ABSTRACT

Groundwater travels from a place of higher possible source, examples; recharge, higher raise land area,
higher pressure and higher hydraulic head concentration to places of lesser pressure and raised land
The two-dimensional (2D) model of water flow and contaminant solute transport (advection-dispersion
equations) is obtained through the use of the finite element method (Galerkin scheme) with triangular
elements and linear coordinate. The resulting ODE is discretized with the Crank-Nicolson finite
difference method in time. It covers both homogenous, isotropic aquifers and non-homogenous,
anisotropic aquifers. The solute transport model developed here will help predict solute concentration
of a given groundwater constituent some time ahead to be able to know the risk associated with the
predicted solute concentration and to decide on whether a groundwater remediation measure is
necessary.

CHAPTER ONE

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 1ntroduction

Groundwater refers to all the water underneath the ground’s surface.

According to (Wikipedia 2011) “Hydrogeology is that area of geology that deals with

the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rock of the earth’s

crust”. (Wikipedia 2011) In addition, it is that part of geological sciences that deals

with the flowing of water in aquifers as well as shallow permeable media. A porous

underground rock layer that can store, transmit and supply substantial amount of

water is called an aquifer. Generally, aquifers are considered to be those soil and rock

formation that have enough hydraulic conductivity to allow water to be pumped out

through wells at useable rate. Human activities leading to urbanization, the

development of industries on an extensive scale and improved farming methods are

causing groundwater contamination worldwide, Nigeria included. Dumping of solid

and liquid waste on land has also affected the quality of groundwater adversely.

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“Groundwater contamination has become an important environmental issue which

poses a serious threat to drinking water quality”, (Igboekwe and Uhegbu,2012)

Some of these waste may be intentionally disposed, accidentally spilled, while

others enter the ground through agricultural practices, These solid wastes may in due

course reach and contaminate the groundwater and thus causing a severe harm to the

public. Considering the extraordinarily large quantity of waste water created by

human activities both domestically and industrially, there are very limited ways of

disposal of this waste to the ground to avoid pollution of the groundwater; hence the

subsurface continue to be the receptor. The outcome and movement of liquefied

contaminant in the water underground has caused significant attention owing to

anxiety for the type of water generated from the subsurface. According to Williams

(2012) “Solute transport by flowing water (dissolved suspended particles) has broad

impact in environmental protection and resource utilization via groundwater

contamination”, Williams (2012)

In the previous years, the chief reason intended for any “hydrogeological

studies” had been essentially to ascertain the water resource possibilities of an aquifer.

However, According to Zhang, “the emphasis has shifted from water supply problem

to prediction of the movement of contaminants through the subsurface environment”

Zhang (2012). The emphasis is now on dispersion and transport processes,

degradation and retardation of chemicals; and the ability of low-permeable media to

absorb contaminated groundwater, Anderson (1984). Also, the application of isotopic

breakdown to hydrology , that is, isotopic measurement is actually used to deduce

and describe the flow pathway of groundwater, “recharge, leakage and interactions

with water” on the surface of the ground, is another technological growth. Coplen

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(1993). Isotopes are One or more atoms with similar atomic number but with

dissimilar neutrons numbers .This isotope moves through the groundwater structure

with the same driving energy and processes as do liquefied chemicals. Hence, the

flow of groundwater and the contaminant transport prototypes applied to subsurface

contamination issues are related to isotopic interpretation and dimensions.

In Nigeria, human activities like; sewage disposal, refuse dumps, chemical

fertilizer contaminations, pesticides, toxic and industrial discharge , are contaminating

many aquifers.(Igboekwe et al 2011). Dispersion of pollutants in the subsurface can

also be as a result of human expansion. For managing or rehabilitation of polluted

aquifers, mathematical models are principal tools .The Simulation of underground

water movement and the means of transport of contaminants in aquifers requires the

solution of difficult (PDE) partial differential equations called the Governing

equations and these needs reliable predictions to control and access possible harm to

the public. To forecast contaminant movement in geographical formation precisely

well, analytical results for (PDE) partial differential equations is in existent

nevertheless, because of trouble in finding analytical answers, and their inability to

accurately predict complex dispersive patterns, mathematical solutions are often used.

Carefully worked-out (Numerical) models are extra flexible in dealing with such

complex processes and produce accurate results. The purpose of this thesis is to show

the movement or the flow of contaminants from one point to another in the

groundwater system using numerical method. In particular, the finite element

Galerkin method will be used and the resulting equations discretized with the crank-

Nicolson finite difference in time.

1.2 Background of the study

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 “The word model has so many definitions and is so overused that it is

sometimes difficult to discern the meaning of the word. Konikow and Bredehoeft,

(1992)”. Some definitions of models are given here: “A model is a simplified

representation of a complex system” or, “a model is any device that represents an

approximation of a field situation” Anderson and Woessner, (1992). or, “a model is a

part of the reality for the benefit of a specific purpose.” or: “a model is a computer

code filled up with variables and parameters of the specific system.” The purpose of a

model is: ” to replace reality, enabling measuring and experimenting in a cheap and

quick way, when real experiments are impossible, too expensive, or too time

consuming” [Eppink,1993].

A model can therefore be defined as a demonstration of an actual system and

method. Modeling (also called simulation or imitation) of specific elements of the real

world is of help to most hydrologist, considerably in understanding the hydrological

problem. A groundwater model is a computer based copy of the feature of regular

hydro geographical system that uses the law of mathematics and of science. The two

key components are; mathematical model and conceptual model. The conceptual

models are idealistic representation typically graphical, of hydro geological flow

processes of the system, i.e. a proposition for just how a structure or process works.

Mathematical models are collections of equations which, subject to some specific

expectations, denote the physical processes active in the aquifer being modeled to an

extent. “Mathematical modeling is the representation of our so called ‘real world’ in

mathematical terms so that we may gain a more precise understanding of its

significant properties and which may hopefully allow some form of prediction of the

future” (Andrews and Mohan,1989). The behavior of a valid model should replace

that of the aquifer(s), while the model lacks the detailed reality of the groundwater

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system. A groundwater model also gives scientific means to synthesize the known

data into a numerical representation of a groundwater system. The model should

therefore represents the system to an adequate level of accuracy, and provides a

predictive tool to know the effect on the system if any hydrological or pumping or

irrigation is to be done.

The essence of modeling is to deal with real problems and translate these

problems into a mathematical form for discussion to solve the problem, identify

problem identities, estimate, approximate, and advocate the actions that may cost

time and money. Variables (Forecast of state) that defines flow and contaminant

transportation in an aquifer can be found by resolving the mathematical equations

model describing the problems. Groundwater simulations we use now are mostly

deterministic models. These “deterministic models” are developed centered on the

conservation of mass laws, conservation of energy, and also momentum. They

describes causes and influence relation. These groundwater model ( Deterministic)

requires the solutions of (pde) “partial differential equations”.

Groundwater flow model is a device that approximates field situations. There

are two approaches; a physical model which more or less represents the action on

field conditions like laboratory tanks to simulates the flow of groundwater directly.

The other is the mathematical model, which simulates the flow of groundwater by

means of equations that are representing the physical processes of the aquifer

system .It involves the equations governing hydraulic heads or contaminants flow

along the boundary of the system (boundary conditions) and for time dependent

conditions and also equations describing initial heads or concentration distribution

(initial conditions) of the system. As was stated earlier, mathematical models can be

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solved analytically or numerically. Mathematical model solved numerically are the

subject matter of this thesis, focusing on the movement of contaminants from one

point to another.

1.3 Objectives of the work

The purpose of groundwater contaminants transport model is based on three main

objectives namely;

i. Prediction; used for prediction of the future of the consequences of the

proposed works; that is, drawdown, discharge, etc. This requires calibration.

ii. Interpretative; this is used in looking into the monitoring limitations in a site

settings, also as a background for organizing and formulating field records and

notions about a given system forces at work. It does not necessarily required

calibration. eg, regional aquifer system analysis.

iii. Generics; used to analyze flow in hypothetical sys

The objectives of this work are as follows:

(i) To develop a generic finite element model that is simple, easy to

understand, available and that would solve the two dimensional (2D)

groundwater flow and advection-dispersion equations describing

contaminant transport in an aquifer.

(ii) To develop a software for the model.

(iii) To apply the developed model on a 2D homogeneous, isotropic

hypothetical system.

1.4 Significance of the study

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 The solute transport model developed here will help predict solute

concentration of a given groundwater constituent some time ahead to be able to know

the risk associated with the predicted solute concentration and to decide on whether a

groundwater remediation measure is necessary.

1.5 Scope of the study/limitation of study

This work solves two dimensions (2D) equations of water flow in the

subsuface and contaminant solute transport (advection-dispersion equations) through

the use of the finite element method (Galerkin scheme) with triangular elements and

linear coordinate. The resulting ODE is discretized with the Crank-Nicolson finite

difference method in time. It covers both homogenous, isotropic aquifers. and non-

homogenous, anisotropic aquifers.

In chapter three ,we will be deriving the mathematical solute transport

model .This is practically derived, by the use of the Fick’s law of dispersion and the

law of conservation of mass .These laws make use of the hydro-geological flow

processes and contaminants transport to formulate the “differential equations

governing flow and contaminant transport in groundwater”. In particular , we will be

showing that this model adopts that the “driving force is the gradient or

concentration” and also that by the Fickian model, “the dispersive flux occurs in a

direction from higher concentration towards lower concentrations of contaminants”

Finite element approximations to the 2D groundwater flow and advection-

dispersion equations will also be the subject matter of chapter three. That is, we will

be deriving the finite element (Galerkin scheme) for the solution of the groundwater

flow equation and the contaminant solute transport equation. The resulting time

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derivative will be discretized using the Crank-Nicolson finite difference method. To

do this, we are going to need to have a clear understanding of the finite element

Galerkin weighted residual method.

Finally, application and discussion of results will be treated in chapter four.

A program will be written mainly for that. That is,we will now apply the given model

to a hypothetical problem.The given problem aquifer is a simple rectagular domain

and it is assumed to be isotropic, homogeneous and two dimensional.

1.6 Definition of terms

Before proceeding in obtaining a “mathematical model of the groundwater

flow” and of the contaminant transportation in an aquifer, accurate information of the

aquifer physical properties and its borderline conditions must be known. In order to

further characterize aquifers, primary and derived physical properties are defined

below. For a proper management and assessment of any groundwater contaminant,

understanding of the complication of its developments is necessary

Definition 1.6.1 Hydraulic head

“Heads (Hydraulic head) or piezometric head is a measurement of water pressure

above a geodetic datum in an aquifer”. A geodetic datum is a reference from which

measurements are made. The measurement can be from the deepness to water in a

well (“a specialized water well”), measurement of the circulation of hydraulic head

in an aquifer decides where water flows. Variations in the hydraulic heads (h) are the

main forces which allow water to transfer from one point in the aquifer to the other. It

is made up of the “pressure head and the elevation head”. “The changes in hydraulic

head per length of flow path, and which appears in Darcy’s law as being

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proportional to the discharge is called the head gradient, A record of hydraulic head,

through time at a well is a hydrograph or, the changes in hydraulic head recorded

during the pumping of a well in a test are called drawdown” (Kumer ,1992)

1.6.2 Porosity

Porosity (θ ) is a “fraction between 0 and 1” which indicate the quantity of

opening space among soil constituent part which are unconsolidated or inside cracked

rocks. “The porosity of soil or fracture rock is defined as the ratio of void volume to

total volume” Wanielista, 1990; Bedientt and Huber, 1992.

