Moffet 1966

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THE STRUCTURE OF RADIO GALAXIESl

By ALAN T. MOFFETz
Owens Valley Radio Observatory, California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, California
INTRODUCTION
Discrete radio sources were discovered in large numbers in the late
Annu. Rev. Astro. Astrophys. 1966.4:145-170. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
1940's, but for several years it was an open question whether they were
extragalactic objects or members of our Galaxy. The discovery, by Baade &
Minkowski (1), of the optical counterpart of Cygnus A made it clear that the
majority of the "radio stars" were in fact radio galaxies, distant galaxies
having radio luminosities 10 to 106 times greater than that of our own. Once
by Auburn University on 10/05/13. For personal use only.
the existence of such objects was established, a number of questions immedi

ately arose concerning the relation of the radio source to the visible galaxy,
the physical conditions within the source, and its origin and evolution.
With the exception of the dozen-or-so nearest galaxies, none of which is a
strong radio source, the visible portions of extragalactic objects range down
wards in angular extent from perhaps ten minutes of arc at the most. Assum
ing that their radio counterparts were comparable in size, it was evident that
questions about the structure of radio galaxies could only be answered by
developing radio techniques to permit resolution of a minute of arc or less.
The development has taken place ; in fact resolutions cif less than a second of
arc have been achieved for radio observations of certain types of objects. I n
the process it has been learned that the radio-emitting regions of some radio
galaxies are an order of magnitude larger than their optical counterparts,
easing somewhat the task of the radio astronomer.
The study of radio galaxies has required the close cooperation of radio
and optical astronomers. There is unfortunately no way to determine the
distance of a radio source from radio observations alone, yet distance is re
quired to convert the apparent properties of the SOurce (e.g. flux density and
angular extent) into its intrinsic properties (luminosity and linear dimen
sions) . From the intrinsic properties a great deal can be inferred about the
physical conditions within the source itself. Thus our knowledge is at all
complete only for those sources with known optical counterparts, the dis
tances of which have been measured by optical techniques.
Fully as important as a recognition of the nature of discrete radio sources
was an understanding of the mechanism by which the radio emission is pro
duced. As it happened, both developments took place at about the same
time. In 1953 Shklovskii (2, 3) suggested that synchrotron radiation from
energetic electrons was responsible for the continuum emission in discrete
sources, and it is now believed that this mechanism accounts for virtually all
1 The survey of literature for this review was concluded in Ja nuary 1966.
I Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellow.
145
146 MOFFET
nonthermal radio emission from celestial objects. On the assumption that

the emission from radio galaxies is synchrotron radiation, the requisite
energies in relativistic particles and magnetic fields can be estimated once the
luminosities and dimensions are known. In addition the synchrotron theory
predicts a close relationship between the polarization of the emission and the
orientation of the magnetic fields in the source, offering the possibility that
the magnetic fields may be mapped out if the polarization can be measured
in detail.
The work of the last decade has given us a picture of radio galaxies which
is superficially rather simple: the emission at radio wavelengths almost all

comes from two major components, more-or-Iess similar in size and intensity,
separated by several times their own diameter and lying on opposite sides of
the visible galaxy. Cygnus A once again is quite typical; it was found to be a
double radio source by Jennison & Das Gupta (4) in 1953. Closer examina
tion of any radio galaxy will almost certainly reveal finer detail within this
simple picture, however. In addition there are a few well-known and interest
ing exceptions which do not display the two-component structure.
The structure of the quasi-stellar radio sources will not be covered in this
review; as yet very little is known about the structure of these objects or
th eir relationship to the radio galaxies.
TECHNIQUES
The most straightforward way to investigate the structure of a radio
galaxy is to scan it with a pencil beam sufficiently fine to yield the desired
resolution of the object. The smallest beamwidths available from existing
pencil-beam antennas are about five minutes of arc, and unfortunately only a
few radio galaxies may be directly resolved in this way. These few cases are,
however, extremely important. In particular, the nearest strong radio
galaxy, Centaurus A (NGC 5128), has been studied extensively (5) with the
best existing pencil-beam antenna, the 63-m paraboloid at Parkes. Fan
beam telescopes (6, 7) and grating interferometers (8-11) have been used to
give one-dimensional scans, with resolution of about one minute of arc,
across a few of the most intense radio galaxies.
Finer resolution has usually been obtained by means of variable-spacing
interferometers. At a given spacing between its elements, a two-element
interferometer measures one value of the two-dimensional Fourier transform
of the source brightness distribution. If a sufficient number of samples of the
Fourier transform are determined, by observing with different spacings and
orientations of the interferometer elements, an approximation to the source
distribution may be recovered by Fourier inversion. The details of this proc
ess have been discussed by Bracewell (12) and Moffet (13) . In brief, if a
source has a maximum diameter of }.f radians and observations are made
with antenna spacings out to a maximum of S wavelengths, the number of
independent points in the recovered source distribution is about equal to
MS for one-dimensional observations or (MS)2 for two-dimensional observa-
STRUCTURE OF RADIO GALAXIES 147
tions. The inversion may only be performed if the Fourier transform

has been measured at intervals of 1/ M wavelengths or less. Observations
made with spacing intervals greater than the critical spacing 1/ M may
still give valuable information about the diameter of a source. but do not
serve to establish the details of its structure.
Changing the baseline of an interferometer is often difficult, particularly
for instruments which operate at long wavelengths, where antenna spacings
of many kilometers and complicated microwave links may be involved. Thus
it has been customary to make use of the rotation of the Earth to vary the
effective length and orientation of a given physical baseline by observing a

