement Mostly for sandy soil 3% 5% No technical maximum
Economic maximum: 7 - 8 %
Lime Mostly for clayey soil 2% 6% 10%

5
8. STABILISATION CALCULATION
 Aim
It is to define the percentage of stabiliser and the quantities of the different components.

 Principle
The calculations are always done by weight of dry material. As it is impossible to measure weights on site,
they have to be transformed into volumes. Then, the dry density () is needed.

 Formulas
They are used for all stabilisers but here, the example is with cement. The aggregates are soil or (soil + sand)
or (soil + gravel), etc. The total percentage of aggregates is always 100 % as the binder is not yet included.
1. Density () = Weight per litre
2. Theoretical weight aggregates = Weight cement wanted x (100 - % cement wanted)
% Cement wanted
3. Theoretical volume aggregates = Theoretical weight aggregates x % particular aggregate
(Do it for each aggregate) Density particular aggregate x 100
4. Exact % cement = Weight cement wanted x 100
Total weight*
* Total weight = (Approximated volume of each aggregate x its density) + cement weight

 Procedure
1. Define the parameters : -Percentage and weight of cement, which is wanted.
(Cement weight should be calculated for not more than 250 litres of
aggregates. For 5 %, it often corresponds to maxi. 1/3 of a bag per mix).
-Percentage of sand, gravel or else, which might need to be added.
-Volume in litres of the containers available (Wheelbarrows, buckets, etc).
-Check the density of every aggregate = weight of 1 litre (Formula 1).
2. Theoretical weight of : Calculate the theoretical weight of aggregates, required to get the percentage
aggregates of cement wanted (Formula 2).
3. Transformation : Transform the weight of aggregates into theoretical volume (Formula 3).
4. Approximation : Approximate the theoretical volume of aggregates, according to the containers,
which are available on site: to get practical measurements for the site.
5. Exact % cement : Calculate the exact percentage of cement, according to the weight of
approximated aggregates (Formula 4).
6. Selection : Select the result if it is within a tolerance of ± 3% maximum from the
percentage of cement wanted (i.e. 4.85 to 5.15 instead of 5%).
7. Adaptation : If the result is not satisfactory, redo all the process with another approximation
for the volume or with other parameters.

 Practical grid
This grid is valid only for one soil with one stabiliser (cement) so as to get ± 5% cement stabilisation.
Soil density () Volume of soil (Litres) Weight of cement (Kg) Percentage of cement
1.20 200 12.5 = 1/4 bag 4.95
1.25 200 12.5 = 1/4 bag 4.76
1.30 190 12.5 = 1/4 bag 4.82
1.35 180 12.5 = 1/4 bag 4.89
1.35 240 16.6 = 1/3 bag 4.87
1.40 230 16.6 = 1/3 bag 4.90
1.45 220 16.6 = 1/3 bag 4.94
1.50 210 16.6 = 1/3 bag 5.00
1.55 200 16.6 = 1/3 bag 5.08
1.60 200 16.6 = 1/3 bag 4.93

6
 Example 1
1. Parameters: - 5% cement wanted and 1/3 bag (16.67 kg)
- 200 litres wheelbarrows and 15 litres buckets
- 100% soil required (no sand added)
- Dry density checked for the soil: soil = 1.35

2. Theoretical weight of aggregates (Formula 2): Soil = 16.67 x (100 – 5) = 316.73 kg

5

3. Theoretical volume of aggregates (Formula 3): Volume of soil = 316.73 x 100 = 234.61 Lt.
1.35 x 100

4. Approximation: According to the containers available, we choose for the volume of soil:
1 wheelbarrow (200 Lt.) + 2 buckets (15 Lt.) = 230 Lt.

5. Exact % of cement (Formula 4): % = 16.67 x 100 = 5.095%

(230 x 1.35) + 16.67

6. Selection: 5.095% is within the 3% tolerance for the cement percentage and we select it.

7. Adaptation: Redoing all the process is not needed.

 Example 2
1. Parameters: - 6% Cement wanted and 1/4 bag cement (12.5 kg)
- 100 Lt. wheelbarrows and 10 Lt. buckets
- 70 % of soil and 30% of sand required.
- Dry density checked: soil = 1.2 and  sand = 1.45

2. Theoretical weight of aggregates (Formula 2): Soil + Sand = 12.5 x (100 – 6) = 195.83 kg.
6

3. Theoretical volumes of aggregates (Formula 3): Volume of soil = 195.83 x 70 = 114.23 Lt.
1.2 x 100

Volume of sand = 195.83 x 30 = 40.51 Lt.

1.45 x 100

4. Approximation: according to the containers and to transport easily the materials, we choose:
Sand = 40 Lt. = 4 buckets of 10 Lt.
Soil = 100 Lt. = 1 wheelbarrow of 100 Lt.

5. Exact % of cement (Formula 4): % = 12.5 x 100 = 6.56%

(100 x 1.2) + (40 x 1.45) + 12.5

6. Selection: 6.56 % is too high compared with the requirements: it is 9% above the desired %.
We can’t select it.

7. Adaptation: Redoing all the process is needed. We have to add 1 bucket of soil (10 Lt.) to get 6.17%
cement or change the wheelbarrow, or other parameters.

7
9. IMPROVING AND STABILISING SOILS
According to the original soil quality, adding materials like gravel or sand can do some easy improvement. Note
that it advisable no to mix clay, as the process would be long for an uncertain result. Improvement can also be
done by sieving the soil or by mixing different qualities of soil. Stabilising a soil will also improve it.

The following recommendations have to be considered as general guidelines and not as rules. The
infinite variation of soil qualities makes impossible to define strict rules for soil suitability.