V v ( V −V s ) Vs
“ θ= = =1−
V V V

θ= porosity
Where V v =volume of void with sand
V =total olume of sample ( soil )

V s =volume of the solid within the soil

= dry weight of sample / specific weight.

The porosity may range from a small fraction to about 0.9. Typical values of

porosity are 0.2 to 0.4 for sand and gravel and 0.1 to 0.2 for sandstone”( Wanielista,

1990). Typically, a high percentage of ground water “(and anything dissolved in it)

moves through the porosity available to flow (sometimes called affective porosity)”.

( Mitsios et al 2009) “Porosity does not affect the distribution of hydraulic head in an

aquifer directly, but it has a strong effect on the migration of contaminant”

momentum; as it affects the velocity of ground water flow inversely.

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1.6.3 Hydraulic conductivity

“Hydraulic conductivity (k) is the quantity of water that will flow through a

unit cross-sectional area of a porous media per unit time under a hydraulic gradient of

1.0 at a specific temperature” (Nelson, 1994). The term permeability (P) and

hydraulic conductivity (k) are used interchangeable. Both are measures of an aquifer’s

capability to transmit water under saturated and unsaturated conditions.

1.6.4 Transmissivity

This is the percentage of flow of a liquid through a straight down strip of a

medium which is single unit wide and also extends the complete water-logged depth

of the medium. Transmissivity is expressed in length 2/time. Since the thickness of an

unconfined aquifer will change as the aquifer storage changes due to variation in

aquifer recharge and discharge, the transmissivity of an unconfined aquifer is not

constant, it will change.

It also refer to the capability of an aquifer to produce water. “The product of

the hydraulic conductivity or permeability and the saturated thickness b of the aquifer

is the transmissivity”, i.e, T = Kb.

1.6.5 Specific storage or Storativity

“Specific storage (Ss) or its depth integrated equivalent, Storativity, S = S sb”,

is the amount of water released from storage of a confined aquifer. Both cannot be

measured directly. Their numerical values are fractions lying between 0 and 1.

Another aspect of specific storage is the specific yield (Sy).Which is also a ratio

between 0 and 1 . The specific yield is always a value which is not more than or

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equivalent to the porosity of the aquifer and shows the quantity of water released

during drainage in an unconfined aquifer. For confined aquifers, Storativity lies

between 0.005 and 0.00005.

1.6.6 Properties Of Contaminant transport

In this thesis we are interested in the way the moving “groundwater is flowing,

based on the hydrologic properties above” and also the following added aquifer

properties which explains how liquefied solute travel with the groundwater.

Hydrodynamic dispersion

These, (α L,, α T ) are factors which shows how much contaminant flow away

from the water flow path carrying it. “Some of these pollutants will be "behind" or

"ahead" the mean groundwater, this give rise to a longitudinal dispersivity (α L), while

some will be "to the sides of" the advective groundwater flow, this is a transverse

dispersivity (αT)”. They occurs in groundwater due to the fact that each water

"particle", moving past a soil particle, must select, whether “to go left or right’ , “up

or down”, hence the water "particles" (and contaminants) are progressively scattered

in all directions about the flow path. “Dispersivity is actually a factor which

represents our lack of information about the system we are simulating”. Numerous

information about the aquifer which are being estimated when using a “macroscopic

approach” , manifested as an apparent dispersivity.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Historical background

Mathematical model is one of the tools often used in water contaminant

systems. In general, they are used to represent and to forecast the flow of groundwater

and also the transport of contaminants. Groundwater flow and solute transport

analysis have been an active study topic in the last twenty years. “Different authors

have approached this issue from several standpoints regarding different aspects or

hypothesis”. A first assessment of the problem may be seen in Li & Zienkiewicz

(1992). “In this work, the fluid transport through porous media is at the same time,

presented in one or two phases separated by an interface. No chemical reactions or

components interchange between the phases are regarded and the capillary pressure is

given in series form”. In (Schrefler (2001), Pao and Lewis (2012) “a mathematical

framework assuming a multiphase porous system with voids filled with water, water

vapour, dry air and pollutant along with a finite element discretization, is presented.

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Here, the pollutants may be mixed with the fluid phase or they may not, in which

case, a new phase wherein this pollutants flow (immiscible phase) is considered.

Similarly to the previous work, no chemical reaction between pollutant and the other

phases is allowed” Sheng and Smith (2002) “ present a two-dimensional finite

element solution for various contaminants considering advection-dispersion transport

based on their previous work” (Sheng and Smith, 2000). “The media constituent mass

balance (water, air and solute), the energy conservation principle and the equilibrium

equations, describe a partial differential system of equations that may be integrated

using various approaches”. “In Klubertanz et al. (2003), the mathematical framework

for the analysis of the miscible and immiscible flux trough porous media based on

continuum mechanics was presented”. “Huyakorn and Pinder (1983) present a

comprehensive analysis and review of the application of finite-element methods to

groundwater problems”.

“The study of groundwater flow and pollutant transport around waste disposal

sites has been actively executed in many countries. The studies have included hydro-

geological monitoring, 3-Dimensional solute transport modeling in the subsurface and

the measurement of the distribution and biodegradation coefficient in soil around a

waste disposal site” (Christensen, 1993). “Predicting the concentration and range of

future contamination around landfills using mathematical models has developed over

several years and the most suitable method to remediate groundwater contamination

has been studied” (De smelt and Bronders, 1989). “A two-dimensional finite-element

solute-transport model for simulation around a waste disposal sites is documented by

Voss (1984)”. Although many modelers has tried to trackled different range of

transport problems with the available numerical methods,, “there is still much

research currently on developing better mixed or adaptive methods”. “(Carrera and

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Melloni (1987); Neuman (1984); Celia et al. (1990); Gottardi and Venutelli (1994)”,:

Zheng and Bennett (2002),: Zheng (1990).)

2.2 Groundwater and aquifer

Most geological formations called aquifers contains groundwater, these

aquifers are permeable enough to transfer and produce water. Sand and gravel which

are in dunes, alluvial deposits, coastal plains and glacial deposit are mostly “the

common aquifer materials”. “The more porous a material, the higher the capability of

yielding as an aquifer material”. The two types of aquifers we have are; confined and

unconfined. A layer of material which is capable of bearing water overlaid by a

relatively impervious material is called a confined aquifer. when the “confining layer

is impermeable, it is called an aquiclude”. “If it is permeable enough to transmit

water vertically to or from the confined aquifer but not in a horizontal direction, it is

called an aquitard”. (Answers.com 2010). “An aquifer bound by one or two aquitard

is a leaky or semi-confined aquifer. Confined aquifers are completely filled with water

under greater-than-atmospheric pressure and therefore do not have a free water table”.

“Unconfined aquifer is a layer of water bearing material without a confining

layer at the top of the groundwater called groundwater table, where the pressure is

equal to the atmospheric pressure. The groundwater table, sometimes called free or

phreatic surface is free to rise or fall. The groundwater table height corresponds to the

equilibrium water level in a well penetrating the aquifer above the water level ie, the

vadose zone, where water pressures are less than the atmospheric pressure”. (Schrefler

and Pesavento 2004)

2.3 Sources of groundwater pollution

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 “A groundwater contaminant is defined by most regulatory agencies as any

physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or matter in groundwater”.

(Maryska et al 2009). The contaminant can enter into the groundwater by means of

activities that occur naturally like percolating of the soil and mixing with additional

groundwater sources that have dissimilar chemical composition and properties.

Pollutions can also be introduced by intentional human activities like; solid waste

disposal, and farming practices. Major industries and agricultural site has in the past

disposed its waste in an inconspicuous location on their properties.Urban centers

disposes its waste at selected site within its area. Accidental spills of harmful

chemicals have also occurred, often without particular concern for its consequences.

Most method of cleaning a chemical spill involves washing with water until it goes

into the ground. These past waste disposal methods and dealings with spill has not

often considered the potential harm of groundwater contamination. A list of potential

groundwater contamination source is shown in Table 1.0.

2.3.1 Residental waste

Residential waste water system is a source of many categories of pollutants

including bacterial, viruses, organic compounds ,and nitrates from human waste.

Injection wells are usually used for domestic waste water disposal ie septic system, ,

groundwater recharge wells and drainage well for storm water run-off. These wells

are hazardrous to groundwater quality if they are near a drinking water source like

boreholes. Improper disposal of chemicals like paints, solvent, oils, synthetic

detergent , medicines, disinfectants, pesticides, batteries, and diesel fuel can lead to

the contamination of groundwater. With regards to urban waste, land use of the

sewage effluents and sludge is the major contribution to groundwater pollution.

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Table 1. Sources of groundwater pollution (modified after Wilson and Miller
1999)

ORIGIN GROUNDWATER POLLUTION SOURCES

MUNICIPAL INDUSTRIAL AGRICULTURAL INDIVIDUAL
Pollution of Air pollution, Pollution of the air, Pollution of the
At and
the air, waste, chemical Toxic chemical air, detergents,
near the
landspreading storage, and spills, motor parts oil,
surface of
spills. Fertilizer/ pesticide, pesticide and
the land
animal waste, insecticide.
storage facilities
and landspreading
under the Leaking Pipelines,stora storage tanks built Septic and sewer
land
sewer lines, ge tanks built underground, system, poorly
surface
Landfills underground poorly constructed constructed or
or abandoned wells abandoned wells

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2.4 Modelling purpose

The need for groundwater modeling arises from the fact that the second order

partial differential equations governing the behaviour of the contaminant transport are

complex and are not solvable by direct analytical solution. “Groundwater models try

to circumvent these difficulties by either simulating the behaviour of the aquifer

system in a small scale or using simplifying assumptions or numerical approximations

of the governing equations”, (Kumer 2002). “Different models have been used for

simulating ground water flow and transport of pollutants. These transport models can

be divided into two groups; physical and mathematical model as earlier stated”,

(Mitsios et al 2009). The physical model for modeling of groundwater flow can be

classified as analog and scale models . “The scale models are actual replicas of an

aquifer that have been scaled down for study in the laboratory. It has been reported

that only few researchers have used the physical models for simulating ground water

flow”. (Mohan and Muthukumaran 2004). “Analog models are based on the fact that

there exists direct analogy between groundwater flow and some easily measurable

phenomenon from a different field of study. Analog models have been used to study

the groundwater flow in porous media but they are not applicable to the movement of

contaminants in groundwater”.

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 The advantages of a mathematical methods are many compared to other

methods. They can represent “complex physical structures and irregular geometric

contour of an aquifer”. They are flexible and convenient to use and also stress-free to

calculate. Mathematical modeling is now the major tool of groundwater studies .

“The mathematical model can be grouped into three classes namely; Analytical

models, stochastic models and Numerical model”, (Gelhar and Gutjahr 1970).

Analytical models are generated for highly idealized simplifying assumptions and

conditions to find a result for the governing partial differencial equations PDE.

Stochastic modeling involved using a statistical methods on large scale aquifer

figures to create a relationships concerning the properties of the aquifer and its

behavior. In this study, we are interested in the numerical models.

2.5 Numerical models

Numerical modeling techniques involves using “numerical methods that are so

big” that they required usage of computers and programs that can do multiple

iterations to arrive on an answer. The two most popularly used numerical techniques

for groundwater problems solving are the “finite difference method and the finite

element method”. There are two main kinds of numerical methods. These are the

“gridded or discretized” method and the “non-gridded or mesh-free method”. “The

finite difference method and finite element method solves the groundwater flow

equation by breaking the problem area (domain) into small elements( squares,

rectangles triangles, blocks, tetrahedron, etc) and solving the flow equation for each

element” , (Konikow 1996).