source over a range of hour angles. The geometrical principles and the results
of one such study are described by Rowson (14). The newest radio telescope
at Cambridge is based on this technique, which is called "super-synthesis"
by Ryle ( 15).
Lunar occultations of a radio source may also be used to determine the
details of its structure. This method was first suggested by Getmansev &
Ginzburg (16), but it was not applied to radio galaxies until 1960, when
Hazard (17, 1 8) observed an occultation of 3C 2 12. The interpretation of
radio occultation curves is complicated by Fresnel diffraction, which takes
place at the Moon's limb, but the effects of this diffraction may be removed
by a convolution technique suggested by Scheuer ( 19). Resolutions of less
than a second of arc may be achieved by this method, but for any but the
strongest sources it requires the signal-collecting abilities of a very large
antenna such as the 270-m reflector in Puerto Rico. Of course, the method
can only yield information about those sources which will at some time be
occulted by the Moon.
OBSERVATrONS
Surveys.-The bulk of our information on radio source structure has
come from interferometric surveys carried out at three observatories, Jodrell
Bank, Nan\iay, and Owens Valley. The most extensi ve of these is the program
at J odrell Bank begun by Hanbury Brown and continued by Palmer and his
associates (20-25). Their aim has been to rneasure the angular extent of all
members of a large sample of radio sources. To accomplish this they have
constructed interferometers with a very large range of resolution; antenna
spacings have ranged from a few hundred to 61,000 wavelengths at an ob
serving wavelength of about 2 rn (20-23), 180,000 wavelengths at 74 cm (24),
and 600,000 wavelengths at 21 cm (25). Each spacing has typically been a
factor of three greater than the previous one, thus the observations have in
general only permitted measurement of diameters and have not been com
plete enough to determine the structure of the sources. At the three longest
baselines a few sources have been tracked over a range of hour angles, and
some details of their structure have been determined ( 14, 24, 25).
At the Owens Valley Radio Observatory, Maltby & Moffet ( 13, 26, 27)
observed about 200 sources at a wavelength of 31.3 cm. The antenna spacings
148 MOFFET
used ranged from 200 to 1600 wavelengths in both the east-west and north
south directions; the observations were complete enough to determine the
approximate structure of 75 sources having diameters greater than 1.5
minutes of arc (27). Of these, 5S were found to have two or more major
components, most of them being well-separated double sources resembling
Cygnus A. Fifteen "equal" doubles (class E) were found, having compo
nents differing in intensity by 40 per cent or less; others (class U) had com
ponents with an intensity ratio> 1.4 to 1. The median ratio of component
diameter to separation for 11 class E sources was 3.3, but this value is prob
ably too low, since some of the components were barely resolved at the
longest baselines available. In a few instances, a core-and-halo type of struc
ture (class H) was found, where a bright high-intensity nucleus lay within an
extended low-intensity halo. A few sources seemed to have simple structure
(class S), differing only slightly from elliptical Gaussians; some of these may,
of course, be double sources with their major axes lying nearly along the line
of sight.
Allen, Brown & Palmer (23) analyzed the combined J odrell Bank and
Owens Valley observations. They found that the prevalence of multiple
component structure extends downwards to objects with angular sizes of ten
seconds of arc or less, and they suggested that there may sometimes be cores
of high brightness within the components.
An estimate of the fraction of radio galaxies which contain small-diameter
components can also be made from an interferometric study by Clark &
Hogg at Green Bank (28) , who observed 146 sources at 11 cm with a 21,500.
wavelength antenna spacing. Of these sources, 77 have been identified with
galaxies, mostly by Wyndham (29). Most of the radio galaxies are heavily
resolved at this spacing; 69 per cent have visibility amplitudes $0. 2 , indi
cating that their diameters are >6". Only 8 radio galaxies, or 10 per cent,
have visibility amplitudes ;:::0 .5, indicating a major component with a
diameter of 4" or less. In contrast, only 4 out of 28 sources identified with
quasi-stellar objects (29, 30) were found to have amplitudes <0.5 at this
spacing.
In observations carried out at Nan!;ay, Lequeux (31) observed 25 extra
galactic radio sources with east-west antenna spacings ranging from 50 to
7000 wavelengths at 21 em. These are the most detailed observations avail
able for several of the intense radio galaxies.
The initial observations with the Cambridge "super-synthesis" radio
telescope have given detailed pictures of Cygnus A (32), the contours of
which are reproduced in Figure 1, and several other radio sources (33) which
show the typical double structure. The most interesting of the latter group is
3C 452, shown in Figure 2, which has an elongated structure with prominent
peaks at each end; however, there are indications that several other rela
tively intense spots may lie along the axis of the source. The routine opera
tion of this instrument, which synthesizes pencil beams of 23 X 23 esc (j
seconds of arc at 2 1 em and 80 X 80 esc 0 seconds at 74 em, will yield structural
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FIG. L Cygnus A, radio contours as observed with a 23"X35" beam at 21 cm (32) superposed on a photograph
taken by Baade with the Hale reflector (1). The shape of the radio beam is shown by the ellipse at lower right.
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The field is 4'X6'. �
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150 MOFFET
39°
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FIG. 2. Contours of 3C 452 as measured with a 23"X36" beam at 21 cm. Note

that the declination scale is compressed so that the beClIl1 would appear circular. The
cross near the center shows the positio:l of the galaxy identifie::l with the radio source.
The separation between the outer peaks of the source is 4', corresponding to a pro
jected separation of 280 kpc at the distance implied by the redshift of the galaxy
(56). From Ryle, Elsmore & Neville (33).
information about many of the larger-diameter sources. Indeed, in the second

article by Ryle, Elsmore & Neville (33) there is a sample of the 74-cm survey
observations with this instrument. vVithin the one-sQuare-degree area
shown, several double sources may be seen.
Polarization.- It is generally assumed that all of the radio emission from
radio galaxies is produced by the synchrotron process, i.e. from relativistic
electrons circling in magnetic fields. Ginzburg & Syrovatskii (34, 35) and
V/ild, Smerd & Weiss (36) have discussed the details of this process. One of
the properties of this radiation is that it is strongly polarized. Under condi
tions thought to prevail in radio galaxies, the emission from any region with
a uniform magnetic field would have a linear polarization of about 70 per
cent, with the maximum electric vector lying perpendicular to the projected
direction of the magnetic field. Thus the polarization of the radiation from a
radio source can give information about the structure of the magnetic field
within the source. The polarization of radio sOUrces is reviewed by Gardner &
\>\Thiteoak elsewhere in this volume (37). Polarization measurements are
described here only where they help to define the structure of the sources.
The radiation from almost all nonthermal radio sources shows some de
gree of polarization at centimeter and decimeter wavelengths. The polariza
tion of the integrated radiation from a source is usually weak, but in small
areas of some objects the degree of polarization approaches that expected for
an idealized source containing a homogeneous magnetic field. The highest
degree of polarization yet found is 40 per cent, observed at 21 and 11 cm by

Cooper, Price & Cole (5) in small areas of the extended radio galaxy Cen
taurus A. Various parts of this source are polarized in different directions,
and the net polarization of the integrated radiation from Centaurus A is only
7 per cent at 21 cm. The source with the greatest degree of polarization in its
integrated radiation is 3C 76.1, for which Maltby & Seielstad (38) have
found 18 per cent at 10.6-cm wavelength. The median value of polarization
for 94 extragalactic sources observed at this wavelength was found by
Maltby (39) to be about 3.5 per cent. The median value for 89 sources ob
served at 21.2 cm by Bologna et al. (40) is 2.4 per cent. In general, the degree
of polarization decreases with increasing wavelength.