 Gravely Soil
- Sieving (# 8 to 10 mm) is indispensable to remove the coarse gravel.
- A maximum of 15% to 20% by weight of gravel passing the screen should be allowed.
- The maximum size for the gravel passing through the sieve should be 10 mm.
- If the soil is too gravely, a more clayey soil should be added, but not pure clay.
- Stabilisation can be slightly less than 5%: 3 to 4% by weight of cement could be sufficient.
(If the clay content is high enough)

 Sandy Soil
- Sieving (# 10 to 12 mm) is only required to loosen and aerate the soil.
- Do not sieve in a very windy area, especially if the soil is dry (not to loose the fine clay).
- Stabilisation can be 5% by weight of cement, if the soil is not too sandy.
- If the soil is too sandy, 6 % by weight of cement might be preferable, especially for handling fresh blocks.
- If the soil is not too sandy and has a good clay quality, 4 % by weight of cement could give good results too.

 Silty Soil
- A slight crushing might be required.
- Sieving (# 6 to 10 mm) is required if the lumps are too big and cohesive.
- Adding 10% to 20% of sand might be needed to give more skeletons to the soil.
Remember that adding sand depends of the silt size: if the grain size of the silt is near very fine sand, no
sand should be added.
- Stabilisation should be 6% minimum by weight of cement.

 Clayey Soil
- Crushing might often be required.
- Sieving with mesh (# 6 to 10 mm) is required, if the soil is dry.
- Adding 20 to 40% of sand is needed to reduce the plasticity and give some skeleton.
- Stabilization can be: - 5% minimum by weight of cement, if the clay is not too plastic. Sand will be added as
mentioned above.
- 6 to 7% by weight of lime if the clay is very plastic. Sand quantity will be reduced or
could not be needed.
- A combination of cement-lime stabilisation could also give good results:
2% cement + 5% lime. Some sand will be needed (10 to 15 %).
- Note for the stabilisation: - Cement stabilisation will need 4 weeks curing.
(Even for the combined one with lime)
- Lime stabilisation will not need curing.
(Blocks should only be kept 2 days under plastic sheets)

8
10. TESTING SOILS
 Sensitive analyses and comments of four typical soils (gravely, sandy, silty, clayey), and a good soil
- Look and touch.
- Add water to get a humid soil and smell it.
- Try to compress the moist soil.
- Add water and make a plastic ball.
- Try to pull the ball like rubber elastic.
- Stick a knife into it.
- Cut the ball in two pieces with a knife.
- Absorption: do a print with the thumb in the plastic ball & fill it with water.
- Wash your hands with water.
 Comments on the soil to be used
 Sensitive analysis and comments of various soil qualities
 Dry density check up
Measure it for the dry soil to be used.
- Take 1.5 litre of loose humid soil.
- Dry this sample.
- Weight 1 litre of dry soil.
- Redo 3 times this check.
- Take the average for the dry density.
 Testing typical soils with a press
- Sensitive analysis on various soils.
- Experimentation with the four typical soils and good soil with a press: Making 3 blocks of each soil quality.
- The detailed results of the experimentation are given next page.

 Behaviour of typical soil with a press

- The moisture is above the OMC (+ +)
- A little water is needed for mixing (- -)
- A little soil is needed to mould (- -)
- A low compression ratio is required (- -)
- Little influence of the moisture content on the penetrometre (-)
Note: This last result is paradoxical but is due to the granular
structure of the soil.

- The moisture is above the OMC (+)

- A little water is needed for mixing (-)
- A little soil is needed to mould (-)
- A low compression ratio is required (-)
- Big influence of the moisture content on the penetrometre (+ +)

- The moisture is below the OMC (-)

- A lot of water is needed for mixing (+)
- A lot of soil is needed to mould (+)
- A high compression ratio is required (+)
- Little influence of the moisture content on the penetrometre (-)

- The moisture is below the OMC (- -)

- A lot of water needed for mixing (+ +)
- A lot of soil needed in the mould (+ +)
- A high compression ratio is required (+ +)
- Very little influence of the moisture content on
the penetrometre (- -)

9
 GRAVELY SOIL SANDY SOIL SILTY SOIL CLAYEY SOIL

M - Easy (+ +) - Easy (+) - Difficult (-) - Very difficult (- -)

I - Difficult to get the OMC - Difficult to get the OMC - Easy to get the OMC - Easy to get the OMC (+)
X (-) (-) (+) - A lot of water is
I - Little water is - Little water is - A lot of water is required (+ +)
N required (- -) required (-) required (+) - Very lumpy (+ +)
G - Very lumpy (+) - Hard to crush (+ +)
- Very sticky (+ +)

M - Very difficult (- -) - Difficult (-) - Easy (+) - Very easy (+ +)

O - Less soil is required - Less soil is required in - A lot of soil is required - A lot of soil is required
U in the mould (- -) the mould (-) in the mould (+) in the mould (+ +)
L - Good result with - Not very good result - Average result with - Not very good and
D the penetrometre with the penetrometre the penetrometre irregular result with
I (+ +) (-) (-) the penetrometre
N (-)
G

E - Very easy (+ +) - Easy (+) - Difficult (-) - Very difficult (- -)

J - Not sticking (-) - Not sticking (-) - Sticks a lot in the - High adhesion (+ +)
E corners (+) - Sticky in the corners
C and on the plates (+ +)
T
I
O
N

H - Difficult (- -) - Difficult (- -) - Easy (+) - Very easy (+ +)

A - Edges are very fragile - Edges are very fragile - Edges are fragile (+) - Edges are very
N (+ +) (+ +) cohesive (+ +)
D
L
I
N
G