2.5.1 Finite difference method/ model

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 Finite difference method is the represention of continous differential operators

∆x and ∆t, using discrete interval. The finite difference method are based on these

facts; that they are resulting from Taylor series. “Finite difference methods may be

used to solve contaminant transport equations, either using the backward, the forward

or the central differencing method”.. These however, result in “artificial oscillation ie

under or over shooting and numerical dispersion due to the truncation of numbers

errors in the discretization”. “There are several advanced text books that focus

primarily on finite-difference methods ; Peaceman (1977); Remson et al. (1971); Von

Rosenberg (1969)”.

(1) Modflow, which is a three-dimensional model, “is a well-known example of a

general finite difference groundwater flow model. It is developed by the U.S

Geological survey as modules and extensible simulation tool for modeling

groundwater flow. Many more models have grown up around it”. (McDonald and

Harbaugh 1988).

(2) “ Chemflo (Simulates Water and Chemical Movement in Unsaturated Soils):

Chemflo is an interactive software system for simulating one-dimensional water and

chemical movement in unsaturated soils. Chemflo was developed to enable decision-

makers, regulators, policy-makers, scientists, consultants, and students to simulate the

movement of water and chemicals in unsaturated soils. Water movement is modeled

using Richards’s equation. Chemical transport is modeled by means of the

convection-dispersion equation. These equations are solved numerically for one-

dimensional flow and transport using finite differences. Results of Chemflo can be

displayed in the form of graphs and tables” ( Website.USGS Groundwater software

2012).

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2.5.2. Applications of FEM. ( finite element models )

FEM is a very well-known method used in solving the governing partial

differential equations of groundwater flow and solute-transport, (Wikipedia 2011). Its

application to problems of solid mechanics started in the early 1950’s, whereas by the

mid of the late 1960’s , it was being used to solve the groundwater flow equation with

some success, (Lewis and Schrefler 1998). When groundwater modellers began to

look at transport problems in the early 1970’s, they noticed that solving the advection-

dispersion equation by the finite difference method encountered numerical dispersion

to a certain extent. As such, they turned to the finite element approach, as the

occurrence of numerical dispersion ( point values of independent variables spreading

widely and jumping nodes) was less dominant (though still possible). FEM is a

mathematical procedure for generating estimated solution to a widespread variation of

problems in engineering sciences. Huebner (1975) “describes four different

approaches to formulate the finite element method for a problem, which are; the direct

approach, the variational approach, the weighted residual approach, and the energy

balance approach”. In groundwater flow problems, the approach usually used is the

weighted residual and the variation approach.

FEM uses a notion of “Piecewise approximation”. The domain, ie, the area of

the aquifer to be stimulated, is shared into “a set of elements”. This elements might

be of diverse sizes and shapes. Most computer packages of FEM uses “one shape

element, commonly triangular elements”. “In the groundwater model MODFE

(Torak, 1993; Cooley, 1992), triangular elements are used, whereas in the

groundwater model SUTRA (Voss, 1984), quadrilateral elements are used”. Values of

the independent variables like heads or concentrations are gotten at nodes of the

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shapes, these are the vertices of the elements, “a simple equation describes the value

of the independent variable in the elements. This simple equations are called the basis

functions and each node has an associated basis function. Simplest basis functions

used are linear functions”, The following; “Huyakorn and Pinder (1983), Huebner

(1975), Zienkiewiez (1971), Wang and Anderson (1982), and Cooley (1992)” gave

additional explanation of the technique. Finite element model programs are flexible in

design and there are as many models available. Typical examples include;

(1) “3DFEMFAT: This is a 3-Dimensional Finite-Element Model of Flow and

Transport through Saturated-Unsaturated Media. Typical applications are infiltration,

wellhead protection, agricultural pesticides, sanitary landfill, radionuclide disposal

sites, hazardous waste disposal sites, density-induced flow and transport, saltwater

intrusion, etc. 3DFEMFAT can do simulations of flow only, transport only, combined

sequential flow and transport, or coupled density-dependent flow and transport. In

comparison to conventional finite-element or finite-difference models, the transport

module of 3DFEMFAT offers several advantages:

i. It completely eliminates numerical oscillation (a regular

periodic variation in value about a mean) due to advection

terms

ii. It can be applied to mesh Peclet numbers ranging from 0 to

infinity

iii. It can use a very large time step size to greatly reduce

numerical diffusion, and

iv. The hybrid Lagrangian-Eulerian finite-element approach is

always superior to and will never be worse than its

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 corresponding upstream finite-element or finite-difference

method.

Because of these advantages, 3DFEMFAT is suitable for applications to large field

problems. It is flexibile and versatile in modeling a wide range of real world

problems.” ( Website-Scientific software group (2012), Molson and Martin( 2000))

(2) “AQUA3D (3-D Groundwater Flow and Contaminant Transport Model):

AQUA3D is a program developed to solve three-dimensional groundwater flow and

transport problems using the Galerkin finite-element method. AQUA3D solves

transient groundwater flow with inhomogeneous and anisotropic flow conditions.

Boundary conditions may be prescribed nodal head and prescribed flow as a function

of time or head-dependent flow. AQUA3D also solves transient transport of

contaminants and heat with convection, decay, adsorption and velocity-dependent

dispersion. Boundary conditions may be either prescribed nodal concentration

(temperature) or prescribed dispersive mass (heat) flux”. ( Website-SSG 2012)

(3) “ChemFlux (Finite Element Mass Transport Model): ChemFlux is a stable

finite element contaminant transport modeling software. It is a finite element software

package characterized by automatic mesh generation, automatic mesh refinement and

automatic time-step refinement. ChemFlux can also import groundwater gradients

from the SVFlux groundwater modeling package. Predicting the movement of

contaminant plumes through the processes of advection, diffusion, adsorption and

decay is possible. The ChemFlux design module provides an elegant and simple user

interface. Problem geometry and groundwater gradients may be imported from the

SVFlux software”, (Reeves et at 2008).

22
(4) “FEFLOW (Finite Element Subsurface Flow System): FEFLOW is a finite-

element package for simulating 3D and 2D fluid density coupled flow, contaminant

mass (salinity) and heat transport in the subsurface. It is capable of computing;

i. Groundwater systems with and without free surfaces (phreatic aquifers,

perched water tables, moving meshes)

ii. Problems in saturated-unsaturated zones

iii. Both salinity-dependent and temperature-dependent transport

phenomena (thermohaline flows) and

iv. Complex geometric and parametric situations. The package is fully

graphics-based and interactive. Pre-, main- and post processing are

integrated. There is a data interface to GIS (Geographic Information

System) and a programming interface. The implemented numerical

features allow the solution of large problems. Adaptive techniques are

incorporated” ( Kipp 1987)

(5) “FLONET/TRANS. This is a 2-D groundwater flow and contaminant

transport model. The modeling offers all the merit of finite-element modeling,

together with a logically, graphically and intuitive interface that makes finite-element

modeling easy and fast . It also uses the dual form of the hydraulic potentials and

streamlines to derive the groundwater flow equations and create correct and precise

flownet diagrams for a two dimensional, groundwater flow system that is saturated. It

also simulates the advective and dispersive contaminant transport problems that have

spatial variable retardation and many source terms”.

(6) FLOWPATH ; This is a 2-D Window Groundwater Remediation, Flow and

Wellhead Safety Model. “It is a comprehensive modeling environment specifically

23
designed for simulating 2-D groundwater flow and contaminant transport in

unconfined, confined and leaky aquifers with heterogeneous properties, multiple

pumping wells and complex boundary conditions”. Typical uses of the program

consist of:

i. To determine the remediation of well capture zones

ii. To delineate well-head protection areas

iii. To Plan and improve pumping well sites for dewatering schemes

iv. Determining pollutant outcome and the contact in the flow pathways

for threat assessment

(7) MicroFEM: This is a finite element program for multiply Aquifer, steady

state and transient groundwater flow models .Confined aquifers, ‘semi-confined

aquifers, stratified and leaky multi aquifer systems can be simulated. maximum of 20

aquifers” (Website Microfem softwares:http://www.microfem.com 2011) Micro-

Fem7 is a computer code for groundwater modelling in saturated multiple

hydrogeologic systems (confined, leaky and unconfined). From version 2.50 on, also

transient groundwater flow can be modelled. Micro-Fem can be applied for single

density regional groundwater flow. Using the finite element method, Micro-Fem can

simulates a 2D horizontal flow in multiple layers and a 1D vertical flow within the

layers, using a finite difference technique. It also handles multiple time varying

sources with spatial and temporal varying boundary conditions, with unconnected and

connected streams, and evapotranspiration linearly changing from depth to the water

flowing undernearth. Micro-Fem can simulate drains, streams, evapotranspiration,

heterogeneous aquifers and aquitards, and anisotropy. “The software supports mesh

generation, input preparation, model computation, graphic postprocessing and plotting

24
of results”. The code, version 3.1 [Scientific Software Group,1996]. is able to solve

sixteen hydrogeologic systems (aquifers or sublayers). The domain is subdivided into

triangular elements, interconnected through nodes (version 2.0: 3000 nodes, 6000

elements; version 3: 4000 nodes per aquifer for the 640 kB RAM version and 12,500

nodes for the Extended Memory RAM version). Water balances can be presented for

each aquifer or subarea. The code is created on the finite element technique (’Fem’)

for calculating heads. Micro-Fem consists of a pre- and postprocessor for easy data

handling. Its capability, and flexibility in representing field geometry that are complex

has made Micro-Fem a recommended and widely used groundwater flow modelling

program in the world. An overview of the programmes of the Micro-Fem code

version 4.0 is here provided:

i. FemGrid is used to generate a triangular mesh for irregular

geometries.

ii. FemCalc to calculate nodal heads and internal and external fluxes.

iii. FeModel of which : PREPROCESSOR is used to modify the grid, to

specify and to change aquifer parameters, discharges and extractions

and boundary conditions, and to provide a graphical representation of

an entered data and POSTPROCESSOR is used for observing,

analysing, presenting and interpreting model results, such as contour

lines of heads, travel times.

iv. FemPlot is for ploting (hardcopy) of the grid mesh, the distributing of

heads, and aquifer model properties, flowlines and travel times.

v. FeMerge is to compile a new model based on an existing model and

new mesh data.

25
 vi. FemMesh (optional) is normally used to generate grid for complex

system that requires gradually changing node spacing. This is use to

accomplish high variations in spacing.

vii. FemCat (optional) to calculate transient flow which includes eg,the

display of time series of heads for a selected node.

viii. FemPath (optional) to generate 3D particle tracking. Display of

individual flow lines are included.

ix. FemInvs (optional) is used to automatically calibrate a Micro-Fem

aquifer model in a steady state with horizontal flow up to 16 layers

(based among others on nonlinear regression). In version 4.50 (1998)

and 5 (1999) of Micro-Fem, a few new programs have been

implemented:

FemCat calculates transient situations, FemInvs automatically calibrates steady state

Micro-Fem models, and F3Model traces three-dimensional flowlines.

(8) FEFLOW: “Density-dependent flow with mass and heat transport,

saturated/unsaturated zone, confined and unconfined aquifers, and multiple free

surfaces for perched water tables”. (http://www.scisoftware.com,), Wikipedia (2011).