The fact that most radio galaxies show some linear polarization tends to
confirm the belief that the radiation is produced by the synchrotron process.
The fact that the degree of polarization is generally quite small indicates that
the magnetic field is not uniform in direction throughout the source. A source
with a homogeneous magnetic field is, of course, impossible since the field
must be closed in order to contain the energetic particles.
In those sources which have been resolved, the direction of polarization
of the emission from various parts of the source gives some idea of the shape
of the magnetic field (see the discussion of Centaurus A and Fornax A below).
One such case is MSH 13-33, which has been discussed by Gardner & Davies
(41). They found a triple source with the center component at the position of
the twelfth-magnitude galaxy IC 4296. All three components are polarized in
the direction of the major axis of the source, as is shown in Figure 3. The
conclusion is that the magnetic field in all three components is partially
aligned in a direction perpendicular to the major axis.
In all but a few of the largest radio galaxies, interferometers must be used
to measure the distribution of polarized emission. The technique has been
discussed by Morris, Radhakrishnan & Seielstad (42). The measurements
are very difficult because the intensity of the polarized radiation is generally
so small. The few available results suggest that the polarized emission from a
source usually has a smaller angular extent than does the nonpolarized emis
sion. This is found in the central component of Centaurus A (5, 43) , and in
seven other double radio galaxies (44), 3C 33, 3C 98, Pictor A, 3C 2 70,
Hercules A, 3C 353, and 3C 452. Observations made with the fan-beam radio
telescope at Pulkovo (45, 46) indicate the presence of small-diameter polar
ized regions in Cygnus A, Hercules A, and 3C 353.
Wavelength dependence.-The appearance of the large double radio sources
seems to change very little with wavelength, indicating that all portions of
these giant objects must have rather similar populations of relativistic elec
trons. For instance, the relative intensities of the two extended components
of Centaurus A remain about the same from 11 cm to 15 m (5, 47-50), al
though their total intensity changes by a factor of 40 over this wavelength
interval.
In Cygnus A the western component is 20 per cent stronger than its
152 MOFFET
lC4296�
.-%
--
z /21%
o
�
Z
'
...J -33050 C
u
w
CI
�%
RIGHT ASCENSION (1950)
FIG. 3. Structure and polarization of MSH 13-33 as measured at 11.3 cm. The
intensities of the components at this wavelength are (A) 3.7 flux units, (B) 2.9 f.u.,
and (C) 3.0 Lu. The percentages and directions of polarization (maximum in electric
field, corrected for Faraday rotation) of the three components are shown as well as
their placement with respect to the 12m galaxy Ie 4296 (shown by the cross). From
Gardner & Davies (41).
companion from 3 to 31 cm (6, 11, 27, 51) and very probably from 3 to 263
em (6, 21). Ho we ver , another feature of this source does change with wave
length. At meter wavelengths there is apparently a bridge of emission
between the two components (9, 3 1 ), contributing about 40 per cent of the
total intensity at 2.63 m. This feature must have a relatively steep spectrum,
since it vanishes at centimeter wavelengths (6, 7). Some trace of it may still
be seen in the 21-cm contours shown in Figure 1 .
Wavelength dependence o f the brightness distribution i n radio galaxies
was investigated by Moffet & Palmer (52), who compared interferometer
observations of 25 sources at 3 1 em and 1.9 m. They concluded that bright
ness distribution is not strongly dependent on wavelength except for sources
with the core-and-halo type of structure. In these objects, the halo usually
has a steeper spectrum than does the core, so that the halo is relatively more
prominent at longer wavelengths. This is in accord with a general relation
found by Lequeux (53, 54) and Kellermann (55), that large-diameter sources
tend to have steeper spectra than small-diameter ones.
Intrinsic properties.-To convert the apparent properties of a source into
intrinsic or absolute properties, we must know its distance. In the case of

radio galaxies we are almost totally dependent on optical redshifts for our
knowledge of distances. Since most radio galaxies are quite distant, and
therefore faint, it is fortunate that nearly all of them show strong, sharp
emission lines. Without these emission lines, distance measurements would
be much more difficult and less precise.
A list of 31 measured redshifts of radio galaxies has recently been pub
lished by Schmidt (56), together with a preliminary discussion of the spectra.
Fifteen previously published redshifts were listed by Maltby, Matthews &
Moffet (57) in a discussion of 24 identified sources for which fairly complete

radio and optical information was available as of 1962. Among these 24
sources, radio luminosities ranged from 1040 to 1045 erg/sec, and linear
diameters ranged from a few kiloparsecs to several hundred megaparsecs.
Double sources were found over nearly the entire range of sizes, with pro
jected component separations ranging from 8 kpc in the central part of

Centaurus A to nearly 300 kpc in 3C 219. A typical size for this group of
objects was 100 kpc, but it is evident that the group is not a representative
sample, since most of the sources chosen had been resolved with pencil-beam
antennas or interferometers of fairly low resolution.
Burbidge (58, 59) has pointed out that the minimum energy requirements
of a synchrotron source may be estimated once its volume V and luminosity
L are known. The energy in relativistic electrons U. is proportional to Land
to H-3/2, where H is the average magnetic field in the source region. The total
energy in relativistic particles Up is assumed to be proportional to U. but
may be appreciably larger, since energetic protons and other heavy particles
may be present. The total magnetic field energy Um is equal to the product of
the volume and the field energy density, VX H2/87r. For given values of V
and L, there is a value of H which minimizes the total energy Up+ Um; the
minimum occurs when Up 4/3 Um. It is usually assumed that H does not
=
differ greatly from this "equipartition" value. In an estimate of the total