H A - Very rough surface - Rough surface (+) - Smooth surface (+) - Very smooth surface
U S (+ +) - Homogeneous (+) - Homogeneous (+ +) (+ +)
M P - Not homogeneous - Porous structure - Matt finish - Very homogeneous
I E (- -) (+ +)
D C - “Honey comb” - Shiny finish
T structure

D A - Easy to break (+ +) - Easy to break (+) - Easy to break (+ +) - Very hard to break
R S - Crumbly (+ +) - Crumbly (+) - Crumbly (+) (+ +)
Y P - No cracks (-) - No cracks (-) - No cracks or very little - Very cohesive (+ +)
E cracks (-) - Big cracks (+ +)
C
T

10
11. PRODUCTS AND EQUIPMENTS
 Category of products
In this course we deal with hollow interlocking blocks, which are laid with a 5 mm cement stabilised earth
mortar.

PLAIN HOLLOW INTERLOCKING

BLOCKS BLOCKS BLOCKS

THICK MORTAR

THIN MORTAR

GLUE MORTAR

NO MORTAR * Not advisable *

Note: * Dry stacked techniques are not advisable, as no binder binds together the various courses: The
masonry will be very weak under the stress of an earthquake, a cyclone, a tsunami or a flood.

 Category of equipment:
Manual energy Motorized energy

Light Heavy Light Light Heavy

(Separate) (Integrated) (Integrated)

Manual Motorised Mobile Industrial

presses presses units plants

11
 Comparison of investment and output
LIGHT MANUAL HEAVY MANUAL MOTORIZED MOBILE UNIT INDUSTRIAL PLANT
SOME AURAM 240 & 290 AURAM 3000 AUARAMATIC CLU 3000 TMR 6750 40
PRESSES AURAM 245 & 295 CERAMAN CERAMATIC ECOBRICK TEROC T2A
BALRAM TERSTARAM PACT 500 GEOBETON 1
CINVARAM TERRABLOC
MARDINI
COST OF THE 0.15 to 0.25 0.60 to 1.00 2 to 5 30 to 40 + 80
PRESS Lakhs Rs. Lakhs Rs. Lakhs Rs. Lakhs Rs. Lakhs Rs.
TOTAL 0.25 to 0.35 0.80 to 1.40 4 to 10 60 to 80 + 250
INVESTMENT Lakhs Rs Lakhs Rs Lakhs Rs. Lakhs Rs. Lakhs Rs.
DAILY 400 to 600 600 to1,000 2,000 to 4,000 10,000 to 20,000 Above 50,000
OUTPUT Strokes Strokes Strokes Blocks Blocks
Comments: The best ratio investment cost / daily out put is achieved with heavy manual presses.

12. BLOCKYARD ORGANIZATION

 6 Stages
2 to 3 persons - Preparation (Digging + Sieving)  transport
1 person - Measuring  transport
1 to 2 persons - Mixing (dry + wet)  transport
3 persons - Pressing  transport
1 person - Initial curing and first stacking  transport
2 persons - Final curing and stacking  transport
10 to 12 persons
Note: - These numbers are for one AURAM press 3000, which can produces 600 blocks 245 or 295 per day.
- The number of persons for the digging & sieving will vary with the type of soil.
- The number of persons for the final curing & stacking will depend of the transportation distance.

 Quality control
At every stage of the production line

 Key words
- Reduce the distance of transportation.
- Optimise the ratio output / number of workers, to get the best efficiency.
- Organize the block-yard as close as possible from the site.
- It is preferable to have a linear organization but a circular one can also be suitable.

 Typical linear organization

12
13. QUALITY CONTROL
 Golden rules
- Check the production at every stage (see the production cycle).
- Never mix more than a third of bag cement at a time or never more than 250 litres of aggregates.
- Check the quality of the compression with the pocket penetrometre, always for the first block of every mix.
- Check the height with the block height gauge, always for the first block of every mix.
- Follow daily the production. Record the output, the dates...
- Check weekly or monthly, the production with the field block tester (after 28 days).

 During the production

STAGE WHAT TO CONTROL MEANS
 The topsoil must be removed.  Sensitive analyses
 Check the regularity of the supply.
Soil supply  If the supply is with lorries, check before unloading.
 Check the root contents.
 Adapt the mix if there are some changes in soil supply.
 Angle of the sieve.  Look
Sieving  Size of the lumps.
 Percentage of waste.
 Check that containers are filled according to the requirements.  Look
Measuring  Check that 1 bag of cement is poured in buckets at once.
 Move 2 times minimum the piles (the best is 3 times).  Look
 Check the uniformity and homogeneity of the mix. (colour)
Dry mixing  Check if there are big lumps and crush them.
 Move 2 times minimum the piles (the best is 3 times).  Look
 Check the uniformity and homogeneity of the mix. (Especially  Sensitive analyses
Wet mix the colour)
 Check the lumps and crush them, if any.
 Check the moisture content.
 Check the strength with the pocket penetrometre.  Block height gauge
 Check the height with the block height gauge.  Penetrometre
Pressing  See the texture (loose or dense).  Look
 Have an external look.
(Edges, corners, difference in colours, etc.)
 If the stacking is according to requirements.  Look
Initial curing  If the ground is cleaned regularly.
And  The blocks are properly covered with plastic sheets.
First stacking  The quality of the edges after stacking.
 Check the spaces left in between blocks.
 Check every morning that some dew (few droplets appears
below the plastic sheets).
 Care for the transport.  Look
 Care for stacking.
Final curing  If the stacking is according to the requirements.
And  Good protection of the piles’ top with coconut leaves straw or
Stacking any material for the sunshade.
 Water during 4 weeks, minimum twice daily (according to the
weather). The blocks must not dry during 4 weeks!
 Drying for 4 weeks before use.