(9) FEMWATER: “They include saturated/unsaturated, density dependent, flow

and transport. They include modules for simulating evaporation/infiltration/seepage

on the soil-air interface and adsorption/dispersion/first-order decay”.

(http://www.scisoftware.com).

26
(10) Watflow/3D: “Heterogeneous confined/unconfined aquifer systems,

saturated/unsaturated conditions. Deformable elements for the free surface. Includes

modules for parameter sensitivity and automatic calibration” , (Beckers et al., 2000).

(11) SVFLUX 2D; Represent the subsequent level in seepage examination

programs. Planned to be less complex and operative, the program offers structures

that allow emphasis only on seepages solutions.

2.5.3 Finite difference method versus the finite element method

Both the finite difference and the finite element method are most widely used

numerical techniques for solving mathematical models. These two groups have the

division of the domain into elements in common and the generation of one differential

equations for each element node. In the case of finite difference models, the elements

have to be rectangular, whereas in case of finite element models, not only rectangular

but also triangular elements may be used. In conclusion, the need for a rectangular

grid is a major disadvantage of the finite difference method, as irregular shaped

boundaries cannot be accurately and efficiently accounted for. But then, with the

advance of fast computer systems, one can easily increase the number of elements

and, as such, irregular shaped geometries can be followed more accurately. Finite

element grid is easy to change since nodes can be added or deleted without

redesigning the entire grid system. This is in contrast with a finite difference grid,

although sophisticated preprocessors can relieve the effort to redesign the grid (e.g.

Visual MODFLOW).

27
 In addition, when the exact representation of the boundaries is important, a

finite element method is preferred above a finite difference method. In a model based

on the finite difference method, the number of nodes that are outside the boundaries

of model domains, the so-called inactive nodes, should be minimised. These inactive

nodes are not always part of the solution but still use up most of the storage space.

Still, the finite difference method is used in many computer codes, such as

MODFLOW, and they serve very well. It is important to note that the computations

result in values at nodal points. This means that the piezometric head is determined

for a certain area around these points. So the piezometric head is an average for the

so-called influence area. In areas of interest a more dense grid may be required. In

the finite difference method, fluxes through a boundary are inserted over the area of

the elements, whereas in finite element method, boundary fluxes are inserted in the

node. The finite difference method can cope with anisotropy provided that the

anisotropy is described to directions parallel to the sides of the elements. In addition,

for solute transport, the finite element method is superior to the finite difference

method, as they can handle the anisotropy of the dispersion tensor. As such, it is

possible to seek a compromise between stability and numerical dispersion.

Unfortunately, the finite difference method is less easy to explain and far less easy to

program than the finite element method. For defining a grid for the finite element

method, it consumes much time to set up an input data file, though rapid

preprocessors are available to relieve the effort. But in all, the finite element is the

best when solving the transport equations ,(Kumer 2001)

Although, so many finite element model exist for solving groundwater

contaminant problem, many of them are sophisticated and unavailable for researchers

who would want to solve a local contaminant problem using numerical models,

28
without having to develop one. This thesis presented a Galerkin finite element model

which is simple and will be of help to such researchers . The programs is written in

Q-basic,which is simple to understand. However, one would have to look for

softwares that would descritized the problem domain. In this thesis, MICROFEM is

used.

2.6. Dimensional analysis

When models are developed, we use dimensional analysis techniques to check

the mathematics abstraction of the physical problem, all of which present quantity

which can be measured and measurements that have no units have no meaning. This

implies that we will be very careful of “units of measurement for all quantities

involved in the model building process”. Quantities are often expressed in terms of

units, example, Velocity in meters per second, Force in newton etc.

The fundamental units in which other quantities are usually measured are

mass, length, and times, each is independent of other two and neither does a unit of

one affect our choices of the others. From the units, we can derive other units. By

denoting the quantities like “mass, length and time by the letters, M,L,T”; then the

velocity, which is the unit of distance covered in a unit time can be expressed as L/T

and acceleration as

L T = L × I = L =¿-2
÷
T T T T2

These are called the dimensions of the physical quantities. Again, density which is

mass per unit volume, has its dimension as ML -3, since mass is M and volume is L -3

that is

29
 mass
Density =
volume

M
¿ 3
=ML -3,
L

Similarly, Force is the product of mass and length per unit time squared.

F¿ mass × acceleration

M × L ML −2
¿ 2
= 2 =ML T
T T

Since, Mass, Length and Time are independent quantities, it is not wise to equate

numerical multiple of them. It is therefore not reasonable to say that it can be greater

than 3 seconds or add them up. All terms in any given equation must have the same

dimension, i.e., it must be dimensionally balanced.

For example in

v 2 =u2+2 as

(LT-1)2¿(LT-1)2+2 ¿LT-2.L)

L2T-2 = L2T-2+2 L2T-2

So dimension of all the terms are the same L2T-2

2.6.1. Significance of dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis can be used in modeling and solving problems.

Dimensions help to check out accuracy. Since the dimension of all terms in an

30
equation must be the same, we will know the correctness of the equation, if we can

identify the dimension of terms in algebraic solutions to the problems.

Examples: given that

v−u
s=
2a

s=ut+at 2

Show if any of these are rational equations.

Solutions:

s has dimension L

u has dimension LT-1

a has dimension LT-2

−1 −1
L T −LT 0
S= −2
= −2
2 LT 2LT

S= L≠ O

This shows that the given equation (i) is not rational.

(ii) s=ut+at 2

Where

−1 −2
U =¿ , S= L, a=¿ , t=T

¿
¿>ut=¿ .∙ T = T =¿L
−1

31
 2
2 LT
a t =¿ .T = =L
2 −2
2
T

So, we can see that all terms in this equation has equal dimensions, hence, it is

rational.

It is always worthy to check on all equations in a model. Modeling mistakes

often show themselves during the check. Constants in equations can be dimensionless

(that is for number) or “can have dimensions”.

Example

If for instance, modeling force (F) on an object that is in motion “due to air

resistance”, assuming that the “magnitude of the force F is directly proportional to the

square of the speed V”, the model of the problem is. ¿ F∨¿ KV 2

We now check the dimensions of this equation,

2
¿ F∨¿ KV

F = Mass multiply by acceleration,

Where

Mass = M,

acceleration( a )=¿−2,V =¿−1

¿> {MLT} ^ {- 2} = K {(LT} ^ {- 1 )2

−2 2 2”
¿> MLT =KL T

¿> M =KL

32
For consistency, let

−1
K be equal ¿ ML ¿

So K must be calculated as KgM −1 .

When dealing with a derivative, the derivative’s dimensions are given by the

ratios of the variables’dimension.

Example

Let P be the “pressure in a fluid at any point, then, pressure gradient in the direction

dp
of z will be
dt

Therefore,

dP −1
=ML T-2/L
dz

that is;

Force Ma L 1 −1 −2
P= = 2 =M . 2 . 2 =M L T
Area L T L

dP
dz []
=[ M . L−1 . T −2 ] .
1
L
= M . L−2 . T −2

This also works for a PDE

−1 −2
∂ p M .L .T −1
= =M . L .T-3
∂t T

The significance of the dimensional analysis includes the following;

33
 i. Any physical quantity can be presented as a “product” and “powers” of

the simple dimensions, M, L, and T. We must make sure that all the

equations in a given model are dimensionally consistent, ie

dimensionally homogeneous.

ii. Dimensional analysis helps one to develop an accurate model. It

indications how some variables must be assembled in respect to each

other.

iii. Dimensionless parameters of variable are used time and again. They

are very useful in models.

iv. They give and indicate the relative importance of various physical

influences.

34
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0. Mathematical Model Of Groundwater Flow and Solute (Contaminant)

Transport

3.1 Introduction:

“Modeling has emerged as a major tool in all branches of science” (Igboekwe

et al.,2011). As earlier stated, models are descriptions that are theoretical, Tools and

procedures that characterize and define approximations of field situations, physical

system or likely occurrences. “Models are applied to a range of environmental

problems mainly for understanding and the interpretation of issues having complex

interaction of many variables in the system. They are not exact descriptions of

physical systems or processes but are mathematically representing a simplified

version of a system”. Mathematical calculations so derived, are referred to as

simulations of real life situations. Groundwater prototypes are always used in the

35
calculation of degrees and route of water movement in an aquifer. Replication of

water movement (flow) in the subsurface needs appropriate understanding of the

complex hydro-geological physical characteristics of the location. This is for the

reason that the reliability, usefulness and applicability of a model hinge on on how

related the governing equations estimated the physical system being demonstrated.

Before producing a model, the subsequent properties should be scrutinized and

understood;

i. Hydro-geologic structure. That is, the aquifers surface thickness,

confining units, and boundary conditions. This boundary conditions

controls the track and degree of groundwater flow.

ii. Hydraulic properties of an aquifer such as the initial, steady state, and

the transient conditions. “The distribution and quantity of groundwater

recharge / discharge; and sources or sinks being referred to as stresses

and they may be constant or transient. Groundwater modeling entails

simulation of aquifer and its response to input/output systems”.

Table 2. describs the development process of a groundwater transport model

3.2. Types of groundwater models

There are generally four types of groundwater models in existence and these

models are also classified according to their typical applications. Table 3. gives

examples of models with areas of application . In this chapter, we will be interested in

developing The Groundwater Solute transport model.

36
“Table.2 . Model Development Process

MODEL DEVELOPMENT Start

Hydrogeological Processess

Flow Transport

↓ ↓

Laws and Mathematical Formulations

Differential equations

Numerical approximation to

differential equations

MODEL APPLICATION Complex System

Start

37
 Conceptual Model

Model selection

Data collection

Model run

output / interpretation

Table 3. Groundwater Models Classification Based On Applications

Model APPLICATION

1. Groundwater flow models. This model can be applied to water resource

water supply problems are commonly problem, aquifer (regional) analysis,

defined by only a single equation in terms Proximate contaminant well analysis,

of the “hydraulic head”. The prototype Groundwater and the shallow water

providing result to this one equation is called communications, procedures involving

the “groundwater flow mode”. dewatering .

2. Pollutant (contaminant) Transport. The intrusion of Sea water to land,

Once the water quality of the aquifer is the Landfills, radiation waste storage ,Waste

problem being investigated, then an injection, ponds used for holding waste water

additional calculation must be resolved for and Groundwater contamination

the concentration of the contaminant

involved or its chemical sort. This model is

denoted to as a “Solute transport mode”l

3. Heat transport. Application is in Geothermal, Heat pump,

38
Set of equations like that of solute transport Thermal storage and pollution

equations are used to model problems

involving heat .this is normally stated in of

the temperature.

4. Deformation Land subsidence; This is the movement of

“This model combines a groundwater flow the land as it sinks downward compared

model with a set of equations that describe to a datum such as the sea level.

aquifer deformation”.

3.3. Governing equations

It is established that groundwater travels from a place of higher possible

source, examples; recharge, higher raise land area, higher pressure and higher

hydraulic head concentration to places of lesser pressure and raised land. This means

that the route of groundwater flow perfectly trails the land structure of the surface.

Hence cracks in rocks, and interconnected pores make the rock an absorptive material.

