9Biology 122L – Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates Exercise 11 1

11. THE COELOM AND THE DIGESTIVE AND RESPIRATORY

SYSTEMS OF THE CAT

In the following exercises, the student should work only, if possible, on the left side of
the animal. The other side should be preserved for other exercises and for reference.

A. ORAL CAVITY AND PHARYNX

Salivary Glands. These are large masses of gland tissue which are outgrowth of the oral
epithelium; the stalk of each outgrowth remains a salivary duct. These glands are
situated among the muscles of the head and throat. There are five pairs of salivary
glands in the cat:
1. parotid gland – located ventrad and craniad of the base of the pinna of the ear,
just under the skin; It is a pinkish gland spread out under the skin anterior and
ventral to the ear. Its duct passes across the external surface of the masseter
muscle and penetrates the upper lip.
2. submaxillary gland – a roundish mass at the angle of the jaw near the posterior
margin of the masseter; Loosen it and find the duct springing from the internal
surface. Trace the submaxillary duct along with another duct.
3. sublingual gland – an elongated gland at the base or beginning of the
submaxillary duct; Its duct along with the submaxillary duct are found to pass
internal to the mylohyoid muscle.
4. molar gland – is situated between the skin and external surface of the mandible,
just in front of the masseter muscle; It opens onto the inside of the cheek by
several small ducts, impractical to locate.
5. infraorbital gland – lies in the floor of the orbit and can be seen when the eye is
dissected
Oral Cavity. Cut through the skin at the corners of the mouth and see that the skin is
well cleared away over the angles of the jaws. Cut through the masseter and other
muscles attached at the angles of the jaws. Try to open the mouth, grasp the lower jaw,
and exert a strong traction.
The anterior part of the cavity thus revealed is the oral cavity, bounded by lips and
cheeks. The part of the oral cavity lying between the teeth and lips are called the
vestibule of the mouth. The teeth were described in connection with the skull.
Distinguish these other parts:
1. hard palate – the anterior portion of the roof of the oral cavity; Touch the hard
palate. It is supported by the premaxillary, maxillary and palatine bones. The
mucous membrane is thrown into a number of roughened transverse ridges.
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9Biology 122L – Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates Exercise 11 1

2. soft palate – the posterior portion of the roof of the oral cavity; It lacks the bony
support.
3. nasopalatine duct openings – a pair of openings at the anterior end of the hard
palate just behind the incisor teeth
4. tongue – a fleshy muscular organ at the floor of the oral cavity; The anterior
margin of its attachment to the floor of the oral cavity has the form of a vertical
fold, the frenulum. The tongue can be pulled down and out by cutting on each
side at the base back to the level of the submaxillary glands.
The surface of the tongue may be examined in detail. It consists of:
a. filiform papillae – minute elevations which cover the anterior part, many of
which are hard and spinelike and pointed posteriorly.
b. fungiform papillae – posterior, smoother, and harder portion.
c. vallate papillae – four to six papillae found among the fungiform papillae;
arranged in V-shaped row, each consisting of a round elevation set into a pit;
At the sides of the vallate papillae are some very large fungiform
papillae. The papillae are provided with microscope taste buds.
Pharynx. The portion of the cavity lying posterior and dorsal to the soft palate. First,
examine the posterior margin of the soft palate, find its posterior margin arching above
the base of the tongue. The opening formed by the free border of the palate is known as
the isthmus of the fauces. This opening leads into the cavity of the pharynx.
Identify the following:
1. tonsillar fossa – a pit on each side shortly anterior to the free border of the soft
palate.
2. palatine tonsil – small mass of lymphoid tissue that occupies the pit.
3. glossopalatine arch – anterior fold in front of the tonsillar fossa.
4. pharyngopalatine arch – posterior fold behind tonsillar fossa
5. nasopharynx – a cavity dorsal to the soft palate; It can be located by making a
slit on the soft palate by cutting forward along its median line.
6. posterior nares or chonae – the internal ends of the nasal passages at the
anterior end of the nasopharynx.
7. auditory or Eustachian tube openings – a pair of openings on the lateral wall of
the nasopharynx leading to a canal which connects the pharynx with the cavity
of the middle ear.

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9Biology 122L – Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates Exercise 11 1

8. epiglottis – a leaf-like structure which projects at the base of the tongue;

guards the entrance into the respiratory tract.