13
 After the production
- Record the data
- Number of workers
- Number of hours
- Number of bags
- Number of blocks
- Calculate the Number of blocks per mix and per bag of cement (not more than ± 2 blocks difference
according to average production).
- Obviously an entrepreneur will need also to record his stock, salaries, and so on, to manage properly his unit.

- Field bending test

This test is also called 3 points test. The bending crushing strength (b) and the compressive crushing
strength (c) are given by these formulas:
FORMULA 1 FORMULA 2 FORMULA 3
Force applied on the block Bending crushing strength Compression crushing strength
(Kg) (Kg/cm2) (Kg/cm2)
F  load on plate  8.5   5
b  3.F.L2 c  F.L
1
L2
2W.H 1.56W.H 4W 2
Where: Note:
F = Force applied on the block [Kg] This formula for the compressive
Load on plate = No. of blocks x average weight of a block crushing strength is only for blocks of
8.5 Kg = Plate weight of the Auram field block tester this proportion:
5 = Coefficient for the lever of the Auram field block tester 0.23  H / block length  0.62
L = Distance of the supports [cm] = 18cm for the Auram field block tester Therefore, the minimum height which
W = Width of the block [cm] can be tested for the Auram blocks is:
H = Height of the block [cm] - 5.6 cm for the blocks 240
1.56 = Constant ratio for CSEB only - 6.7 cm for the blocks 290.
Note that this test is valid only for plain blocks. HI CSEB cannot be tested like this.

- Laboratory tests
Bending + compression + shear crushing + water absorption.

 Practical grid for the bending strength test (only for plain blocks)
When testing the blocks by bending, not a single block should break below the following load (load applied on
the plate). Then, they will be above the minimum permissible crushing strength:
5kg/cm2 for the dry bending crushing strength ( b)
30 kg/cm2 for the dry compression crushing strength ( c)
Height Plain block 290 Plain block 240 - 4/4 Plain block 240 –1/2
(29 x 14 cm) (24 x 24 cm) (24 x 11.5 cm)
(cm) Load on plate Force on block Load on plate Force on block Load on plate Force on block
(kg) (Kg) (kg) (Kg) (kg) (Kg)
10 50 292.5 85 467.5 40 242.5
9 40 242.5 70 392.5 30 192.5
8 30 192.5 55 317.5 20 142.5
7 20 142.5 40 242.5 15 117.5
Note: - The load is the weight applied on the plate of the field block tester.
- The weight of the plate of the Auram field block tester is 8.5 kg.
- The space between the angles of the field block tester is L = 18 cm.
- The calculation takes in account the leverage (5 times) of the AURAM field block tester.

14
14. COST ANALYSIS
 Block 245 produced on site
Block size: 24.5 x 24.5 x 9.5 cm, with 5% cement Value: Auroville, July 2005, 1 US $ = ±42.5 Rs.
MAIN DATA
Press lifespan (600 strokes per day over ± 5.5 years = 10 Lakhs of blocks) (Blocks) 1,000,000
Daily production (Blocks) 600
Annual production = Daily prod. x 26 days x 11 months (1 month = maintenance +heaviest rains) 171,600
Equipment cost (Rs.) 125,000
Buildings [storeroom 15 m2, simple production shed 75 m2] and infrastructure (Rs.) 40,000
Maintenance for the lifespan of the press (Rs.) 30,000
VARIABLE COSTS Rs./Unit Units Cost / Block %
Labour (Man) 100 8 1.333 26.96 %
Soil (± 80 % = 7.69 m3 per 1000 blocks) 70 4.58 0.534 10.80 %
Sand (± 20 % = 1.92 m3 per 1000 blocks) 360 1.14 0.684 13.83 %
Cement (5 % = 12.82 bags per 1000 blocks) 146 7.63 1.856 37.52 %
Maintenance per block 0.030 1.00 0.030 0.61 %
TOTAL Variable costs (Rs.) 4.437 89.71 %
FIXED COSTS % Total Rs. Cost / Block %
Investment Cost (equivalent to interest of a term deposit) 5.0 % 165,000 0.048 0.97 %
Equipment Depreciation (= press lifespan) 16.8 % 125,000 0.122 2.47 %
Building Depreciation (= site duration) 50.0 % 40,000 0.117 2.36 %
Overheads / Miscellaneous 5.0 % 4.437 0.224 4.49 %
TOTAL Fixed costs (Rs.) 0.509 10.29%
TOTAL cost per block (Rs.) 4.95 100.00 %
NOTES
- The production is done on a construction site, which has the minimum set up (simple storeroom, light
production shed). The latter would be wasted at the end of the site.
- The equipment includes 1 Auram press 3000 + 1 mould 245, 1 wheelbarrow 200 Litres, 1 wheelbarrow
350Kg, 1 soil sieve # 10 mm, 1 sand sieve # 4 mm, plastic sheets, barrel and small tools.
- The soil is extracted from the site and its cost includes sieving in the quarry.
- The sand cost includes delivery by lorry and sieving on site.
- The water cost is included in the overheads / miscellaneous.
- The labour cost includes the yearly bonus and the Employee Providence Fund.

 Comments
- The depreciation cost of the equipment, the maintenance of the equipment and the investment cost is only 4.05 %
when the cement is 37.52 % and the labour 37.76 % (for block-making and soil digging). This implies that one
should find a way to reduce the cost of the stabiliser but not the manpower with unskilled labour or the equipment
with cheap presses.
- The soil, which is dug on site, costs 70 Rs./ m3 that mean 0.534 Rs./block. If it has to be delivered by lorry, its cost
per block would become Rs. 1.152. Thus the cost price of the block would be Rs. 5.60 instead of 4.95.
- If the blockyard is organised with a good set up (moveable shed), the cost price of a block will be slightly cheaper
than for the site production (Rs. 4.86) because the building depreciation is less than for the site production.

