Biology Today and Tomorrow with Physiology 5th

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8
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HOW CELLS REPRODUCE

Chapter Outline
8.1 HENRIETTA’S IMMORTAL CELLS 8.5 MEIOSIS IN SEXUAL
8.2 MULTIPLICATION BY DIVISION REPRODUCTION
Cytoplasmic Division How Meiosis Mixes Alleles
8.3 MITOSIS AND CANCER From Gametes to Offspring
Cell Division Gone Wrong SUMMARY
Cancer SELF-QUIZ
Telomeres CRITICAL THINKING
8.4 SEX AND ALLELES VISUAL QUESTION
On the Advantage of Sex

Learning Objectives
8.1 Discuss the characteristics and applications of HeLa cells.
8.2 Explain the mechanisms of cell division.

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8.3 Discuss the consequences of mutations that result in a flawed cell cycle.
8.4 Describe the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction.
8.5 Summarize meiosis and its importance to the biodiversity of sexual reproducers.

Key Terms
alleles haploid oncogene
anaphase homologous chromosomes prophase
asexual reproduction interphase sexual reproduction
cancer meiosis spindle
cell cycle metaphase telophase
cleavage furrow metastasis tumor
crossing over mitosis zygote
gamete neoplasm

Lecture Outline
8.1 Henrietta’s Immortal Cells
A. Billions of cells divide every day to replenish your tissues.
B. When grown in the lab, human cells tend to survive only a few weeks.
C. Experimenting on cell lines that live longer would be beneficial and reduce the use of living
humans as subjects.
D. In 1951, a preparation of human cancer cells, HeLa, was cultured.
1. The HeLa cells were taken from a 31-year-old mother of five with cervical cancer, Henrietta
Lacks.
2. The cells grew so fast in culture—they were dividing every 24 hours—that the cell culture
had to be transferred to new tubes every few days.
3. They have been used since 1951 for many types of cancer research because they divide
rapidly, and are immortal in the lab.
4. Research on HeLa cells has helped us to understand polio; investigate cancer; and
understand viral infections, protein synthesis, and the effects of radiation.
5. Henrietta Lacks died in 1951, at the age of 31, two months after being diagnosed with
cervical cancer. Her immortal cells, however, live on and have given us a greater
understanding of the cell.

8.2 Multiplication by Division

A. Cells reproduce by dividing into two new cells with identical genetic materials and a share of
the parental cytoplasm and contents.
B. Cell division follows two basic processes of dividing the nuclear contents.
C. Mitosis is conservative nuclear division that produces identical daughter nuclei.
1. This process is used for increasing body size and cell replacement.
2. Some animals, plants, protists, and fungi reproduce asexually using mitosis as a
mechanism.
D. Meiosis is reductive nuclear division that produces four unique daughter cells with half of the
original genetic material, and is the basis for sexual reproduction.

How Cells Reproduce

8.3 Mitosis and Cancer
A. Cell division gone wrong.
1. Checkpoint genes and proteins serve varied and important roles in the cell cycle.
2. Checkpoint genes work in several ways.
a. They can monitor the process and detect errors.
b. They can halt the cell in interphase.
c. They can cause the cell to self-destruct.
3. If a mutation affects a checkpoint product, it can have several consequences.
a. If a molecular brake protein is mutated, it could cause a cell to skip interphase and
divide over and over rapidly.
b. It could allow damaged DNA to be replicated, introducing more mutations.
c. Ultimately, lack of checkpoints could lead to tumor formation.
4. Moles and tumors are called neoplasms and consist of abnormal cell growths that have lost
control over their cell cycle.
5. BRCA (section 7.7) is an example of a checkpoint gene, called a tumor suppressor because
its absence leads to tumor development.
a. BRCA regulates DNA repair.
6. Viruses can make proteins that interfere with cell-cycle checkpoint proteins.
a. HPV causes rapid skin cell growth that leads to warts and is associated with cervical
cancer.
B. Cancer.
1. Neoplasms fall into two basic groups.
a. Benign neoplasms are non-cancerous, grow slowly, and are only problematic if they
cause a person discomfort.
b. Malignant neoplasms are dangerous to a person’s heath.
i. Cancer occurs when a malignant neoplasm disrupts body tissue structure and
function.
ii. Cancer cells can break free and travel to other locations in the body through a
process called metastasis.
iii. Cancer cells have three characteristics.
a) Abnormal growth and division.
b) Altered cell membrane and structural proteins—there can be an accompanied
shift in metabolism to fermentation processes.
c) Cells lose their ability to adhere to the cells around them. Metastasis can occur.
iv. Researchers know about many of the mutations that lead to cancer and are looking
at ways to target cancer cells specifically and stop them from dividing.