Many absorptive (porous) materials permit fluid to travel some meters in a day,

although some permit fluid travel a few “centimeters in centuries”. In actual

subsurface scenario, groundwater runs in a composite three dimensional plane. The

law of Darcy in 3D is similar to that of 1D, most often derived using a “representative

fixed control volume element of fixed dimensions usually a cube”. “Governing

equations” for groundwater movement and the contaminant transportation are

derived and developed below:

Mass balance must be done and used with the law of Darcy to derive the

“transient groundwater flow equation. this is simply an expression of accounting, that

39
for a given “control volume”, aside from source or sinks, mass in the system cannot

be created nor destroyed”. We state the following theories;

Conservation of Mass

“The conservation of mass states that for a given increment of time ( ∆ t ¿the

difference between the mass of water flowing in across the boundaries, the mass

flowing out across the boundaries, and the sources within the volume, is the change

in storage i.e.

∆ M ST M ¿ M out M generate
= − − ” 3.0
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t

“This statement of conservation of mass (or continuity equation) may be combined

with a mathematical expression of the relevant process to obtain a differential

equation describing flow or transport”, Dominica et al (1998), Freeze et al (1979).

Bear (1997)

Darcy law

An engineer, H. Darcy In 1856, was at work on a physical model using sand to

sieve water source for a city in France. He did some research laboratory tests to

determine the governing features of the degree of water flow through sand. His

experiments outcomes explained the “empirical principle of groundwater flow”, in an

equation well-known as the law of Darcy. The experiment comprises of a “sand-filled

column with a water inlet and outlet” . Manometers (two) measured the hydraulic

heads at two points (inlet and outlet) inside the column labeled “h1 and h2.” The sand

is waterlogged, and a “flow of water which is steady is forced through it at a

volumetric rate of Q with dimensions [L3/T], Q is sometimes called the flow rate or

40
the discharge rate”. Darcy establish that this Q is directly related to the hydraulic head

change ∆ h amongst the two manometers, and inversely related to the distance ∆ s

amongst the two manometers, then directly related to the area A “( cross sectional)

of the column”.

Mathematically, this is written as:

Q ∝∆ h , Q ∝ (1/∆ s) , and Q∝A Therefore we can say,

Q ∝ A ∆ h/∆ s

Merging these results and writing the “differential form” of this equation provides the

“Darcy’s law in one-dimensional flow:

Q=− K A ( dhds )”
Q = discharge rate. The minus sign implies that head reduces in the path of flow. If

movement is in the up direction, then Q is positive and dh/ds is negative.

Otherwise,the reverse is the case. K, “the constant of proportionality, is taken to be

the hydraulic conductivity in the given direction, this is a property of the used porous

medium and the water filling the pores”. Common used units of hydraulic

conductivity are the “meters/year for regional studies, m/day for local aquifer-scale

studies, and cm/sec for laboratory studies”.

Another way of representing the law of Darcy is in terms of the the flux (q)

called the “Darcy flux, or the Darcy Velocity/ the Specific Discharge. This is the

discharge rate per unit area: mathematically written as;

q = Q/A

41
 = - KA(dh/ds)/A

= - K (dh/ds) 3.0a

q has unit of velocity [L/T]”. The flux is not the real “fluid velocity” in the permeable

media. A fluid velocity through a porous medium is directly related to the hydraulic

gradient and inversely related to the length .This is given by

K ∆h
V= 3.0b
L

V = fluid flow velocity

∆ h=head difference and L = length,

K = hydraulic conductivity.

“The rate of flow of water through a porous media is then related to the properties of

the water, the properties of the porous media and the gradient of the hydraulic head ,

as represent by Darcy’s law”, which can be written as

∂h
q i=−¿ kij 3.0c
∂ xj

Where qi is the specific discharge, LT, h is hydraulic head, L, and k ij is the hydraulic

conductivity of porous media which is determined by the size of pore opening in any

aquifer. Transmissivity is one more major term which is also an indication of the

water resource capability of any aquifer. Aquifer “transmissivity is simply T = Kb” .

here, b is saturate thickness of the aquifer.

Definition 3.0. “When the hydraulic conductivity in the x-direction

( horizontal) is not equal to the conductivity in the y-direction( vertical) ie, k x≠ ky

42
the material is said to be anisotropic. But when they are the same is all direction, the

phenomenon is called isotropy”.

3.3.1. Derivation of groundwater flow equation.

General continuity equation assumptions are;

i. The medium is non-deformable ie, no inelastic deformation

ii. Fluid is of nearly constant density

iii. Darcy’s law applies.

Considering the mass balance diagram of fig. 1.

qy

Fluid element x qx dz

y dx dy

qz

43
Fig. 1 . “Representative Fixed Control Volume Element RFCVE (Mass balance

diagram)”.

Law of mass balance + Darcy’s law = Governing equation for groundwater flow.

Statement of mass conservation (or continuity) for transient flow is basically the

following;

Volume in−¿volume out = change in storage

Volume into face x: qxAx = qxdy d z

Volume into face y: = qydx d z ..

Volume into face z : = qz dx dy

Total volume inflow :

= qxdy d z+ ¿ qydx d z +¿ qzdx dy

Outflow from x direction

∂
= qxdy d z+ (qx)dx dy d z
∂x

44
 ∂
= (qx + (qx)dx )dy d z
∂x

Similarly the outflow from y and z direction;

∂
(qy + (qy) . dy ). dx . d z
∂y

and

∂
(qz + (qz). d z ). dx . dy
∂z

Total volume outflow

∂ ∂ ∂
= (qx + (qx). dx ). dy . d z + (qy + (qy). dy ). dx d z + (qz + (qz)d z ). dx . dy
∂x ∂y ∂z

Inflow – out

∂
= qxdy d z + qy. dx . d z .+ qzdx dy - (qx + (qx). dx ). dy . d z –
∂x

∂ ∂
(qy + (qy) dy ). dx . d z - (qz + (qz). d z )dx . dy
∂y ∂z

−∂ ∂ ∂
= .(qx)dx . dy . d z− (qy)dx dy d z− (qz)dx . dy . d z
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ ∂ ∂
= −¿ ( (qx) + (qy) + (qz) )dx dy d z 3.0d
∂x ∂y ∂z

−∂
= (Vw)
∂t

But inflow – outflow = rate of change of storage

45
 “the volume of water released from storage per unit change in head h per unit

volume of aquifer V is called the specific change in storage denoted Ss”

that is;

S} rsub {s} = - {∆ {V} rsub {w}} over {∆x.∆y.∆z.∆h} ¿

−∂ ( V w )
or S s=
(V T).∂h

rate of change of storage is now givenby :

−∂ ∂h
(vw) = SsvT( ) 3.0e
∂t ∂t

Where

vT =dx dy d z

Thus combing (3.0d) and (3.0e) we have;

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂h
−¿ ( (qx) + (qy) + (qz) )dx dy d z = SsvT ( )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂h
⇒−¿ ( (qx) + (qy) + (qz) )= Ss( 3.0f
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

∂h
In vector notation, we have −∇ ∙ q = Ss ( )
∂t

Which is the continuity equation

From Darcy’s law,

∂h
qi =−¿ kij i,j = (1,2,3)
∂ xj

46
For the cases where hydraulic conductivity tensor axes are aligned with x,y.z axes ,we

have;

∂h
qx =−¿ kx.
∂x

∂h
qy =−¿ ky.
∂y

and

∂h
qz =−¿ kz
∂z

here “kx, ky, kz are directional hydraulic conductivity. Substituting in (3.0f) we have

∂ ∂h +∂ ∂h +∂h ∂h ∂h
(kx ) (ky ) (kz ) = Ss( )” 3.1a
∂x ∂x ∂ y ∂ y ∂z ∂z ∂t

Which is a heterogeneous anisotropic groundwater flow equation. (Bear (2004),

Konikow (2000), Luckner (2006), Selker et al (1999), Wikipedia (2010).), If the

source or sink term is added and T =Kb ( transmissivity of a confined aquifer), then

the equation for a homogeneous isotropic aquifer becomes;

S
∂h ∂
= T( ) ( ) ( )
∂h
+
∂
T
∂h
+
∂t ∂ x ∂ x ∂ y ∂ y ∂z
∂
T
∂h
∂z
+W 3.1b

W is source or sink term , S =S Sb is the storativity with dimension ( L-1), h is

hydraulic head with dimension (L) and T is Transmissivity L2T-1

Equation (3.1a) is the 3D overall governing equation of subsurface water

movement. Usually, groundwater movement in aquifers is modeled in a 2D horizontal

plane. This is because “most aquifers have an aspect ratio like a laminated sheet of

47
paper, with horizontal dimensions greater than the vertical thickness. In this setting,

groundwater flows along the horizontal plane, which then means that the z component

of the velocity is zero. Therefore, a 2D analysis is carried out in addition to the use of

transmissivity”. And by supposing that h is a component of x and y only thus dh/dz

=0. “This simplification of modeling 3D aquifer flow as horizontal two-dimensional

flow is called the Dupuit-Forchheimer approximation”.

3.3.2 . Seepage velocity

The mixing of contaminants that is liquefied in groundwater obviously will be

affected by the flowing groundwater speed. “The specific discharge” in equation

(3.0c) above, is called the “Darcy velocity. This nomenclature can be misleading at

times because, qi, does not represent the actual speed of water movement, rather, q i

represents a volumetric flux per unit cross-sectional area”. So, to compute the real

leakage velocity , we must take into consideration the real section which flow is

taking place, ie.

−k ij ∂ h
V i= 3.2
θ ∂ xj

Where V i is seepage velocity ( average linear velocity ), with dimension L T −1; and θ is

the “effective porosity of the porous medium”.

3.3.3. Solute transport

Many factors are responsible for the transport of pollutant in the subsurface.

The mass of contaminants that is contained in groundwater expiriences transport and

redistribution with flow. “The main transport processes of concern in groundwater

include; advection, dispersion, adsorption, biodegradation and chemical reaction”

48
(Domenico and Schwartz, 1997). We shall give give a brief explanation for each of

these processes

The movement of a pollutant with the a fluid according to the seepage velocity

in pore space openning is called Advection. “Advection is a mass transport

process due to the flow of water in which mass is dissolved”. The rate and

direction of transport of contaminant correspond with the flow of

groundwater. This process therefore determines when a mass contaminant

dissolved in groundwater at one place is seen at another place. Advection is

determined completely by the seepage velocity. Knowledge of groundwater

flow is directly transferable to understanding advection. Because advection is

the mean transport in groundwater, it is going to be dealt with first when

treating solute transport before we look at more complex phenomena.

i. The joint consequence of two mass contaminant transportation processes in

permeable media eg. molecular diffusion and mechanical dispersion is called

Dispersion. The mass contaminant transport process that occurs due to mainly

heterogeneities properties of the medium and causes changes in the flow

speeds and in the path of flow is called “mechanical dispersion”. A

phenomenon instigated by the non-homogeneous dispersal of the contaminant

concentration is called Molecular diffusion .Combine effect of both the

“mechanical dispersion and the molecular diffusion” now makes the

contaminant extent to a higher area more than that of wholesome advection.

“A process of fluid mixing that result in the development of a mixing zone

within the dissolved contaminant mass and the fluid is called Dispersion or

hydrodynamic dispersion”. Dispersion determines therefore which

concentrations are observed at a place and time. This process is traditionally

49
 described by the contaminant transport parameters; longitudinal and tranverse

dispersivity (α l∧α t )

ii. Adsorption refers to the partitioning of organic pollutant from soluble phase

into the soil . The result is the development of retardation factor (Rd).

iii. Biodegradation represents the changing of some organics matters to simple

carbon-dioxide and water (or intermediate products) by the microbes and/or

bacteria found in soil

iv. Chemical reaction; Some amount of dissolved chemicals may be added or

removed from the water in the subsurface due to the chemical, biological and

physical reaction in the groundwater. In the subsurface, chemical processes

such as acid reaction, volatilization, precipitation, complexation reactions,

hydrolysis, isotopic process, etc. may complicate contaminant transport

further.