 Cost comparison with Country Fired Bricks (CFB)

This comparison includes the difference for the volume & breakage:
- CSEB produced on site = 24.5 x 24.5 x 9.5 cm with 5% waste at a cost of 4.95 Rs./Block comes to 5.20 Rs. /Block.
- CFB = 22.0 x 10.5 x 6.5 cm with 12% waste at a cost of 1.425 Rs./Brick comes to 1.60 Rs. /Brick.
- As CSEB are 3 times bigger than CFB, the cost by volume (including the wastage) is now: CSEB = 912 Rs./m3
CFB = 1063 Rs./ m3
- Therefore, per m of raw material, CSEB is 16.5 % cheaper than CFB, but the cost price per m3 of
3

masonry is 0.4 % costlier than CFB because the masonry with HI CSEB is reinforced (see next page).
15
 Cost comparison of masonry
- Data (Materials delivered on site)
- Mason = 150 Rs./day – Helper = 75 Rs./day – Labour male = 100 Rs./day – Labour female = 60 Rs./day
- Cement 43 grades = 146 Rs./bag – Sieved soil 70 Rs./m3 – Sieved sand 360 Rs./m3
- CSEB 245: Rs.4.95 (produced on site) – CFB*: Rs. 1.425 – WCB**: Rs. 3.50
* CFB are Country-Fired Bricks **WCB stands for Wire Cut Bricks, also called kiln-fired bricks.

- Cost price of walls:

- CSEB wall 24.5 cm thick (no plaster but with reinforcements) = 443 Rs./ m2 = 1,808 Rs./m3
- CFB wall 22 cm thick (no plaster) = 396 Rs./ m 2 = 1,801 Rs./m3
- WCB wall 22 cm thick (no plaster) = 597 Rs./ m2 = 2,715 Rs./m3
 Per m of finished wall, CSEB 245 cost nearly the same as country fired bricks
3

(0.4 % costlier) but the wall is reinforced with 1 vertical tie and 1 ring beam per m2.
 Per m3 of finished wall, CSEB are 33.4 % cheaper than wire cut bricks.

15. ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY STUDY

Today, many small entrepreneurs would like to manufacture blocks to sell them. Indeed, it can be an interesting
business, if it is well managed and properly organized.

This study is done for Auroville context in April 2005, for the block 245 (245 x 245 x 95 mm). The example studied
is for a blockyard production with manual equipment for 1200 blocks output per day (2 Auram presses 3000).

It shows that the project starts to be viable when two machines are working. The reason is that the fixed costs
(overheads with the manager, storekeeping, etc.) are nearly the same if the unit has one or several presses.

 Notes for the feasibility study

 The equipment includes: 2 Auram press 3000 + mould 245, 2 wheelbarrow 200 Litres, 2 wheelbarrow 350 Kg,
2 soil sieve #10 mm, 2 sand sieve # 4mm, plastic sheets, 2 barrels and small tools.
 Buildings are moveable: office 10m2, storeroom 20m2 and a production shed 75 m2. They are re-used later
on. Therefore, their depreciation cost is lower, and the cost price of a block is Rs. 4.86
 The management and labour cost includes the yearly bonus and the Employee Providence Fund.
 The yearly production is only on 11 months (For maintenance of equipment and heaviest rains)
 The loan for the working capital is a demand loan (Short term). Therefore it is not shown in the Inflow / outflow.
 The sand cost includes delivery by lorry and sieving on site
 The soil cost includes digging and sieving on site
 Value: Auroville, July 2005, 1 US $ = ±42.5 Rs

16
 ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF CSEB WITH AURAM PRESS 3000 (BLOCKS 245 = 245 x 245 x 95mm with 5% cement)
Daily production per press 600 Blocks
Number of presses 2 No.
Months worked yearly 11 Months
MAIN DATA

Days worked yearly @ 26 days per month 286 Days

Yearly production 343,200 Blocks
Maintenance per press 25,000 Rs.
Production cost per block 245 4.86 Rs.
Profit margin 40 %
Inflation 4%
Incomes Rs. /Unit Units Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Sales of blocks (All blocks made are sold) 2,337,231 2,430,721 2,527,949
PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT (Incomes-expenditures)

Profit or loss on sales of assets after 3.5 years - 315,500

Variable costs (Direct Costs)
Labour ( 9 Men for 100 blocks) 100 16 499,200 519,168 539,935
Soil ± 80 % = 7.69 m3 per 1000 blocks (m3) 70 9.16 183,303 190,635 198,261
Sand ± 20 % = 1.92 m3 per 1000 blocks (m3) 360 2.28 234,749 244,139 253,904
Electricity for Water = For 11 months per year (Month) 250 11.0 2,750 2,860 2,974
Cement 5 % = 12.82 bags per 1000 blocks (Bag) 146 15.25 636,863 662,337 688,830
Repair and Maintenance (No. of Press) 30,000 2 17,143 17,829 18,542
Total Direct Costs 1,574,007 1,636,968 1,702,446
Fixed costs (Overhead Costs)
Manager (Also for accounting and marketing) 6,600 12 79,200 82,368 85,663
Premises maintenance (Cleaning the premises) 1,300 12 15,600 16,224 16,873
Supervisor (Also for storekeeping and maintenance) 4,000 12 48,000 49,920 51,917
Overheads (Office expenditure & miscellaneous) 4,000 12 48,000 49,920 51,917
Interest (On capital investment & working capital) 76,156 59,006 41,892
Depreciation (Equipment) 16.8 % 250,000 42,000 42,000 42,000
Depreciation (Building and infrastructure) 5.0 % 128,000 6,400 6,400 6,400
Total Overhead Costs 315,356 305,838 296,661
EARNING before tax 447,868 487,915 213,342
YEARLY OUTFLOWS (EXPENDITURES) Rs. /Unit Units Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Capital investment
Equipment (Rs.) 250,000
Buildings & Infrastructure (Rs.) 128,000
Water (Well, Pump and Tank) (Rs.) 125,000
Land for the blockyard and excavation (2 acres) (Rs.) 300,000 2.08 624,000
Total Capital investment 1,127,000
PROJECT CASH FLOWS