B. HYOID APPARATUS and RESPIRATORY TRACT

Press the tongue dorsally against the lower jaw. Clear away the muscles and find its
base. Locate the following starting from the base of tongue:
1. body of hyoid – a narrow bar of the bone at the base of tongue.
2. horns or cornus – extend from the sides of the body of the hyoid.
The hyoid bone supports the base of the tongue and serves for the origin and insertion
of muscles.
3. larynx or voice box – a chamber with cartilaginous walls in the median line
posterior to the body of hyoid.
4. thyroid cartilage – a large shield-shaped cartilage at the ventral wall of the
larynx.
5. cricoid cartilage – a cartilage shaped like a signet ring at short distance
posterior to the thyroid cartilage.
6. glottis – large opening at the top of the larynx.
7. arytenoids – a pair of projecting cartilage which support the dorsal rim of the
glottis between the glottis and the opening to the esophagus.
8. true vocal cords – a pair of lateral folds found on lateral wall of the larynx by
looking into the glottis.
9. false vocal cords – lateral to the vocal cords; will be seen extending from the
tips of arytenoids to the base of epiglottis.
10. esophagus – a soft tube whose opening is dorsal to the glottis; generally
collapsed and concealed from view by portions of the larynx.
11. trachea or windpipe – a tube of cartilaginous rings posterior to larynx; Its rings
are incomplete dorsally leaving a soft strip in the dorsal wall of the trachea
into which the esophagus fits.
12. thyroid gland – one of the lobes of a flattened elongated body on each side of
the trachea; the anterior end of each lobe is at level with the cricoid
cartilage.

C. THE PLEURA and PERICARDIAL CAVITIES

The trunk of mammals is divided into an anterior thoracic region and a posterior
abdominal region. Each of these regions contains cavities which are portions of the
coelom. The thoracic region has three coelomic cavities: the two pleural cavities,
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9Biology 122L – Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates Exercise 11 1

laterally located and the median pericardial cavity, situated between the two pleural
cavities.
With the bone scissors, make a cut through the ribs one-half inch to the left side of the
sternum. At each end of this, cut laterally and dorsally between two adjacent ribs at
right angles to the first cut. In this way a flap is formed in the chest wall. Open the flap
and bend it dorsally so that you can look within.
The cavity thus revealed is the left pleural cavity or pleural sac, and a similar sac exists
on the right side.
Distinguish the following:
1. lung – a soft spongy structure within the pleural sac; It is composed of three
lobes: a smaller, anterior, and larger middle, and posterior lobes. Cut into the
lung, it appears solid but is really composed of innumerable minute air-cells
(alveoli).
2. heart – a conical structure in the median region under the sternum.
3. mediastinal septum – a delicate partition which stretches from the heart to the
ventral median line; It consists of two medial walls of the left and right pleural
sacs in contact with each other.
4. mediastinum – a space between the two walls of the mediastinal septum.
5. diaphragm – a muscular dome-shaped posterior wall of the pleural sac;
separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
6. pleura – a smooth moist membrane that lines the pleural sac; the pleura is
divided into:
a. visceral pleura – part of the pleura which passes over the surface of the
lung where it is indistinguishably fused.
b. parietal pleura – lines the inside of the pleural cavity
The anterior surface of the diaphragm and together with the medial wall of other
pleural sac forms the mediastinal septum.
Now carefully cut through the mediastinal septum ventral to the heart and look into the
right pleural cavity. It contains the right lung that is somewhat larger than the left lung.
It is also subdivided into anterior, middle and posterior lobes. The last posterior lobe is
also subdivided into lobules, a medial and lateral. The medial lobule projects into a
pocket formed by a special, dorsally directed fold of the mediastinal septum. This fold,
the caval fold, has the function of supporting the large precaval vein, which ascends
from the liver to the margin end of the caval fold.
Examine the heart and identify:

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9Biology 122L – Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates Exercise 11 1

7. pericardial sac or parietal pericardium – a sac of thin tissue enclosing the heart
but not attached to it except at the anterior end, where the great vessels enter
and leave the heart; The heart is freely movable inside of the pericardial sac.
8. pericardial cavity – a narrow space between the pericardial sac and heart; a
portion of the coelom; cut a portion of the pericardial sac so as to expose the
heart.
9. visceral pericardium – a thin membrane investing the surface of the heart and
inseparably adherent to the heart wall; It is continuous with the pericardial sac
at the anterior end, where blood vessels enter and leave the heart.
As the heart with its pericardial sac is situated in the mediastinum, it is evident that
there are three layers surrounding the heart: the visceral pericardium, the parietal
pericardium, and the parietal pleura of the mediastinal septum which is closely fused to
the pericardial sac.
10. thymus gland – a mass of gland tissue in the median line ventral to the anterior
part of the heart; larger in young specimen
11. radix – or root of the lung, a narrow region which attaches the lung
12. pulmonary ligament – a fold of pleura that attaches the lung along almost of its
length to the dorsal thoracic wall
13. dorsal aorta – a large vessel which is most conspicuous of all structures lying in
the mediastinum
14. esophagus – a tube ventral to the aorta, also lying in the mediastinum; trace it
posteriorly to the place where it penetrates the diaphragm.
Examine the diaphragm and identify:
15. central tendon – a circular connective tissue at the center of the diaphragm;
The remainder of the diaphragm is muscular and is an important respiratory
muscle.
D. PERITONEAL CAVITY AND ITS CONTENTS
Make a longitudinal slit through the abdominal wall a little to the left of the median line
from the inguinal region up to the diaphragm. Widen the opening by a transverse slit in
the middle of the left abdominal wall. A large cavity, the abdominal, or peritoneal
cavity, is exposed. Wash out the cavity if necessary. Within the cavity identify the
following:
1. liver – large lobed, usually reddish structure at the anterior end of the cavity; It
is attached to the diaphragm. It has two major divisions, the right and the left
lobes, each of which is again subdivided into lateral and a median lobe. The left
lateral and right median lobes are larger than the others. Also, the right lateral
lobe is deeply cleft into two lobules. A very small additional division of the liver