energy requirement for the source, some guess must be made about the dis
tribution of energy between electrons and heavier energetic particles. Since
the latter do not radiate, their number cannot be measured. Burbidge (59)
has estimated that there should be 100 times as much energy in heavy parti
cles as in electrons.
Burbidge (59) noted that this argument led to very high energy require
ments for the larger and more luminous radio galaxies. Minimum energy
calculations have been made for many sources (39, 57): values range from
1055 to about 1060 erg. The value of the magnetic field which gives minimum
energy lies in the range 3 X 10-4 to 10-5 oersted. The inferred density of rela
tivistic electrons is typically 10-9 cm-s. To radiate at centimeter-to-meter
wavelengths these must have energies of 108 to 1010 eV.
The minimum energies deduced from these calculations are very large;
1060 erg is equivalent to the total nuclear energy released by about 3 X 101
suns during their entire lifetime. The sources having the highest estimated
energies are those with the largest volumes, such as Hercules A with com-
154 MOFFET
ponents nearly 100 kpc in diameter. It is customary to assume that the

energetic particles and magnetic field are uniformly distributed throughout
these large volumes. If the source actually consists of wisps and knots or thin
shells of energetic, magnetized plasma, which fill only a fraction I/> of the
whole volume, the minimum energy is reduced by a factor 1/>3/7. The reduction
of the energy estimates is not likely to be very great. For instance if a source
really occupies only 1 per cent of its overall volume (1/1=.01), the minimum
energy will be reduced by only a factor of 7. If the relativistic electrons
account for all the particle energy, instead of only 1 per cent of it as estimated
by Burbidge, the minimum energy will be reduced by a factor of 1004/7"" 14,
while the magnetic field required to give minimum energy will be reduced by
a factor of 1002/7 ",,3.7.
Properties of the visible galaxies.- The properties and structure of the
galaxies identified with radio sources have been described by Matthews,
Morgan & Schmidt (60). The most common type of galaxy encountered is the
D system, which is a giant elliptical galaxy with an extended envelope. These
are always very bright and presumably very massive galaxies; frequently
they are found among the two or three brightest members of a cluster of
galaxies. An example of a D galaxy is NGC 6166, associated with the source
3C 338, which is the brightest member of the cluster Abell 2199 (see Figure
8). Other types of galaxies found to be associated with radio sources include
"dumbbell" galaxies such as NGC 4782-83 (3C 278), where two elliptical
nuclei share a common envelope, and N galaxies, which consist of a brilliant,
starlike nucleus with very little envelope. No strong radio Source (L >2 X 1040
erg/s) has been identified with a spiral or an irregular galaxy.
The available absolute magnitudes for radio galaxies confirm the impres
sion that these are mostly very luminous systems. Maltby, Matthews &
Moffet (57) found a mean absolute magnitude Mpg of -20.5 for 19 galaxies
with measured redshift. Photoelectric measures by Sandage (61) give a
similar figure and indicate that the dispersion in absolute magnitude for
these objects is quite low.
In almost every instance, the visible portion of a radio galaxy shows
evidence of an unusual disturbance. The most common indication is the
presence of strong emission lines, which are present in almost all radio
galaxies (56), whereas, according to Minkowski & Osterbrock (62), even
weak emission lines are present in only 15 per cent of normal elliptical
galaxies. In radio galaxies close enough to be examined in detail, unusual
lanes or patches of absorbing material are often found, e.g. NGC's 1316,
4374, 5128 (see Figure 4), and 6166 (60, 63, 64). Burbidge, Burbidge &
Sandage (65) have reviewed the evidence for the occurrence of violent events
in the nuclei of radio galaxies and other galaxies.
EXAMPLES
The types of radio structure can best be illustrated by descriptions of
several of the better-known radio galaxies. It would be misleading to call
these typical examples, since they are selected from among the nearest or
TABLE I
PROPERTIES OF SEVERAL RADIO GALAXIES
I
Name
log L log Emin log H
Size
Mpo
I
z diam. (Xsep.)
Optical erg/s erg oersted
Radio kpc
NGC ,
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

Cyg A -
. 057 -21.1 17(XI00) 44.8 60. 0 -3. 5
{ 3. 5
<X8.3) 41.4 57.1 -4.1
Cen A 5128 .003 -21.3
1 20+ (X240) 41. 8 59.3 -5.3
For A 1 316 .006 -21.8 90(XI40) 41.8 59.0 -5.0
3C 33 -
. 060 -20.9 10(X200) 42.8 58.6 -4. 0
3C 295 -
.461 -20.1 5 (X 15) 45.0 59.5 -3. 3
Her A -
.154 -19. 5 90 (X330) 44. 2 60. 7 -4.3
f 1.3 (XL 7) 41. 7 56.5 -3.6
Vir A 4486 . 004 -20. 5
l 27 41 . 1 58.1 -4.5
3C 338 6166 .030 -21 . 6 32 41.8 58.7 -4.5
most luminous sources known. Rather they might be called outstanding

examples. However, there is every reason to believe that the types of
structure and the dimensions of these objects are also characteristic of the
run-of-the-universe radio galaxy.
To avoid repetition of similar numbers, some of the measured and
inferred properties of these objects (39, 57, 66) are listed in Table I. The first
six are double radio sources, while Virgo A has a core-and-halo structure,
and 3C 338 is a simple radio source. The galaxies associated with all eight are
either D systems or very massive ellipticals. The various columns in Table I
list the names of (1) the radio source and (2) the corresponding galaxy;
(3) the redshift parameter z=fJ.Xj'Ao; (4) the absolute photographic magni
tude (assuming 100 km S-I Mpcl for the Hubble parameter); (5) the pro
jected linear size (and separation for doubles) of the radio source; and (6 8) -
the logarithms of the radio luminosity (integrated over 107 _1011 cis), the
inferred minimum energy in the source, and the magnetic field which gives
minimum energy.
Cygnus A.-This is the prototype of the strong double radio galaxies. Its
only deficiency as an example is that it lies near the plane of our own Galaxy
and is partially obscured. It is the brightest member of a rich cluster of
galaxies discovered by Baade (1); originally thought to be two galaxies in
collision, it is more likely a single giant D galaxy, either crossed by an absorp
tion lane (67) or with a double nucleus (60). The apparent double nucleus is
seen in Figure 1, which also shows contours of the radio source as observed
with a 23/1 X 36/1 beam at 21 cm (32). The double structure of the radio source
is evident. although the components are not completely symmetrical. There
156 MOFFET
is either a third component or an inward extension on the east component.