Variable costs (same as profit & loss account) 1,574,007 1,636,968 1,702,446
Fixed costs (Overhead costs)
Management 15,900 12 190,800 198,432 206,369
Interest on Capital Investment 450,800 12 % 54,096 36,064 18,032
Interest on Working Capital 147,067 15 % 22,060 22,942 23,860
Repayment of Loan (On 3 years) 450,800 3 150,267 150,267 150,267
Total Fixed costs 417,223 407,705 398,528
TOTAL yearly outflows 3,118,230 2,044,673 2,100,475
YEARLY INFLOWS (INCOMES)
Sales of Blocks (All blocks made are sold) 6.81 343,200 2,337,231 2,430,721 2,527,949
Loan for Capital Investment 450,800
Sale of Capital Assets (Equipment only-Rs.) 25 % 250,000 62,500
Sale of land with water supply (Immoveable assets-Rs.) 100 % 749,000 749,000
TOTAL yearly Inflows 3,464,231 2,430,721 3,339,449
NET CASH FLOW (Incomes - expenditures) 346,001 386,048 1,238,475
17
16. EARTHQUAKES
The earth was a single land about two
hundred million years ago. This land split
progressively over a long period of time
and it gave tectonic plates.

Theses tectonic plates are still moving

and earthquakes are the result of these
movements.

Tectonic plates

These movements generate a lot of friction, which generate tensions and compressions in the earths crust. This
friction is like energy, which gets stored in the deepest strata of the ground. Earthquakes happen when the ground
cannot accumulate anymore this energy, which is then released with violence on the surface of the globe.

Seismic waves
The original focus of the earthquake is called the hypocentre. It lies deep into the ground. The geographical
point on the surface, which is vertical to the focus, is called the epicentre

The seism focus generates spherical

pulses, which propagate like
concentric waves. They are called
body waves. These initial waves have
a longitudinal action and they are
called primary or P waves. These
waves induce second body waves, S
waves. When P & S waves reach the
surface they create 2 other waves:
Love & Rayleigh waves.

P Waves S waves
They create a change in Are very destructives.
volume and generate a They oscillate vertically
compression and a and perpendicularly to
dilatation of the ground. their direction.

Velocity: 5 to 8 Km/s. Velocity: 3 to 5 Km/s.

L (Love) waves R (Rayleigh) waves
They are transversal They are oscillating in
ones, like S waves. They an elliptical movement,
oscillate horizontally and counter clockwise to
perpendicularly to their their direction.
direction.
Velocity: a little lower
Velocity: like S waves than S waves

18
Measure of seism
Two scales measure earthquakes: the Richter scale and the Mercalli scale.
- The Richter scale gives a quantitative measure of earthquakes. It defines the magnitude of an earthquake,
which is the amount of energy released on the surface. The Richter scale is logarithmic: each whole number
increase in magnitude represents a ten-fold increase in the measured amplitude of the seism. This scale has
no upper limit, but the largest known shocks have had magnitudes up to 8.8 to 8.9.
- The Mercalli scale assesses the effects of an earthquake. It defines the intensity of the earthquake, which is
expressed from 1 to 12. The intensity and thus the effect of the seism are related to the distance from the
epicentre. It is based on more subjective effects, like movement of furniture, extents of damages to
structures, modification of the landscape, etc.

Earthquake effect
Earthquakes don’t directly kill people. Ground shaking destroys infrastructure and buildings and hence, it is of a
material nature. Death of people is occurred by the collapse of buildings in which they live. Therefore, the real
cause of life’s loss is badly built or un-appropriate constructions, which instantly collapse without warning.

Ground motion during an earthquake

As we have seen previous page, the hypocentre of an earthquake generates various types of waves. When
they reach the surface, the ground shakes everywhere horizontally and vertically especially near the epicentre.
The motions are always reversible and this implies that buildings vibrate in all directions and in a very irregular
manner due to the inertia of their masses.

Seism prediction
It is not possible to predict earthquakes.

Earthquake prevention
If it is not possible to predict earthquakes, it is possible to prevent major damages and most of life’s losses. The
prevention of earthquakes is based on the possibility of buildings to resist earthquakes without sudden collapse.

Earthquake and tsunami

An earthquake which happens under the sea can create a tsunami only if there is a strong vertical motion of the
ground under the sea. If the ground motion is only horizontal, no tsunami will occur and the S waves might not
be destructive on the land.