8.4 Sex and Alleles

A. On the advantage of sex.
1. In asexual reproduction, one parent creates the next generation; so mutations aside, the
offspring are clones of the parental cell.
2. Sexual reproduction is the combination of the genetics of two parents.
3. Sexual reproduction creates new combinations and shuffles genetic variation from
generation to generation.
a. This is beneficial because the production of a variety of traits means that there is the
potential for some variations to provide benefit under different environmental
conditions.

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 4. The typical diploid cell contains one set of chromosomes from each parent. Because each
parent contributes a set of genes, each offspring has the potential to be unique in the traits
that are inherited from their parents.
5. Alternate forms or variations of the same gene are called alleles.
a. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits influences their biotic potential.

8.5 Meiosis in Sexual Reproduction

A. Meiosis starts with DNA replication and then proceeds with two rounds of nuclear division.
1. The diploid cell (2n) enters meiosis I
a. During prophase I, the chromosomes condense and homologues pair up. Some genetic
material can swap during this pairing. The nuclear envelop dissolves, and the spindles
develop.
b. During metaphase I, the homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate.
c. During anaphase I, the homologous pairs are separated and pulled toward opposite
poles.
d. During telophase I, the nuclear envelop develops around the sister chromatids.
e. At the end of meiosis I, because the homologues were separated, each new cell is now
haploid (n), leaving each nucleus with only one of each homologous pair.
2. Meiosis II proceeds without DNA replication.
a. During prophase II, the nuclear membrane dissolves, chromosomes condense, and
spindles form.
b. During metaphase II, sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate.
c. During anaphase II, the sister chromatids are separated.
d. At the end of telophase II, there are four haploid cells.
B. Meiosis mixes alleles.
1. During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair up. Their close proximity allows for
some exchange or crossing over between arms of the chromosomes.
2. Crossing over creates new genetic variations.
C. From gametes to offspring.
1. Gametes are haploid cells.
2. Animals produce gametes from germ cells; for example, the male germ cells divide into
primary spermatocytes, which undergo meiosis and form secondary spermatocytes and
then spermatids.
D. Fertilization.
1. Fertilization is the fusion of two haploid gametes, and produces one diploid zygote.
2. Fertilization and sexual reproduction create genetic variation in several ways.
a. The assortment of homologues that can end up in each daughter at the end of meiosis
is random; there are 8,388,608 possible combinations.
b. Crossing over occurs.
c. Each parent has the potential to carry different alleles for every gene.

Suggestions for Presenting the Material

 Use clear visuals. Go through the steps of cell division multiple times. Perhaps the first
time you go though the phases of division, draw a picture along with your students.
Recommend that they bring in colored pencils, and then make your drawings with
color.

How Cells Reproduce

  When having your students draw examples of mitosis, give them examples with
different chromosome numbers, so they get practice learning the process, not just
memorizing the pictures in the book.
 Make a point to be consistent in your labeling and discussion. Make a point of
discussing with your students how they will know when you say “metaphase” whether
you are referring to mitosis, meiosis I, or meiosis II.
 Work with the students to generate a matrix that compares mitosis and meiosis.
 Work with the students to generate a matrix that compares prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase in mitosis, meiosis I, and meiosis II.
 Stress the difference between cell division, nuclear division, and cytoplasmic division.
 When modeling the steps of cell division, stop at every point along the way, and discuss
the chromosome number.
 Stress the difference between conservative (mitosis) cell division and reductive (meiosis)
cell division, and how to account for the conservative or reductive process.

Classroom and Laboratory Enrichment

 Use a hands-on activity in which small groups of students manipulate a cell through the
phases of cell division. Beads that snap together make a good model for the
chromosomes because you can control the length in order to better demonstrate
homologous pairing, and different colors of beads can be used to represent how crossing
over occurs. Pipe cleaners make a cheaper alternative, but if you cut the ends to
represent crossing over, they cannot be reused.
 Use one of the representative models, like onion root tips where growth is common, and
use microscopes to find and identify dividing cells in different phases.
 Have students do detailed drawings of each phase of mitosis and meiosis.
 Watch time lapse photography of the cell cycle.
 Work on a drawing or a matrix that compares the difference between gamete production
in animal males and females and gametophyte production in plants.

Impacts, Issues: Classroom Discussion Ideas

 What is the benefit of an immortal cell line?
 Why are HeLa cells considered to be immortal?
 Is it ethical to use human cells for research without consent?