Other interferometric studies (31, 66) indicate that the main components
may be rather sharply peaked toward their outward edges. The west com
ponent is about 20 per cent stronger than its companion (6, 11, 27, 51). A
bridge of emission between the components is seen at meter wavelengths
(9, 31),
The luminosity of Cygnus A is higher than that of any other known radio
galaxy except 3C 295; however, its size of about 100 kpc is intermediate
between the sources of galactic dimensions and the giants such as Cen
taurus A.
Centaurus A.-This is the nearest of the strong radio galaxies, only 4 M pc
distant; it is also one of the intrinsically largest, and these factors combine
to give it an angular extent of nearly ten degrees. Thus it may easily be
resolved with pencil-beam antennas, and our knowledge of its structure is
more complete than for any other radio galaxy. Centaurus A contains two
double sources, (a) an extended pair with a separation of 240 kpc and an
overall extent of 600 kpc or more, and (b) a pair of components lying (in
projection, at least) within the galaxy NGC 5128. Cooper, Price & Cole (5)
have recently reviewed the large body of earlier work on this radio galaxy
and have added an extensive set of intensity and polarization measurements
at five wavelengths between 74 and 6 cm. Their contours of the intrinsic
structure and polarization of this source are shown together with photo
graphs of NGC 5128 in Figure 4. The vectors shown on the contour map are
at right angles to the direction of polarization and indicate the projected
directions of the magnetic field, which lies generally transverse to the major
axis of the extended source. There are large areas where the polarization is
uniform, but in several small regions it seems to change direction rapidly.
indicating relatively small-scale structure in the magnetic field.
The two halves of the extended source are not entirely symmetrical: the
northern part has a higher peak intensity. The contours of both halves reach
well beyond the regions of maximum intensity and seem to show a spiral pat
tern at their extremities. This may indicate that the extended source has
begun to break up and disperse into the intergalactic medium. The spiral
pattern may be due to the presence of an intergalactic magnetic field; it
would be easier for the sources to disperse in the direction of this field than
normal to it. Matthews, Morgan & Schmidt (60) suggest that more than one
outburst may have contributed to the extended source, thus producing its
irregular shape.
Only the north-east component of the central source shows appreciable
polarization. One possible explanation for this is that the south-west com
ponent may lie behind NGC 5128, and the radiation from this component is
depolarized as it passes through the galaxy. The magnetic field in the
polarized component lies roughly parallel to the axis between them.
As can be seen in Figure 4, the structure of NGC 5128 is dominated by a
broad dust lane running from south-east 1:0 north-west across its center, seen
NGC 5128
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FIG, 4. Centaurus A. At right are shown the intensity contours and polarization vectors C..L to the direction ....
VI
of maximum electric field) for the extended radio source (5); the position of NGC 5128 is shown. At lower left -J
"
is a negative photograph of NGC 5128 in red light (107), with the positions of the central radio source compo
nents shown. At upper left is a positive photograph in blue light (108), showing the dark lane. The composite
photograph was prepared by Dr. T. A. Matthews and is used with his kind permission.
158 MOFFET
in the positive photograph at the upper left in Figure 4. The axis of rotation
of the galaxy is perpendicular to this band (68, 69) and agrees roughly with
the major axis of the radio source. Johnson (70) has found extensions of the
galaxy along the direction of this axis, as shown in Figure 5. The inner parts
of these extensions can be seen in the negative photograph at the lower left in
Figure 4. The outer parts give the impression of a spiral, or even helical
shape, as do the extremities of the dust lane. The Burbidges (69) have found
that the recession velocity of the gas in the dust lane is about 100 km/s
greater than that of the stars in NGe 5 128 proper; furthermore, the dust
lane is rotating more rapidly than the galaxy. The Burbidges suggest that the
dust lane is a remnant of an outburst which produced the radio sources and
that the material in the dust lane is now falling back into the galaxy. If so,
then in some way this material must have swept around from the rotational
poles of NGe 5128, where the radio sources almost certainly emerged, to the
equatorial plane where we now observe it:. On photographs with an appro

priate exposure, the dust lane on the eastern side of the galaxy may be seen
to broaden and sweep up toward the north.
Fornax A.-This is also a very large, relatively near-by radio galaxy. The
identification with NGe 1316 was suggested by Shklovskii & Kholopov (71)
and by de Vaucouleurs (72), but was in doubt for several years since the
unsuspected double structure of the radio source confused efforts at measur-
FIG. 5. Heavily exposed photograph of NGC 5128 printed with high contrast to
show the extended features whi ch project from the poles of the galaxy. The drawing
at right shows features visible on the original p l ates and their relation to the dust
lane, which can be seen 011 less heavi l y exposed photographs. Photograph and drawing
from Johnson (70).
FIG. 6. Fornax A. The contours show the brightness temperature of the radio
source as observed at 11.3 em by Gardner & Price (74). The vectors show the direction
of polarization (maximum electric field) , corrected for Faraday rotation. The angular
distance between the centers of the two components is 29'. The photograph of NGC
1316 is from a 48-in ch Schmidt plate by Zwicky.
in g its position. The basic structure of the source was determined by Wade
(73), and a more detailed study has recently been carried out by Gardner &
Price (74) at wavelengths of 74,21, and 11 cm. Similar structure was found
at all three wavelengths; the western component is about 50 per cent
stronger than its companion. Contours and polarization directions measured
by Gardner & Price at 11 cm are shown in Figure 6 superposed on a photo
graph of NGC 1316. The predominant magnetic field direction would lie at
right angles to the vectors shown. \Nithin the components the fields are
more-or-Iess parallel to the major axis of the source, while at the outer
boundaries of each component the fields follow the emission contours, as if
they wrap around the source region.
Gardner & Price call attention to the difference in brightness distribution
of the two components. As can be seen in Figure 6, the stronger (west)
component is flat topped, suggesting a shell-like structure. Neither com
ponent is elongated in the direction of the major axis, and the ratio of their
diameter to their separation is unusually small, only about 1.7: 1. These two
facts suggest that the angle between the line joining the centers of the two
160 MOFFET
components and the line of sight may be fairly small. If so, the true linear
separation would be appreciably greater than the value given in Table I.
A brief description of NGC 1316 has been given by Burbidge, Burbidge &
Sandage (65). Within the galaxy there is a complicated pattern of absorption
streaks and patches which do not at all resemble the well-defined dust lane
seen in NGC 5128. The projected axis of rotation has been determined by
Searle (75) to lie perpendicular to the long axis of the galaxy; this would
place the rotational axis in position angle 135°. The line joining the centers
of the radio source regions is in position angle 104°. Arp (76) has found faint
extensions which loop around from the long axis of the galaxy toward t h e
radio source positions. Searle argues that the radio sources must have
•
FIG. 7. 3C 33, showing schematically the two very small radio source regions
and their relation to the parent galaxy. The southern component is about 2.5 times
stronger than the northern one. The photograph is from a plate by Minkowski with
the Hale reflector; the field is 5'.8 square.
emerged from the equatorial plane of the galaxy, carrying with them the
material of these faint extensions which became curved into a spiral form by
differential rotation. If so, this would be very different from the situation in
the other two radio galaxies with known axis of rotation, Centaurus A and
3C 33. In these objects the radio sources have almost certainly emerged
along the axis of rotation. I t seems likely that the same is true in Fornax A.
The faint extensions from this galaxy may be similar in structure and origin
to those from NGC 5128, with the difference in appearance due to the
different inclination of NGC 1316.
3C 33.-The structure of this radio galaxy has been determined by
interferometric measurements (27, 31, 66). It is of particular importance