3.3.4. Deriving the advection and dispersion equation ADE for solute transport

“An equation describing the transport and dispersion of a dissolved

contaminant in flowing groundwater may be derived from the principle of

conservation of mass (Eq.3.0), just as a general flow equation was so derived. Bear

(1979); Domenico and Schwartz (1998); Konikow and Grove 1977; Bear (1972);

Bredehoeft and Pinder (1973); Reddell and Sunada (1970)”. This equation governing

the migration of dissolved contaminant in groundwater owing to “advection and

dispersion” can be derived by using the conservation of mass methodology as before,

and the law of Fick describing dispersion. “This Fickian model assumes that the

driving force is the concentration gradient and that the dispersive flux occurs in a

direction from higher concentration towards lower concentrations” as earlier stated.

50
The derivation is explained in Ogata and Banks (1970) and Bear (1972) and is

presented in Freeze and Cherry (1979). The assumption is centered on the fact that the

absorbent medium must be homogeneous, saturated and isotropic . Flow must be

steady and Darcy’s law must be applied in the control volume. Flow is defined by the

seepage speed which must transport the liquefied mass by dispersion and advection.

Hydrodynamic dispersion is used to account for the additional spreading cause by

fluctuation in the velocity field. Consider the flux in and out of a control volume. The

conservation of mass statement for contaminant transportation can be specified as

( )
change(Net rate)
of mass of solute =¿
within

In cartesian coordinate, the specific discharge or Darcy’s velocity q, has

components; qx, qy, qz and the average seepage velocity

V = q/θ e

has component Vx, Vy, and Vz. “The net rate of the advective transport is

equal to V”. The solute concentration, C is the mass of contaminant per unit volume

of the solution. The solute mass per unit volume of the porous medium is now θ eC.

For homogeneous mediums with constant effective porosity θ , it follows that;

∂(θC) ∂C
=θ e .( )
∂x ∂x

The quantity of solute transported in the x-direction by advection and dispersion is

then:

Advection transport is

51
 V x θe C dA

while Transport by dispersion is given as

∂C
θe D x dA
∂x

Here Dx is the x-direction hydrodynamic dispersion coefficient and dA is “the cross-

sectional area of the elemental cubic volume. The dispersion coefficient D x is related

to dispersivity α x and diffusion coefficient Dd by the equation”

D x =α x V + D d

This form of the dispersive component is similar to the first law of Fick

If F x is the total solute mass per unit area transported towards the x-direction per unit

time,

∂C
F x =V x θ e C−θe D x
∂x

The minus sign ( -) before the dispersion term indicate that the pollutant travels

towards the area of lesser concentration. Similar expression can be defined for the y

and z –directions, as follows;

∂C
F y =V y θe C−θ e D y
∂y

∂C
F z =V z θe C−θe D z
∂z

Hence total amount of the contaminant entering a fluid element is

F x .dz . dy + F y . dz . dx+ F z . dx . dy 3.3a

52
Similarly, total amount leaving representative fluid element becomes

( Fx +
∂Fx
∂x )
. dx dy dz+ F y +(∂Fy
∂y )
. dy dx dz + F z + (
∂Fz
∂z )
. dz dx . dy 3.3b. equation

(3.3b ) minus equation (3.3a ) is

( F + ∂∂Fx dx) dy dz +( F + ∂∂Fy dy) dx dz +( F + ∂∂Fz dz) dx dy−F . dz . dy−F . dz . dx−F . dx . dy

x
x
y
y
z
z
x y z

= ( ∂∂Fx + ∂∂Fy + ∂∂Fz ) dx . dy . dy

x y z

Because the dissolved contaminant is assumed conservative ie nonreactive, difference

between “flux in and out of the element equals the amount of dissolved contaminant

accumulated inside the element”. Rate of change of mass in the element can be

represented by

∂C
−θ e dx dy dz
∂t

The complete conservation of mass expression, therefore becomes;

( ∂ Fx ∂ F y ∂ F z
+
∂x ∂ y ∂z
+ )
=−θ e
∂C
∂t
3.3c

Substituting the expression for Fx, Fy, and FZ given above into equation (3.3c) and

cancellation of θe from both sides of the equation lead to

[ ( ∂
∂x
Dx .
∂C
+
∂
∂x ∂ y
D y.) (
∂C
+
∂
∂ y ∂z
Dz .
∂C
∂z
−) (
∂
∂x
( V x . C )+ )] [
∂
∂y
(
∂
V y .C ) + ( V z . C ) =
∂z
∂C
∂t ]
3.4a

53
 For an inhomogeneous medium, the “velocity is unsteady and non-uniform i.e

it vary with time and space and the dispersion coefficients vary through space” (but

Dx ≠ DY ≠ D). The 2D form of the advection dispersion equation reduces to

[ (
∂
∂x
Dx
∂C
+
∂
∂x ∂ y ) (
Dy
∂C
∂y
−
∂
∂x
( )] [
V x C )+
∂
∂y
( V y C) ± I=
]
∂C
∂t
3.4b

C is solute concentration, dimensions (ML -3) D is coefficient of hydrodynamic

dispersion, V is “average linear groundwater velocity” or “seepage velocity” with

dimension LT −1 and I is sink or source term .

“Analysis the expression above, on the right, the first term represents the

change in concentration due to dispersion (hydrodynamic). The second term is the

advective transport which describes the movement of contaminant at the average

seepage velocity of the groundwater”. While third term is the fluid source or sink,

which may include the, radioactive decay term, adsorption and ion exchange term the

extraction and injection term. Including all the source or sink terms, we have that

∂c ∂
=
∂ t ∂ xi (
Dij
∂c
)
−
( )
∂ vi c W
∂ x j ∂ x j Rd
Q
+ C0 − C 1−λ C 2
θ θ
3.4c

W is volume of water contaminated per unit time per unit volume , θ is porosity, C 0

is solute concentration at the injection water. Q is volume of water extracted per unit

time volume.C 1 is solute concentration at the source point, λ=¿decay constant andC 2

is the solute concentration undergoing decay;

The retardation factor Rd ¿ 1+( 1+θθ ) β ;

where β is the constant in linear equilibrium.

54
 The advective-dispersive equations is joined with the flow equations using the

“continuity equation” below.

for a two dimensional case;

S
∂h ∂
= T( ) ( )
∂h
+
∂
T
∂h
∂t ∂ x ∂ x ∂ y ∂ y
+W 3.1c

The advection / dispersion equation

[ (
∂
D
∂C
+
∂
) (
D
∂C
∂x x ∂x ∂ y y ∂ y
−
∂
∂x x )] [ ∂ ∂C
(V C )+ ∂ y (V y C ) + I = ∂ t ] 3.4d

As has been earlier mentioned, groundwater flow and contaminant transport flow are

three dimensional flow in a porous domain. But when considering relatively large

aquifer ,it has been established that, the ratio of thickness of the aquifer to

horizontal length result in the flow in the aquifer being practically horizontal. Because

of these observations, the assumption that the groundwater flow is fundamentally two

dimensional is made and built into the “conceptual model”. This leads to flow models

being horizontal two dimensional only.

3.4. Most Boundary Conditions

Apart from the governing equations and the initial conditions in a given model,

mathematical models also required specification of some boundary conditions. These

must be “mathematical statements” made at the borderline of the aquifer. Choice of

boundary conditions is the most important stage in modeling, since an incorrect

boundary condition may lead to severe mutilation in the results. In Mathematical

terms, we have three types of boundaries ;

55
 i. Dirichlet conditions; these are specific head boundary conditions which is

describing “specified head boundaries” for which a particular head is

specified. Examples are: the level of water at a lake or sea. A “specified

head” boundary signifies a steady source of water. eg, when water is drew out

or discharged in the boundary without altering the head at the boundary.

Mathematically, h ( x )=h 0 ( x ) , x ∈∂ Ω, Dirichlet . h0 = specified head along

the boundary ∂ Ω of the modeled domain Ω .

ii. Neumann condition (specific flow boundary),

(q ( x , y , z , t ) =α . ∂∂ hx =q (const , t) )describing specified flow limitations “for

which a flow head is given across the boundary. Instances of specified

flow limits are: natural groundwater recharge (areal drain); groundwater

inoculation or abstraction wells; groundwater spring movement and

underflow, seepage to a hydrologic aquifer. A special Neumann condition

is the no-flow boundary condition”. Setting the flux to be zero is a no-flow

boundary condition. Examples of no-flow boundaries are the groundwater

divide in a catchment area, a streamline (a cross-section perpendicular to

the contour lines of the piezometric head may also be considered as a no-

flow boundary for groundwater problems), a fresh-saline interface in a

coastal aquifer (interface is a streamline boundary) and an impermeable

fault zone. In finite element grids, no-flow boundary conditions are

represented by setting the flux in the node be to zero.

iii Cauchy conditions; these are “head dependent flow” boundary conditions

for which the flux through a particular boundary is solved, if the “value of the

56
 ∂h
boundary head is given. Cauchy condition mostly written as α + βφ = constant, is
∂x

also called mixed boundary condition, since it relates boundary heads to flows. It

depends also on the change among a specified head”, on one side of the boundary

that is supplied by the user and the model ingenuous head at the other side. Examples

of head-dependent flow boundaries are: “leakage to or from a river, lake or reservoir”;

evapotranspiration ”flux across the boundary is proportional to the depth of the water

table below the land surface”.( Franke, O.L.et (1987.))

3.5. The Crank-Nicolson finite element Galerkin [CN-FEG] approximations

of groundwater flow and solute transport equations

In this section, we consider finite element approximations to the 2D

groundwater flow and the advection-dispersion equations derived in the previous

section. That is, we will be deriving the finite- element Galerkin scheme for solutions

of the groundwater flow equation and the solute transport equation derived earlier. To

do this, we must have a clear understanding of the finite element Galerkin weighted

residual method.

3.5.1. Finite element method

The finite element method is a numerical methodology that solves differential

equations by using a“piecewise approximation”. The territory of interest is subdivided

into a large number of interconnected sub-regions called finite elements. The finite

element breakdown of a physical problem can be summarized as follows :

57
 i. Discretization of the area: The physical structure is discretized into a sequence

of finite elements that are linked at a distinct “number of nodal points”.

ii. A matrix expression is established to relate the “nodal variables of each

element” and this will yield an element matrix.

iii. The element matrices then are joint to form a set of arithmetical equations

that defines the entire global system.

iv. Imposed “boundary conditions” are then merged into the accumulated matrix

equation.

v. Finally, set of simultaneous algebraic equations is resolved

Generally, the “finite element method is centered on simple but very

powerful ideas. First, one has to partition the domain Ω, where a particular differential

problem is modeled into a set of sub-domains called elements. Normally, the elements

are usually triangles, tetrahedral, quadrilaterals etc. Based on the partitioning of Ω, a

finite dimensional space of functions is defined so that when the differential problem

is reformulated in this space it is easy to solve. In addition one requires that the

approximation obtained be close to the solution of the continuous problem in an

appropriate sense,” Zienkiewiez and Taylor (2000). In the “finite element, Galerkin

method”, the domain of interest is discretized into small regions called elements”.