Additional Ideas for Classroom Discussion

 What is the difference between cell division, nuclear division, and cytoplasmic division?
 What are the important checkpoints in the cell cycle?
 How are mitosis and meiosis similar? How are they different?
 When does the reduction in chromosomes happen in meiosis?

Chapter Eight
  How is the amount of DNA conserved from generation to generation in mitosis?
 Why is it important to reduce the number of chromosomes during meiosis?
 How do plants and animals deal with cytoplasmic division differently?
 Why are fertilization and meiosis important for providing genetic diversity?
 What are the hallmarks of cancerous cells?
 What is the difference between a neoplasm and cancer?
 How do checkpoint genes work?

Videos, Animations, and Websites

Videos
Molecular and Cell Biology Learning Center—Virtual Cell Animation Collection
An animated video of the process of mitosis.
http://vcell.ndsu.edu/animations/mitosis/movie-flash.htm

John Kryk
An animated video of the process of meiosis.
http://www.johnkyrk.com/meiosis.html

University of Texas—MD Anderson Cancer Center

What is cancer?
http://www.videomd.com/WhatisCancer-fv-791.aspx

Animations
PBS—Nova
Animation comparing mitosis and meiosis.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/miracle/divi_flash.html

Websites
CELLS Alive!
Animations and accompanying pictures of real cells that step through the cell division process
of mitosis and meiosis.
http://www.cellsalive.com

Howard Hughes Medical Institute

An overview of cancer diversity.
http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/cancer/cancer_diversity.html

An overview of the evolution of cancer.

http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/cancer/cancer_evolution.html

Smithsonian Magazine
Henrietta Lacks Immortal Cells

How Cells Reproduce

http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/Henrietta-Lacks-Immortal-Cells.html

How Would You Vote? Classroom Discussion Ideas

 Monitor the online voting. No one ever had permission to use Henrietta Lacks’ cells.
Should her family share in the profits of the research?
o The way this question is posed certainly makes it sound like there would be a lot
of money to make from selling these cells. However, much of the money made
from selling these cells is put back into the research community.

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 o When the NIH funds projects, researchers must obtain permission to collect
tissue or cell samples. There are no laws that ban the use of cells without
permission from the patient if the cells were removed as part of a medical
procedure. Once the cells are removed from the patient they are considered
waste and are property of the doctor for research or property of the hospital.
However, it is illegal to sell tissues, organs, or cells that have been obtained in
that manner.

Term Paper Topics, Library Activities, and Special Projects

 There are many checkpoint proteins. Identify a checkpoint gene and describe why the
mutation to that gene causes problems for the cell.
 Describe what cell culture is and what kind of work is completed with cell cultures.
 HeLa cells have an active enzyme called telomerase that allows the cells to survive
indefinitely, compared to other cell lines, which die quickly in culture. What is the role
of telomerase, and why does its activation in HeLa cells help them live indefinitely?
 HeLa cells have been used for many scientific discoveries at the cellular level. Provide a
brief history of some of the things for which HeLa cells have been used.
 HeLa cells grow so fast and so uncontrollably that they cause contamination in
laboratories that culture cells. Describe why the HeLa cells cause contamination in cell
lines.
 What are some of the current methods used to control cancerous cell division?
 Describe all the methods related to cell division and fertilization that improve genetic
diversity from generation to generation.
 Describe the difficulties of designing a drug to stop cell division only in tumor cells.

Answers to Self-Quiz Questions

1. d. both a and b 10. b. alleles
2. b. two 11. d. all of the above
3. a. diploid 12. b. Homologous chromosomes swap
4. a. originate with two parents. segments only in meiosis
5. c. DNA replication occurs. 13. b. The chromosomes are still duplicated.
6. a. the same as 14. b. prophase; e. metaphase; a. anaphase;
7. b. more variation among offspring c. telophase; d. interphase
8. c. alleles 15. c. cell plate; f. spindle; a. tumor;
9. b. reduces the chromosome number for h. contractile ring; g. gamete; e. cancer;
gametes b. zygote; d. prophase I

Possible Responses to Critical Thinking Questions

1. Yes, there are a limited number of cell divisions before the cell dies (apoptosis).

How Cells Reproduce

 4

Meiosis I 4 4

Meiosis II 2 2 2 2

3. It cannot be done with three chromosomes.

4. There would be 104 chromosomes.
5. Meiosis II is most like mitosis, and this can be seen in metaphase and anaphase. During
metaphase and anaphase, sister chromatids line up and are separated; this is the same
sequence that happens in meiosis I. In meiosis II, homologous pairs line up and are
separated.

Visual Question

1. This is an animal cell, because cytoplasmic division is occurring by cleavage furrow and
contractile ring, not by a cell plate.

Chapter Eight