because the radio source regions are very tightly contained; as can be seen
in Figure 7, they are separated by some 20 times their own diameter. The
southern component is about 2.5 times stronger than its companion, and
they are relatively brighter near their outward edges. The axis of rotation
of the galaxy lies approximately north-south (56) and may well agree with
the minor axis of the main body of the galaxy, which lies in position angle
163°. The galaxy has a faint outer envelope which is extended in this same
direction. The major axis of the radio source is in position angle 19°.
3C 295.-This is the most distant known radio galaxy (77) and has the
highest radio luminosity. Details of its structure come from interferometric
measurements by Rowson at 1.9-m wavelength (14, 78). The radio source is a
nearly equal double with a separation of 4" in position angle 135°. The com
ponents are unresolved in the direction of their separation (diameter <1")
but measure 1':7 in the perpendicular direction. Observations by Clark &
Hogg (28) at 11 cm show a similar component separation and position angle.
The projected linear distance between the components is about 15 kpc and
depends somewhat on the cosmological model assumed, since the distance of
3C 295 is very great (z=0.46).
Hercules A.-This is a large radio source with two components of nearly
equal intensity (79, SO). It is identified with an extended elliptical galaxy
having a very peculiar intensity distribution (Sl, 82). Hercules A is about
three times larger and more distant than Cygnus A, while its luminosity is
about four times less.
Virgo A.-This is the prototype of the core-and-halo sources (27, 31, 83).
The halo is elliptical, measuring 6' X 10', not very much larger than the
associated galaxy, MS7 = NGC 4486. Wit h i n it there is a double radio source
(31), the two components separated by 30", or 1.6 kpc. This bright double
core coincides in position (7, 10) with a jet which is visible in blue light,
extending for 20" out from the nucleus of NGC 4486 in position angle 290°.
Light from the jet is polarized and is probably synchrotron radiation (S4).
The i\ 3727 emission line of [0 II] is also seen in the nucleus of NGC 4486. The
line is asymmetric; one component agrees with the mean radial velocity of
the stellar absorption line, while a weaker component is violet shifted by 900
km/s relative to the stars of the galaxy (85). The spectral index of the radio
162 MOFFET
FIG. 8. 3C 338, showing the circular radio source (diameter 1 ' . 2 to half intensity),
which agrees in position with the complex system NGC 6166. The photograph is
from M inkowski (87) ; the field is 6' square.
emission from the halo is - 1.0, while that of the core is - 0.4 ; they have
equal intensities at about 40 cm (55).
3 C 338 .-This is an example of a simple radio source with no evidence of
duplicity or other fine structure. Paradoxically, it is associated with NGC
6166, a complicated system in which three satellites lie within the envelope
of a giant D galaxy (64, 86, 87). The situation can be seen in Figure 8. The
halo of NGC 6166 can be traced to a d iameter of 60 kpc or more on long
exposure photographs (60). This is twice the half-intensity d iameter of the
radio source, which is indicated by the circle in Figure 8. However, NGC
6166 also has a bright, small-diameter nucleus seen in ultraviolet light (64)
and moderately strong A 3727 emission (87).
DISCUSSION
Unfortunately, no comprehensive theory of the origin and evolution of
radio galaxies has been developed to explain the various observational
results. In the absence of such a theory, the observations are often discussed
in terms of a qualitative evolutionary model ; this approach has been fruitful
in drawing attention to a number of problems which a successful theory
must explain. The model is useful in suggesti ng the way the structure of a
radio galaxy may change with time.
Qualitative evolution of a radio galaxy.-We observe radio sources with
similar shapes but with a wide range of sizes, from the double sources within
NGC 5 128 and 3C 295 to the giant doubles a hundred kpc or more on either
side of 3C 33, Hercules A, or NGC 5 128 (again) . In virtually every case the
galaxy between the radio sources shows signs of a violent disturbance . Fur
thermore, on the assumption that the emission we detect is synchrotron