Each element consists of nodes. Our aim here is to find the approximated solution to

the set of partial differential equation (derived above) that minimizes the residuals

caused by this approximation. In our study, the triangular elements are used to

discretize the domain,

“Huebner (1975) describes four different approaches to formulate the finite-

element method for a problem, which are: the direct approach, the variational

58
approach, the weighted residual approach, and the energy balance approach . In

groundwater problems, the approach frequently used is either the weighted residual or

variational approach”. The approach used in solving our problem here with the finite

element method is called the weighted residual this is based upon writing our equation

in a completely different form. “(Huyakorn and Pinder (1983), Huebner (1975),

Zienkiewicz (1971), Wang and Anderson (1982), and Cooley (1992)) provide more

comprehensive explanations of the method”.

3.5.2. The CN-FEG scheme for GWFLOW :

Let

n
k (e) =∑ φi(e)(x , y )hi (t) 3.5
i=1

be an approximation of hydraulic head within an element e, where φ i(e) are basis

functions for each node in an element e, n is the number of nodes in an element e and

hi are the yet to be calculated hydraulic head values for each node in an element.

The following steps are taken when deriving the CN-FEG scheme;

Steps.

i. Trial solution with unknown pivot values and interpolation function

ii. Insertion into flow equation leads to residual

59
 iii. Residual is minimized by optimal choice of unknown pivot values at nodes

iv. Minimization uses Galerkin principal (weighting function = interpolation

function)

v. Resulting equation is discretisized with Crank-Nicolson time scheme

Theorem 3.2.1 . Green formula

The most important theorem or formula in this reformulation is the

Green’s formula. Before proceeding further, we state without proof the

following formula called the Green’s formula; This formula states that,

[( )] [( )]
❑ 2 2 ❑ ❑
∂ w ∂ w ∂ w ∂u ∂ w ∂u ∂w
∬ u. 2
+ 2 dxdy =−∬
∂x ∂ y
+
∂x ∂x ∂ y ∂ y
dxdy +∫ u
∂n
dB 3.6a
Ω Ω Γ

Where B signifies boundary and the derivative along the normal ,

∂w ∂w ∂w
= nx + ny. 3.6b
∂n ∂ x ∂y

With transformation of integral given above, using the Galerkin method, we can

develop the Crank-Nicolson finite element Galerkin scheme (CN-FEG) for the 2D

transient groundwater flow and solute transport equations as follows;

A general expression of a 2D groundwater flow equation is as shown in 3.1c;

S
∂h ∂
= T
∂h
+ ( ) (
∂
T
∂h
∂t ∂ x ∂ x ∂ y ∂ y
+W ) 3.1c

where h(x,y,t) is total hydraulic head, T is hydrualic conductivity tensor of the porous

media, W is source or sink term such as well and river, and S is storativity of the

aquifer domain. For confined aquifer, S= s sb. “Where b is the aquifer thickness”, s sis

60
the specific storage of an aquifer. For unconfined aquifer,

S=s y +h s s ,

where s y is specific yield.

Equation (3.1c) can be rewitten into the following form

S
∂h ∂
− T
∂h
( ) ( )
–
∂
T
∂h
∂t ∂ x ∂ x ∂ y ∂ y
−W =0

Using the Galerkin method offers residual minimization. “This will be done

by multiplying each terms of the above equation by a shape functions φ , and then

integrating over the element and equating to zero” as follows

∬ ¿ ¿) −∂
∂y
¿ ))−W ¿ φ dxdy =0 3.7a
Ω

Substituting (3.5) into (3.7a) leads to the following residual

❑ n
∬ ¿ ¿(∑ φi(e)hi)
Ω i=1

−∂ (e) −∂ (e)
¿ i hi)) ¿ i hi))−W ¿ φ j(e)dxdy =0
∂x ∂y

j =1,2,3. 3.7b

We now integrate the 2nd and 3rd term using integration by part and Green’s formular.

For the 2nd term,

∬ ¿ ¿i(e)hi))¿ φ j(e)dxdy 3.7c

Ω

We integrate by setting

61
 ∂ (e)
U =φ j(e) ,∂ V = . ¿i hi)) ,
∂x

which implies that

(e)
∂φ
∂U = j , V =¿i(e)hi))
∂x

Hence (3.7c) becomes

❑ (e) ❑
∂φ
−∬ ¿¿ i hi) j ]dxdy +∫ ¿ ¿ i(e)hi)ds.
(e)
3.8
Ω ∂x Γ

Applying Green’s formular, equation (3.8) becomes;

❑ (e) ❑
−∬ ¿¿ i(e)hi) ∂ φ j ]dxdy +¿ ∫ ¿ ¿ nrhi]ds 3.8a
Ω ∂x Γ

Similarly, the 3rd term in (3.7b) becomes;

❑ (e) ❑
∂φ
−∬ ¿¿ i hi) j ]dxdy +¿ ∫ ¿ ¿ nrhi]ds
(e)
3.9
Ω ∂y Γ

Substituting (3.8a)and (3.9) into ( 3.7b) we have;

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
∂ ∂ φ( e ) (e)
⟹∬ s ¿ hi)φ (je ) dxdy +∬ ¿ ¿ i(e)hi) j ]dxdy −∫ ¿ ¿nrhi]ds+∬ ¿ ¿i(e)hi) ∂ φ j ]dxdy
Ω ∂t Ω ∂x Γ Ω ∂y
❑ ❑
−∫ ¿ ¿nrhi]d Γ −∬ W φ(e)
j dxdy = 0 3.10
Γ Ω

Hence,

62
 []
(e)
∂ φi
❑ n
∬ ¿ ¿ (∑ T ∂∂φx(e) nr.hi)d Γ = 0 3.10a
Ω i=1 i
∂y

[]
(e)
∂ φi
❑ n ❑
∂x
Let boundary integral ∫ j (∑ T ∂ φ(e) nr.hi) d Γ =∫ qn φ(e)j d Γ
φ (e)

Γ i=1 i Γ

∂y

[]
(e)
∂ φi
n
∂x
Where q n = ∑ T (e) nr.hi
i=1 ∂ φi
∂y

Then equation (3.10a) can be rewritten as ;

[ ∂ φ(ie ) ∂ φ (je )
]
∂ φ(ie ) ∂ φ (je )
( )
n ❑ n ❑
∂ hi ❑ ❑

∑ (∬ T
∂x ∂ x
+T
∂y ∂y
dxdy)hi + ∑ (∬ S φ(e)
i φ (e)
j dxdy )
∂ t
− ∫ W φ ( e)
j dxdy +∫ qn φ(je ) ds
i=1 Ω i=1 Ω Ω Γ

=0 3.10b

Hence (3.10b) becomes

n n
∂ hi
∑P e
ij hi + ∑ Reij
∂t
−F ej = 0 3.11a
i=1 i=1

[ Peij], [ F j ], and
e
where [ Reij ] are conductance matrix, source/sink vector, and

capacitance or storage matrix of an element e, respectively. Equations, like (3.11a),

for all elements will be assembled to obtain a global system of differential equations

that can be solved for hydraulic heads. The resultant system equation (global) is;

{ ∂t }
[ P ] {h }+ [ R ] ∂h − { F }=0 3.11b

63
where

[ ]
❑ ( e) ( e) ( e) (e )
∂ φi ∂ φ j ∂ φi ∂ φ j
P =∬
e
ij T +T dxdy
Ω
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂ y

and

N
[ P ] =∑ Peij (expanded )
e

❑
Reij =∬ S φ(e) (e)
i φ j dxdy , 3.12
Ω

❑ ❑

F j =∫ W φ j dxdy +∫ q n φ j ds
e (e) (e)

Ω Γ

N
[ F ] =∑ Fej (expanded )
e

where,{ F } contains any specified flow rates at the boundary, the groundwater flux.

For the interior nodes with no net flux, this term becomes zero because groundwater

flux entering the node i of an element e will cancel out the flux flowing out of the

node i of an element e-1 ,when global matrix is assembled. For nodes at the boundary,

this term is used to represent the boundary conditions. In this case, a symbol F ej is

used to represent the flux for node i of an element e.

Crank-Nicolson scheme (CN)

Crank-Nicolson method may not be deliberated the right choice for time

integration of groundwater flow and advection-dispersion equations, it is a strong

method still regularly used in engineering applications, and a sound starting point

benchmark for any groundwater flow and advection-dispersion problem solver.

64
Equation (3.11b) can be discretisize using Crank- Nicolson finite difference scheme

as follows;

Let { h }=( 1−w ) . {h }t +w . {h }t+ ∆ t , { F } =( 1−w ) . { F }t +w . { F }t +∆ t ,

{ }
∂h { h }t +∆ t − {h }t
∂t
=
∆t

Where ω is the Relaxation factor.This depends on the “finite difference scheme type

used”. In this thesis, the “Crank-Nicholson scheme with ω = 0.5” is being used.

Substituting into (3.11b) we have;

{h }t+ ∆ t− { h }t
[ P ] ( 1−w ) { h }t +w {h }t+ ∆ t + [ R ] −[ ( 1−w ) { F }t +w { F }t +∆ t ]=0
∆t

1 {h } − { h }t 1
⟹[P] ( {h }t + { h }t +∆ t ) + [ R ] t+ ∆ t − ( { F }t + { F }t +∆ t )=0
2 ∆t 2

( 12 [ P ] + ∆1t [ R ]) {h}
t +∆ t
1
(
1 1
= ( { F }t + { F }t+ ∆ t ) − [ P ] + [ R ] { h }t
2 2 ∆t ) 3.13

Equation.(3.13) is called the Crank-Nicolson finite-element Galerkin or CN-

FEG scheme for groundwater flow equation. The subscripts “t and t + Δt” denote the

head values at the current and the next time steps. [P] is conductance matrix that

contains the transmissivity terms; [R] is storage matrix that contains the storage

coefficient terms, “Δt is time step size, {h} is the head; {F} is nodal recharge and

discharge vector, { h }t + ∆ t is the next step unknown head vector; { h }t is known head

vector at time t; Solving equation (3.11b) using Crank-Nicholson time weighting

scheme guarantees that the solution to the flow equation will be unconditionally stable

(Huyakorn and Pinder, 1983). These global matrices can be constructed using the

65
element matrices of different shapes based on discritization of the domain. The linear

simultaneous equations derived above are solved to obtain the head distribution at

nodal points using any method. After getting the nodal head values, the time step is

increased and the solution proceeds by updating the time matrices and recomputing

the nodal head values”.

“Velocity vectors in the x and y directions are calculated from the gotten nodal

head values, by the FEM design using the law of Darcy” we have that

Now,

−k ∂ h −k ∂ h
V x= ,V y =
θ ∂x θ ∂y

n
substituting k (e) =∑ φi(e)h i ,
i=1

we obtain

( ) (∑ )
n n
−k ∂
V x=
θ ∂x
∑ φ hi ,V y =−k
(e)
i
∂
θ ∂y
φ(e)
i hi i=1,2,3
i=1 i=1

Where φ j is the test function. φ tests the equation satified by h . The central

notion is that instead of viewing the equations as something fulfilled point by point in

the model domain Ω, we take an averaged description of the equation. φ now plays

the part of a weighted function .i.e something used to average an equation.