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9Biology 122L – Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates Exercise 11 1

is the caudate lobe, a finger-like projection that protrudes posteriorly towards

the stomach.
Raise the liver and press it craniad. Slit the diaphragm on the left side and locate:
2. gall bladder – an elongated structure embedded in the right median lobe cleft.
3. stomach – a large and elongated organ; it is divided into regions:
a. cardia – the area of junction of the stomach and esophagus; and the region
of the stomach adjacent to the junction is called the cardiac end of the
stomach.
b. fundus – saclike bulge of the stomach to the left of the cardia.
c. pylorus – the point of junction between stomach and small intestine;
marked by a constriction.
d. body – the remainder of the stomach.
The shorter, slightly concave anterior surface of the stomach from the cardia to the
pylorus is the lesser curvature; the larger, convex posterior surface, the greater
curvature.
4. spleen – a large organ attached to the left border of stomach.
The peritoneal cavity is lined by a membrane, the peritoneum. As in all coelomate
animals, that portion of the membrane both dorsal and ventral regions the peritoneum
is deflected from the body wall and passes over the surface of the viscera, forming a
covering layer, the visceral peritoneum or serosa for all of the viscera. In passing to and
from the body wall to the viscera the peritoneum forms a double-walled membrane, the
mesenteries or ligaments. The dorsal mesentery is present intact in mammals, and the
ventral mesentery persists in the region of the liver and urinary bladder as in other
vertebrates. The rations of the peritoneum to the organs are somewhat complicated.
Distinguish and locate the following mesenteries:
5. mesogaster – a small portion which extend from the dorsal wall to the
stomach; can be located by raising the fundus
6. greater omentum – large, an extensive sheet that is a portion of mesogaster
that descends posteriorly to cover the intestines; by manipulating the
omentum, determine that it consists of two separate walls. Having formed the
greater omentum, the mesogaster returns to the stomach wall and passes
onto the stomach along the greater curvature.

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9Biology 122L – Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates Exercise 11 1

Do not fully destroy the great omentum, but simply disconnect it from underlying
organs so that at the end of the laboratory period it may be pulled back over the organs;
this will keep the organs moist.
7. gastrosplenic or gastrolineal ligament – a portion of the great omentum
between the spleen and the stomach; The spleen is enclosed in the ventral wall
of the great omentum just before the latter passes to the stomach.
8. gastrocolic ligament – a secondary fusion formed between the mesogaster and
the mesentery of the intestine just posterior to the spleen, near the left kidney.
9. lesser omentum or gastro-hepato-duodenal ligament – a strong ligament
passing from the lesser curvature of the stomach to the posterior surface of the
liver; It is divisible into two portions:
a. gastrohepatic ligament – extends from the lesser curvature to the liver.
b. hepatoduodenal ligament – extends from the liver to the first part of the
small intestines.
That portion of the gastrohepatic ligament which contains the caudate lobe of the liver
forms a sac which continues anteriorly with the cavity of the greater omentum. In the
hepatoduodenal ligament runs the bile duct, which should be traced from the gall
bladder by gently dissecting the ligament. Note the cystic duct from the gall bladder and
the hepatic ducts from the lobes of the liver. The cystic and hepatic ducts unite to form
the common bile duct, which passes to the intestine in the hepatoduodenal ligament. It
should be traced to the duodenum by cleaning away the connective tissue around it.
Note to the right and dorsal to the bile duct, lying also in the hepatoduodenal ligament,
the large hepatic portal vein. Immediately dorsal to this vein, posterior to its branch
into the right lateral lobe of the liver, the hepatoduodenal ligament has a free border
which forms the ventral rim of an opening or slit of same size the foramen epicloicum
or entrance into the cavity of the omentum. It can be identified with certainty by making
a slit into the cavity of the omentum and probing through the slit toward the right.
The lesser omentum extends to the middle of the posterior face of the liver, where it
becomes the serosa of the liver; here its two walls part and, inclosing the liver between
them, pass to the anterior face of the liver, where they again unite to form ligaments.
10. falciform ligament – a thin sheet with a concave posterior border; extends
from between the two median lobes of the liver to the median ventral line.
11. coronary ligament – a stout ligament that is the anterior and dorsal
continuation of falciform ligament which attaches the liver to the central
tendon of the diaphragm; the coronary ligament is circular in form, and its ring
Xavier University-Ateneo de Cagayan Adapted from L Saab & E. Besoro
9Biology 122L – Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates Exercise 11 1