radiation, we infer energies for the radio sources which are so great that these
sources cannot be retained within the galaxies. It seems reasonable to con
clude that the radio sources are formed in or near the nuclei of massive
galaxies, expand outward until they span a distance 20 to 50 times larger
than the diameter of the parent galaxy, and gradually fade away into inter
galactic space.3
The origin of a radio galaxy must involve the release of a very large
amount of energy ( > 1 060 erg in some cases) within a large galaxy. The
mechanism for this energy release is unknown, although several general
approaches have been suggested. These h ave been reviewed by Burbidge,
Burbidge & Sandage (65), who conclude that " this is one of the most impor
tant unsolved problems of modern astronomy. " Several additional sugges
tions have been made recently (89-94) , but they seem to fall into the general
categories discussed by Burbidge, Burbidge & Sandage. It seems likely th at
the origin of radio galaxies is closely connected with the phenomenon of the
quasistellar radio sources.
Since double radio sources are seen with separations of only a few kilo
parsecs, the division of the energetic plasma into a symmetrical pair of
"plasmons"-to use a term coined by Shklovskii-must take place at the
time of, or very soon after, the generation of the plasma. In the three cases in
which it is possible to tell, the line of centers of the radio source regions agrees
with the rotational axis of the parent galaxy to within about 30°. This sug-
3 Arguments of this type are sometimes dangerous. Around the turn of the century
stellar astronomers discovered the main sequence, demonstrating that many stars fit
into a continuous sequence according to surface temperature and luminosity. Since
a star "obviously" had to cool off as it radiated energy, there were both theoretical
and observational grounds for the conclusion that stars evolved from blue to red
down the main sequence (88), which is not, of course, what really happens. I am
indebted to Dr. L. Searle for pointing out the similarity to the argument about radio
galaxies. I hope this is not a case in which history will repeat itself.
1 64 MOFFET
gests that either the angular momentum of the galaxy or a similarly aligned
dipole magnetic field is important in shaping and directing the emerging
plasmons. It seems possible that a magnetic field too weak to contain the
plasma could stilI guide its expansion.
The simple radio sources and those with nondouble halos, which together
constitute a small minority, must represent cases where the usual mechanism
for division of the source has failed and no double source emerged. If this
mechanism depends on the presence of a strong magnetic field or a large
angular momentum, it could fail in galaxies where these are lacking. It may
also be significant that several of the simple sources (3C 278, 3C 338, 3C 442)
are identified with dumbbell galaxies or even more complex multiple systems.
However, there are also double sources associated with multiple galaxies (e.g.
3C 40, 3C 75, 3C 3 10).
As a radio galaxy grows older the plasmons emerge from the visible
galaxy and push out into the intergal actic medium, maintaining all the while
their remarkable symmetry. The brightening at the extremities of some of
the double sources and the shell-like structure observed in one component of
Fornax A both argue for the presence of an intergalactic medium which
offers an appreciable resistance to the passage and expansion of the plasmons.
The spiral shape of the outermost parts of Centaurus A may also be at
tributed to the effect of an intergal actic medium containing a magnetic fiel d.
The plasmons must expand with less than one-fourth the velocity at
which they move away from the parent galaxy, since the average ratio of
separation to diameter is 3.5 : 1 , and correction of this ratio for geometrical
and selection effects will i ncrease it to >4 : 1. In some cases, the plasmons are
much more tightly contained : for instance, in 3C 33 this ratio is 20 : 1. The
source regions usually seem fairly well disconnected from the parent galaxy.
If streamers of magnetic field still connect them, these streamers must con
tain comparatively small numbers of relativistic electrons .
In at least a few instances relativistic plasma may have been left behind
in or around the parent galaxy, producing a three-component radio source.
Other triple sources may have been produced by a recent outburst in an
older radio galaxy ; Centaurus A would appear to be such a case. The persis
tence of an emission-line spectrum in almost every radio galaxy indicates a
lingering disturbance, even when no radio emission is detected from the
vicinity of the galaxy itself.
The faint extensions visible in photographs of NGC 5 1 28 and NGC 1316
show that appreciable quantities of m aterial have been ejected, presumably
when the radio sources burst forth from these galaxies. There is direct evi
dence that ejection of material is now occurring from the nucleus of M87 (see
the description of Virgo A, above), from NGC 1275 (109), and from M82, a
weak radio galaxy (95) . The visible extensions from NGC 5 128 and NGC
1316 do not extend out as far as do the radio sources associated with those
galaxies, indicating that this material was ejected with a smaller velocity
than were the plasmons of the radio sources. It is quite possible that the
emission we now see from these extensions is light from stars which have
condensed out of the ejected material. An observational test of this point
should be possible with existing techniques.
Efforts to be quantitative .- Attempts to put n umbers into the qualitative
evolutionary model of a radio galaxy, and thus to describe the way its various
properties change with time, have not been very successful. The estimates of
mini m u m energy, relativistic particle density, and magnetic field strength
have already been described, and typical values are given for the sources
described in Table I. Some of the uncertainties involved in these estimates

were also mentioned above.
It is difficult to make an accurate estimate of the lifetime of a radio
galaxy. About the only thing that can be said with confidence is that its age
must be greater than its radius divided by the speed of light. For the largest
objects this gives minim u m ages of ",5 X 105 years. More precise estimates
require calculation of the evolution of the plasmons which constitute the
source, and the efforts which have been made in this direction so far have
been rather preliminary.
Shklovskii (67) made one such calculation, assuming that the plasmon
expanded at the Alfven velocity, 'Vm = H/ v'(41rp) , determined by its internal
magnetic field strength and mass density. Since H r:t:. r-2 (for constant flux)
and p r:t:. r-3, then r = Vm r:t:. r-1/2, and
t2/3. If the expansion is adiabatic, each
r r:t:.
electron loses energy in proportion to J{l/2, so that E ex ,-1, and the radio
l uminosity of the plasmon at a given frequency, L., drops as L. ex ,-2'Y where l'
is the index in the spectrum of the relativistic electrons. The electron and
radio spectral indices are related by a = - (1' - 1) /2, so that for a = - 0.5, we
have L. r:t:. ,-4, and for a = - 1 . 0 we have L. ex ,-6. Using this theory, Shklovskii
showed that Cygnus A might evolve into a source resembling the extended
part of Centaurus A in a time equal to 15 times the present age of Cygnus A.
Unfortunately this theory breaks down if carried back to sources much
smaller than those in Cygnus A. For instance, at a diameter of 5 kpc, roughly
that of the components of 3C 295, both Cygnus A and Centaurus A would
have luminosities of about 1048 erg/s, while Hercules A reduced to that size
would have a fantastic luminosity of 2 X 1051 erg/so
I ( is quite clear from Shklovskii's relation between L. and r that radio
sources cannot have expanded adiabatica!1y from dimensions of a few kpc to
their presently observed sizes ! Going the other way, the adiabatic losses seem
disastrously high as the source expands. These may be reduced somewhat
if it is assumed that the energetic plasma does not fill the entire volume of the
source region but is confined to wisps, knots, or even a thin shell which oc
cupies only a small fraction of that volume. It is interesting that adiabatic
expansion preserves the balance between total particle energy Up and total
magnetic energy Um, since Up r:t:. E ex ,-1 and Um r:t:. H2 ,3 r:t:. ,-1.
Perhaps the most complete calculation of the dynamics of a model radio
166 MOFFET
galaxy is that of van der Laan (96) , who considered a single spherical
plasmon, with a well-ordered magnetic field, expanding isotropically into an
intergalactic medium containing both magnetic field and gas. Van der Laan
attributes the observed structure of radio galaxies to anisotropy in the emis
sion from this spherical plasmon. It seems difficult to explain the well
separated double sources, such as Cygnus A, 3C 103 (33) , and especially
3C 33, in terms of this model ; however, the dynamical calculations may be
applicable to models with more complicated shapes.
Pikel'ner (97) has examined the configurations that a magnetic field
might have in an expanding plasmon. He concludes that the magnetic field