Seismic zones of India

India has been mapped in 5 zones, according to the
risk of earthquakes: zone 5 has the greatest risk for
earthquakes.
(See IS 1893: 1984).
These zones are mainly based on the Mercalli scale
and they are related to:

- Intensity and magnitude of past earthquakes

- Probability of earthquakes
- Nature of the ground and soil-foundation system
- Risk occurred because of the density of population
and/or buildings

19
17. EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES
Failure mechanism of walls

GROUND MOTION IN THE WALL PLANE GROUND MOTION PERPENDICULAR TO THE WALL

Typical damages in a masonry building

1: Diagonal shear crack of piers
2: Horizontal shear crack of long pier
3: Bending cracks at feet and lintels
4: Bending crack of wall (bad corner bond)
5: Bending crack of spandrel
6: Bending crack of gable
7: Plaster peeling off
8: Crushing of weak masonry
9: Damage of corner eaves under vertical ground motion
10: Badly anchored roof
11: Falling of tiles from the roof eave
12: Damage of tiles roof with shear (roof not braced)

18. PRINCIPLES FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE

Terminology
- Band or ring beam: A reinforced concrete or reinforced brick runner, which ties all the walls together.
- Box system: Load bearing masonry without a space frame. The walls are acting as shear walls.
- Brittleness: Possibility of a structure to crack and collapse easily. It comes from the use of brittle materials or
from a wrong design. The opposite of brittleness is ductility.
- Centre of gravity: Point through which the resultant of the masses of a system acts = ~centre of gravity of the plan.
- Centre of rigidity: Point through which the resultant of the restoring forces of a system acts. It is the rotation
point of the structure and it is related to the masses of the vertical parts of a building.
- Ductility: Ability of a building to bend, sway and deform by a large amount without collapse. A building built with
brittle materials can be made ductile with a proper design and with the incorporation of various reinforcements.
- Plasticity: Property of a material, and especially a soil, to be submitted to deformation without elastic failure.
- Shear wall: Wall resisting lateral forces in its own plane. Shear walls are structurally linked with cross walls and
with floors and roofs, which acts as diaphragms. Wide piers and buttresses are considered as shear walls.
- Vertical tie: A RCC reinforced member, which ties the various ring beams, from plinth to roof.

Site location
Very loose sands and sensitive clay should generally be avoided. They are liable to be destroyed.

Design and construction quality

Major collapses are, in most the cases, attributed to wrong design and very poor quality constructions.

Box system and reinforced masonry

The structure should be done with walls bracing each other and walls should be designed as shear walls.
Reinforcing the masonry should not be a way to improve a wrong design. It would rather be a means to add
more strength to the building.
20
19. BASIC DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR CSEB
 Principles for a good design
- “Good boots and a good hat” = Good basement (minimum 25-cm high) and good overhangs (minimum 50cm wide).

 Compressive strength
- Design the walls (thickness + stability) according to the load bearing capacity of wet CSEB.
- Keep a safety factor from the wet crushing strength: 10-safety factor for the seismic zones 3, 4 and 5
Example: A CSEB has a c wet of 20/kg/cm2: the maximum load bearing for the basement will be:
 20 = 2 kg/cm2, on the basement for the zones 3, 4 and 5
10

 Shear strength
- Avoid any major difference of load bearing in CSEB walls: especially near windows, for verandas...
- For earthquake resistant buildings of the seismic zones 3, 4, and 5, place a ring beam on the sill level.

 Water absorption and erosion.

- Avoid any concentration or accumulation of water in any part or surrounding of the building.
- Avoid any run off of water on any part of the building (i.e. leakage)

 Module of blocks
- Design the building according to the module of blocks. (Module of a block = its nominal size + mortar thickness)

 How to dimension a building

- The dimension of the building should fit with the block module theory:
A = Outside to Outside = (X . module) - 0.5 cm = (X . M) - J M = block module = Block dimensions
B = Inside to Inside = (X . module) + 0.5 cm = (X . M) + J + mortar joint thickness
C = Outside to Inside = (X . module) = (X . M) J = joint thickness
Note: 0.5 cm is the joint thickness for the Auram hollow interlocking blocks

21
20. DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE
Building shapes
The best shapes for earthquake resistant buildings are regular shapes and preferably with two symmetry axis.
Thus the centres of gravity and rigidity will be the same or close to each other and there will not be any torsion.
When it is not possible to have regular shapes, it is possible to improve the earthquake resistance by dividing
the building in several parts.

GOOD SHAPES

DEFICIENT SHAPES
AND IMPROVEMENT

Separation gap
Buildings with irregular and asymmetrical shapes should be split into simpler shapes like shown above. The
various parts will vibrate at a different frequency and amplitude. They will hit each other and will damage each
other. A gap (filled with a crumbly material or left empty) should be kept between them to avoid collision: 25 mm
minimum for ground floor buildings and for higher ones the gap should be increased by 10 mm per storey more.

Ductility
Reinforcements can be added to make a structure more ductile with brittle materials: wood, bamboo or
reinforced cement concrete members. They should be well distributed with ring beams at various levels and
linked together with vertical ties. This will reinforce the structure very well and make it ductile.

Rigidity distribution
The centre of gravity should also preferably be the centre of rigidity. This would avoid torsion of the building.

PROPER DISTRIBUTION
OF WALLS AND OPENINGS

TORSION
DUE TO BAD DESIGN

WRONG SHAPE BAD DISTRIBUTION OF WALLS/OPENINGS

22
 The vertical rigidity of the building should also be well
distributed.

Change in the structural system from one floor to another or

different building height would increase the damage potential.

Vertical ties should link the various floors and ring beams.

Simplicity in the ornamentation

Foundations
Isolated footing of columns can easily be subjected to differential settlement. Mixed foundations in the same
building are also not suitable. What works best in most of cases are trench foundations.

Long walls
They should be designed as shear walls and braced either by a buttress or by a cross wall.

BUTTRESS IN THE CENTRE CROSS WALL NEAR THE CENTRE

Openings
Doors and windows reduce the lateral resistance of walls to shear. Hence, they should preferably be small and
rather centrally located. When a specific design cannot follow this basic specification, the specifications
mentioned below (IS 4326: 1993) must be followed.