of attachment to the liver bounds a small space on the anterior face of the liver
which is free from serosa.
Now trace the intestine from the pylorus, and identify the following:
12. duodenum – the first portion of the intestine, is bound to the liver by the
hepatoduodenal ligament; It curves abruptly caudad for about two inches and
then turns to the left. The duodenum is supported by a part of the dorsal
mesentery, the mesoduodenum. It is attached to the right kidney by a
mesenterial fold, the duodenal ligament.
13. pancreas – compact, pinkish organ which extends to the left into the dorsal
wall of the greater omentum, dorsal to the greater curvature of the stomach;
located in the mesoduodenum.
14. pancreatic ducts – two, the principal one joins the common bile duct at the
point where the bile duct enters the duodenum; The common, slightly swollen
chamber where bile and pancreatic ducts unite is known as the ampulla of
Vater. The second or accessory pancreatic duct enters the duodenum about
three-quarters of an inch caudad to the principal duct but is not easy to find.
From the duodenum trace the coils of the remainder of the small intestine, and identify:
15. jejunum – next to duodenum.
16. ileum – the remainder of the whole small intestine; Take note that there is no
definite boundary between the two.
The small intestine is supported by a part of the dorsal mesentery, the mesentery
proper. Note the coils of mesentery accompanying the small intestine and the frequent
fusion which occur between these coils.
It is now necessary to withdraw the greater omentum from the coils of the intestine; the
omentum may then be cut across near the spleen and discarded. Follow the small
intestine posteriorly. In doing this it may be necessary also to tear slightly the fusions of
the mesentery, but the structure should be kept as intact as practicable. Identify:
17. large intestine – the enlarged portion following the ileum.
18. caecum – the slight projection that marks the junction of small intestine and
large intestine.
The large intestine or colon passes forward as the ascending colon; then turns and
extends across the peritoneal cavity, from right to left as the transverse colon; and
turns abruptly at the left and proceeds straight posteriorly as the descending colon. The
mesentery of the colon is named mesocolon. At the left where the transverse colon
turns caudad, the mesocolon is fused secondarily to the mesogaster.
19. rectum – the terminal portion of the descending colon

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9Biology 122L – Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates Exercise 11 1

20. urinary bladder – is a sac occupying the posterior end of the peritoneal cavity,
immediately internal to the body wall and ventral to the large intestine; from
the ventral surface of the bladder a mesentery, the median ligament of the
bladder extends to the median ventral line and here continues forward for
some distance. Near the exit of the bladder from the peritoneal cavity there is
on each side a slightly developed ligament, the lateral ligament of the bladder.
21. lymph glands – small bodies which may have been noted in the mesentery,
usually buried in fat, are part of the lymphatic system; Small portions of the
lymphatic tissue called lymph nodules are also abundantly present in the wall
of the intestine. Aggregations of lymph nodules are known as Peyer's patches -
thickened oval spots on the surface of the intestine, of slightly different color
from the rest of the intestinal wall.

Slip open the following parts of the digestive tract along the side opposite the
attachment of the mesentery: (Wash out the interior, if necessary).
1. stomach – note the marked ridges or rugae on its walls.
2. pylorus – note the thickened ridge or pyloric valve.
3. small intestine – observe the velvety appearance due to the villi in its walls;
find also the depression marking the positions of the lymph nodules and
Peyer's patches.
4. caecum – note the elevation, the ileocolic valve, projecting into the ileum.

QUESTIONS:

1. List down the structures by which food passes starting from the mouth until
the anus.
2. Trace the anatomical path of air as it passes from the external nerves to the
alveoli of the lungs.
3. What are the caudal branches of the trachea? Does it divide dorsal or ventral
to the heart?
4. Give the importance of the following:
c. villi in the small intestine
d. rugae in the stomach
e. pyloric valve in the pylorus
Xavier University-Ateneo de Cagayan Adapted from L Saab & E. Besoro
9Biology 122L – Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates Exercise 11 1

5. How does the epiglottis prevent the inhalation of food?

Xavier University-Ateneo de Cagayan Adapted from L Saab & E. Besoro