in the plasmon probably could not arise solely from compression of a weak
ambient magnetic field. Pikel'ner suggests a type of plasma instability which
may be important, not only in generating the magnetic field, but also in
transferring energy from relativistic protons to relativistic electrons.
Kardashev, Kuz'min & Syrovatskii (98) and later Kardashev (99) have
calculated an age for Cygnus A on the basis of the shape of its radio spec
trum, assuming that the well-known change of slope of this spectrum (100)
is caused by synchrotron losses. For the details of this relation between age
and spectrum, see Kardashev (101) and Lequeux (54) . Kardashev and his
colleagues conclude that Cygnus A must be ", 106 years old. Unfortunately
the effect of expansion was not included in their calculations, and we have
seen above that this effect is hardly negligible. If expansion losses were
included, the calculate:!. age of Cyg A would be reduced to a few X 105 years,
requiring ejection velclCities of the plasmons very close to the velocity of
light. A greater age would require a continuing source of relativistic electrons
within the plasmons; at the low densities of intergalactic space, this would be
hard to provide.
Pacholczyk ( 102) has combined the approaches of Shklovskii and
Kardashev and finds, in agreement with van der Laan, that the radius of the
plasmon varies with time as r IX t2/5 during the late stages of expansion, if the
plasmon is homogeneous and expands into a field-free medium with very low
density. The time dep'�ndence of the luminosity is not explicitly derived.
Another method fr �quent1y used to estimate the lifetime of a radio galaxy
is to divide the stored energy in relativisitic electrons (itself a very uncertain
estimate) by the present luminosity. The uncertainties in this method seem
to render it quite useless. Even if the amount of stored energy were known
with certainty, it wO'lld require an accurate calculation of the change in
luminosity with tim«�, and this would require knowledge of expansion
dynamics which are more directly related to the lifetime of the source than is
the luminosity.
I n short, the ages of radio sources are not well determined although a firm
lower limit of ",5 X 10' years can be set for the larger ones. I mproved calcula
tions of the dynamics of an expanding plasmon should yield better estimates
of lifetimes and ages. 5tudies of the frequency of occurrence of radio galaxies
may also shed light on this problem.
SUMMARY
Our knowledge of the outward appearance of radio galaxies, both at radio
and optical wavelengths, is fairly good. However, there is still a great lack of
firm information about the physical conditions within the radio source
regions. Possibly studies of the internal depolarization and Faraday rotation
of the radio emission can provide new information about these conditions,
although it is difficult to separate the effects which occur in passage of the
radiation through our Galaxy from those occurring within the source.
Mapping of the distribution and direction of the polarized emission will tell
much about the structure of the magnetic fields in the sources.

The theory of radio galaxies is in a far-from-satisfactory state. The
dynamics of an expanding plasmon must somehow be reconciled with the
observations-in particular with the observation that many of the strongest
radio galaxies have radio luminosities in the range 1044 to 1045 erg/s, though
their source regions range in size from more than 100 kpc down to a few kpc,
or even down to a few parsecs if the quasi-stellar sources are included. Yet
adiabatic expansion by a factor of 10 in size calls for a drop in luminosity by
a factor of about 105. The tight containment of sources such as 3C 33 or other
objects which may have even greater ratios of separation to diameter, such
as 3C 343 ( 103) , must be explained.
Obviously a more firmly based guess about the nature of the intergalactic
medium would aid in the calculation of plasmon dynamics. Studies of radio
and optical line absorption in the intergalactic medium may be of assistance
in pinning down its properties (104-106).
The question of the origin and energy source of radio galaxies is com
pletely open at present ; it may well be associated with the vexing problems
posed by the quasi-stellar radio sources. Likewise the mechanism for produc
ing double radio sources is unknown, leaving us with hand-waving appeals to
dipole magnetic fields and angular momentum.
There are many areas where optical studies of radio galaxies are needed .
It seems remarkable that the axis of rotation is known for only three of these
objects. The question of the nature of the faintly visible extensions from
radio galaxies should be answered-are they composed of stars? The astro
physics of the emission-line spectra should give information about conditions
within the visible galaxies.
Radio telescopes now being planned or under construction will provide
detailed pictures of many radio galaxies. In particular, the new instruments
will be sensitive enough to permit extensive study of the distribution of
polarized emission within the sources. New optical telescopes large enough for
study of radio galaxies are also being planned, and these wiII result in a
greater flow of optical data, especially for objects in the Southern Hemi
sphere. I hope that an accumulation of clear and detailed observations will
inspire some clear and detailed theories of these fascinating members of our
universe.
168 MOFFET
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Moffet 1966

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ANNUAL

THE STRUCTURE OF RADIO GALAXIESl

the existence of such objects was established, a number of questions immedi­

nonthermal radio emission from celestial objects. On the assumption that

is superficially rather simple: the emission at radio wavelengths almost all

tions. The inversion may only be performed if the Fourier transform

effective length and orientation of a given physical baseline by observing a

FIG. 2. Contours of 3C 452 as measured with a 23"X36" beam at 21 cm. Note

information about many of the larger-diameter sources. Indeed, in the second

degree of polarization yet found is 40 per cent, observed at 21 and 11 cm by

of polarization decreases with increasing wavelength.

intrinsic or absolute properties, we must know its distance. In the case of

Moffet (57) in a discussion of 24 identified sources for which fairly complete

jected component separations ranging from 8 kpc in the central part of

differ greatly from this "equipartition" value. In an estimate of the total

ponents nearly 100 kpc in diameter. It is customary to assume that the

PROPERTIES OF SEVERAL RADIO GALAXIES

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)

most luminous sources known. Rather they might be called outstanding

is either a third component or an inward extension on the east component.

" ,/;�t ���\ "'l

'. "" ,,\ \ \

equatorial plane where we now observe it:. On photographs with an appro­

interferometric measurements (27, 31, 66). It is of particular importance

thermore, on the assumption that the emission we detect is synchrotron

described in Table I. Some of the uncertainties involved in these estimates

might have in an expanding plasmon. He concludes that the magnetic field

much about the structure of the magnetic fields in the sources.

LITERA TURE CITED

32. Ryle, M., Elsmore, B., and Neville,

46. Gol'nev, V. Ya., and Soboleva, N. S.,

55. Kellermann, K. L, A strophys. J., 140, and Leslie, P. R R, Observatory, 81,

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the existence of such objects was established, a number of questions immedi

" ,/;�t ��\ "'l

equatorial plane where we now observe it:. On photographs with an appro