D1, D2 = W1, W2, W3 = Windows V1, V2 = Ventilators CW = Cross walls T = cross walls thickness
Doors
B8 is wider than B2 - B7 is wider than B9
1 STOREY 2 STOREY 3 STOREY
B1 +B2 + B3  0.5 L1  0.42 L1  0.33 L1
B6 +B7  0.5 L2  0.42 L2  0.33 L2
B4 0.5 H2 (But not less than 60 cm)
B5 0.25 H1 (But not less than 60 cm)
H3 0.5 B8 (But not less than 60 cm)
H4 0.5 B7 (But not less than 60 cm)
Notes: H3 is calculated from B8, which is wider than B2 – H4 is calculated from B7, which is wider than
B9
23
21. DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR HOLLOW INTERLOCKING BLOCKS
Trench Foundations
Isolated foundations, like footings of columns, are not adapted. Stabilised rammed earth will be a very
appropriate solution if the natural ground is suitable. Stabilised rammed earth foundations normally have a
square section: i.e. 60 x 60 cm for a ground floor structure.
On coastal areas, which are tsunami prone, buildings should have deeper foundations. Its minimum depth should
be double the width: i.e. 60 cm wide x 120 cm deep. This will avoid the bearing ground of the foundations to be
excavated by the flow.
If reinforced concrete foundation are to be used it is essential that the vertical ties are inserted very
accurately from the bottom of the foundation.

Basement
It can be done with various materials, by steps or like a monolithic plinth. Note that the height of the basement
varies with local conditions. The example shown below is the minimum height. A reinforced concrete ring beam
on top of the foundation and a plinth beam on the floor level should always be cast:
- At the top of the foundation (unless RCC foundations are used) is laid a first a reinforced concrete ring beam,
1cement: 1.5sand: 3gravel, in which are anchored the vertical ties.
- It is essential top locate very accurately the vertical ties in the first reinforced concrete ring beam.
- Above it starts the step plinth and its height depends of the local conditions. The minimum height will be one
block above the first concrete ring beam, as shown below.
- A plinth beam is laid on the basement and its top level will be the floor level. This plinth beam is cast in U
blocks with 1cement: 1.5sand: 3gravel.
All courses of the step basement are laid in stabilised earth mortar, SEM: 1cement: 1 soil: 3 sand. The mortar
thickness is everywhere 5 mm thick, for the horizontal and vertical joints. Note that on top of the plinth beam will
be laid a damp-proof course of 1 cm thick with CS 1: 2 and waterproofing compound.

Ring beams
They tie horizontally the building and the maximum vertical spacing between them should be 120 cm and the
minimum should be 50 cm (below the roof). They are 5 or 6 ring beams, depending on the case:
- Roof with a concrete slab or ferrocement channels = 5 ring beams.
- Roof with a vault or dome and a parapet wall = 6 ring beams.
If windows have arches and not lintels, the lintel ring beam should be on top of the arch. Reinforcements are
made with 2 bars of Ø10TS and stirrups Ø6MS @ 25 cm c/c maximum.

Ring beams for ferrocement channels Ring beams for RCC slab roof Ring beams for vaulted roof

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Vertical ties
The ring beams are tied together with vertical ties (Ø 10 TS), so as to create reinforcement net. The vertical ties
are laid on the foundation and anchored in a PCC 1: 1.5: 3, just above the foundations. The bars should be
bend 30 cm in the PCC and their height will not exceed 150 cm, so as to slide down the blocks. The overlap of
the extension rod will be 50 times the bar diameter (50 cm for Ø 10TS). They should follow the spacing shown
hereafter.
BLOCK 245 BLOCK 295
Long walls Maximum every 200 cm Maximum every 150 cm
Openings 1 bar, on either side, in the first hole, 1 bar on either side, in the first hole,
(At 12.5 cm) (At 15cm)
L Corner walls 1 bar on either side, in the first hole from the 1 bar on either side, in the first hole
inside corner (At 12.5 cm) and 1 bar centred in from the inside corner (At 15 cm)
the L
T Cross walls bar on 3 sides, in the first hole from the inside 1 bar on 3 sides, in the first hole from
corner (At 12.5 cm) and 1 bar centred in the T the inside corner (2 bars at 30 cm, on
the length and 1 bar at 15cm on the T)
X Cross walls bar on 4 sides, in the first hole from the inside 1 bar on 4 sides, in the first hole from
corner (At 12.5 cm) and 1 bar centred in the X the inside corner (At 30 cm)

Location of vertical ties

Large opening
In case of a large opening in a facade (i.e. veranda), it must
have a shear wall at least on one side, or several smaller
shear walls. The total length of these small shear walls will
not be less than the half of the front facade. This (these)
shear wall(s) will be more reinforced:

Vertical ties ( 10 TS) will be placed in the first hole close to

the end or corner and at maximum spacing between them of
60 cm (block 295) or 75 cm (block 245).

In the case of a veranda, the sidewall will be reinforced with a

buttress, not less than 30 cm, from the inside corner.

Binders
- Stabilised Earth Mortar SEM 1: 1: 3 – 5 mm thick for laying the blocks
The soil should not have more than 20-25 % of clay. The mortar should be plastic and not too liquid. Note a
cement sand mortar (i.e. 1: 4) will have a very low workability as the mortar thickness is only 5mm.

- Plain Cement Concrete 1: 1.5: 3 for filling the holes

All the holes, with or without reinforcement, and all ring beams, are filled with plain cement concrete 1: 1.5: 3.
The plasticity of the concrete for the holes is rather fluid, but not liquid.

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