3.5.3 Delimiting spaces

66
 At this point we should be a little extra specific on where we are considering

h should be and where φ should belongs.The principal space we want is the space of

square- integrable functions defined as;

{ }
❑
L ( Ω )= f :Ω ⟶ R∨∫|f | < ∞
2 2

Another space is of the wide family of the sobolev spaces defined as

{
H 1 ( Ω ) = h ϵ L2 ( Ω ) ∨
∂h ∂h
,
∂x ∂ y
ϵ L2 ( Ω ) }
With the norm

( ) (∫| | | | )
❑ ❑ 1/ 2 ❑ 2 ❑ 2 ❑ 1 /2
∂h ∂h
‖h‖1 , Ω= ∫ |∇ h| +∫|h| +∫ +∫|h|
2 2 2
=
Ω Ω Ω ∂x Ω ∂ y Ω

A particular subset of the space is of interest here

H 1Γ ( Ω )={ φ ϵ H 1 ( Ω )∨φ=0 on Γ }

where Γ represent the boundary of the domain.

usind the spaces defined overhead, we now finally write our problem in a proper and

rigorous way;

PROBLEM

Such that equation ( 3.10 ) exist ∀ φ ϵ H 1Γ ( Ω )

67
The condition on the general test function φ ϵ H 1Γ ( Ω ) is the same as φ ϵ H 1 ( Ω ) and

φ=0 , on Γ .i.e, φ is in same space as h.The parameters are in the subsequent spaces;
2 2 1/ 2
I ϵ L ( Ω ) , qn ϵ L ( Γ ) , g0ϵ H ( Γ )

We have previously written of the first space. L2 ( Γ ) is basically the same

idea,with the line integral on Γ in the place of domain integral on Ω. H 1 /2 ( Γ ) is

simply the space of restriction to Γ of function

1 1 /2 1
H ( Ω ) ie , g0 ϵ H ( Γ ) means ∃at least a function h0 ∈ H ( Ω ) such that g0=h 0 on Γ .

Infact, all functions sustaining this condition, in particular, our solution h, belongs

to;

h 0+ H 1Γ ( Ω )= {h0 + φ∨φ ϵ H 1Γ ( Ω ) }

={ w ϵ H 1 ( Ω ) ∨w=g0 , on Γ }

3.5.4 Discretization

As was mentioned before, the triangular element will be implemented here;

definition: Linear function on a triangle

A linear function of a twofold variables ( x , y ) is similar to a polynomial

function of degree at must one, that is,

φ ( x , y )=α + βx+ γy

68
The set of these function is denoted P1 . Linear functions are uniquely determined by

its value on the three unlike non aligned point i.e, on the vertices of a non-degenerated

triangle.

K (fig 2) be an abitriary triangle

Node 1 (x1, y1)

Node 2(x2 ,y2)

69
 Node 3 (x3,y3)

Fig. 2. Non-degenerated triangle with vertices or nodes.

With this we mean that the function

φ ( x , y ) ϵ P1= {α + βx +γy∨α , β , γ ϵ R }

is uniquely determined by its value on these point. This means that

i. Only one function have given values each on the vertices or nodes

ii. The values on the vertices are arbitrary since there is only one

function

70
Here is additional vital property that is very valuable; Values of φ ϵ P1 on the side that

links two apices of the triangle depends only on the value of φ on these two apexes

Triangulation

We have function defined on a single triangle so far. We now move on to the

whole partitioning of the model domain into triangles.

Definition;

“A triangulation of Ω is a subdivision of this domain into triangles. The set of

triangles (that is, the list thereof) will be denoted T d where d makes reference to the

diameter of the triangulation; defined as the length of the longest edge of all triangle.

That is, the longest distance between vertices of the triangulation is referred to as

diameter”.

¿
We first consider two triangles sharing a joint edge, say triangle K and K (fig 3.)

71
 x2

K K*

x1

¿
Fig .3. , K and K sharing a common edge

Taking values at the four apexes of these two triangle,we build functions that

fit in to P1 on each triangle and has the required value on the apexes. We do this for

each triangle and end up with a linear function that is completely continous. Such

functions will have the space of

72
V d ={ φd ∈C ( Ω )∨φ d∨k ϵ P , ∀ k ϵ T d }

Hence there exist a unique function φ i ∈V d that has the value;

{
φ i ( pi ) =δ ij= 1 , j=i
0 , j≠ i

Where pi denotes the vertices of the triangulation, i varies from one to the number of

vertices, N.

{φ i∨i=1 ,2 , 3 … N } is a basis of Vd and dimVd =N = number of vertices.

with the aforementioned space, we can now arrive at a mathematical approximation of

our original problem, instead of (3.11), we can now write

¿. . .

Such that equaton ( 3.10 ) exist ∀ φ ϵ V Γd

Where V dΓ is a discrete subspace of H 1Γ ( Ω )

We have reduced the infinite amount of test of the weak formulation to a finite

amount of linear equations.

Thus, the finite element method using triangular element comprises

discretisation of domain and interpolation between nodal point. The interpolation

function φ i ( x , y ) are pyramid functions

i.e Linear interpolation: φ ( x , y )=α + βx+ γy

n
Approximate function: h ( x , y , t )=∑ hi ( t ) φ i ( x , y ) 3.14a
i=1

73
 1
¿ [ h ( a +b x +c 1 y ) + h2 ( a2 +b2 x+ c 2 y ) + h3 ( a3 +b3 x+ c 3 y ) ]
2A 1 1 1

| |
1 x1 y1
1
With A ¿ 2 1 x 2 y 2
1 x3 y 3

¿ Area of triangular element 3.14b

a 1=x 2 y 3− y 2 x 3,a 2=x 3 y 1− y 3 x 1, a 3=x 1 y 2− y 1 x 2

b 1= y 3− y 2 , b2= y 3− y 1 , b3 = y 2− y 1 3.14c

c 1=x 3−x 2 , c2 =x3 −x1 , c 3=x 2−x 1

The linear interpolation functions for each triangular element is then;

(e) 1
(e) ( i
φ i ( x , y )= a +bi x+ c i y ) i =1,2,3.
2A

∂ φ(e) b ∂ φ(e) c
Hence, i = i(e) , i = i(e) i =1,2,3 . 3.14d
∂x 2A ∂ y 2A

considering the assumptions made in the preceding sections we can define a Galerkin

approximation to h in (3.11a) in a finite -dimensional space V ( Ω ) ⊂ H 10 ( Ω ) . To this

effect we partition Ω into triangles T d in the normal way. d is the mesh factor and is

defined to be “the maximal diameter of all such triangles”. These triangles are closed

sets by definition. Except clearly stated, we adopt that the “triangulation is quasi-

uniform”. In our setting, “quasi-uniform means that there exists a constant c < 1

independent of d, such that all triangles contain a ball of diameter d”. Let V 0d ( Ω ) “be

the space of continuous piecewise linear (with respect to the triangulation) functions

that vanish on ∂ Ω . Even though the exhibition of the leading results and procedures

74
to be established in this work, will be founded on allowing for “piecewise linear

functions” only,we shall remark to specify where such possibilities not is applicable.

Now using (3.14d) in section 3.5.4,we have that;

3 3
−k −k
(e) ∑ i i
V x= h b , V y = (e) ∑ h i c i
2 A i=1 2 A i=1

3.5.5. CN-FEG scheme for ADE.

The 2D formula of the hydrodynamic advection and dispersion equation can

be written as ;

∂c ∂
=
∂t ∂ x
Dx
∂c
+ (
∂
∂x ∂ y
Dy
∂c
− ) (
∂
∂ y ∂x
( V x c )−
∂
)( V c)+ I
∂y y
3.4d

Which can be written also in the form;

∂
∂x
Dx(∂c
+
∂
∂x ∂ y
Dy
∂c
) (
∂
− ( V x c )−
∂ y ∂x )∂
∂y
(
∂c
V y c )− + I = 0
∂t
3.4e

n
Let C =∑ φi c i
(e)
(e)

i=1

be the approximate solution which can be used to develop a similar scheme that was

derived for the groundwater flow equation above. But first, we want to obtain a weak

formulation of the above before inserting the approximate solution.

Deriving the weak form we have;

∬ [ ∂∂x ( D x ∂∂ cx )+ ∂∂y ( D y ∂∂ cy )− ∂∂x ( V x c )− ∂∂y ( V y c )− ∂∂ ct + I ¿ ]φdxdy ¿ = 0

Ω

75
We assume D x = DY = D is constant in spaces and a homogeneous constant and

uniform aquifer.

We integrate term by term using integration by parts and Green’s formula

❑ ❑ ❑

∬ φ ∂∂x ( D ∂∂ cx ) dxdy =−∬ ∂∂ φx ( D ∂∂ cx ) dxdy +∫ φ ( D ∂∂ cx ) n x d Γ

Ω Ω Γ

And

❑ ❑ ❑

.∬ φ
Ω
∂
∂y
D
∂c
∂y (
dxdy=−∬
Ω
∂φ
∂ y
D
∂c
∂ )
y
dxdy +∫ φ D
Γ
∂c
∂
n dΓ
y y ( ) ( )
Where nx and ny are the outward positive normals in the x and y direction respectively

❑ ❑ ❑

∬ ¿ ¿ −∬ [ ∂∂ φx ¿ v x c ]dxdy +∫ [φ v x c]n x d Γ ¿
Ω Ω Γ

❑ ❑ ❑

And ∬ ¿ ¿ −∬ [ ∂∂ φy ¿ v y c ]dxdy +∫ [ φ v y c ] n y d Γ ¿
Ω Ω Γ

Substituting all into the weak formulation equation, we have;

❑ ❑ ❑ ❑ ❑
−∬ [
Ω
∂φ
∂x
¿ D
∂c
∂x (
]dxdy +∫ φ D
Γ
∂c
∂x )
n x d Γ−∬ [
Ω
∂φ
∂y(¿ D
∂c
∂y )
]dxd +∫ φ D
Γ
∂c
∂y
n y d Γ +∬ [
Ω
∂φ
¿v c ]
∂x x ( ) ( )
Rearranging we have,

❑
−∬ ¿¿
Ω

+∫ [¿ φD
Γ
( ∂∂ cx n + ∂∂ cy n )−φc( v n + v n )]d Γ ¿ =0
x y x x y y

Noting that the derivative along the normal is given as;

76
 ∂c ∂c ∂c
= nx + n
∂n ∂x ∂y y

Now substituting the approximate solution;

n
C =∑ φ(e)
(e)
i ci
i=1

We have;

( (∑ ))
❑ ❑ n n
∂
−∬ ¿¿ +∫ [¿ φ(e)
j D φ c i −φ V n ( ∑ φ(e)
(e )
i
(e)
j i c i )]d Γ ¿ =0
Ω Γ
∂n i=1 i=1

Where V n=¿V x nx +V x nx ¿

The above equation can now be written as

n n
¿ ¿ ∂ Ci ¿
∑ ( Peij) c i +∑ ( Rije ) ∂t
−( Fej ) = 0 3.15
i=1 i=1

where

¿ ¿ ¿
( Pije ) , ( F ej ) and ( R eij ) are the advection-dispersion matrix, source/sink vector, and

capacitance matrix of an element e, respectively. Equations, like (3.15), for all

elements will be assembled to obtain a global system of differential equations that can

now be solved for the concentration c. The resultant system of equations (global) is;

{∂t }
[ P¿ ] { c } + [ R¿ ] ∂ c − { F ¿ }=0 3.15b

Where

77
 [ ] [ ]
❑ (e) (e) ❑(e) (e) (e) (e)
e ¿ ∂ φ j ∂ φi ∂ φj ∂ φi ∂ φ j (e) ∂ φ j (e)
( P ) =−∬
ij D
∂x ∂ x
+D
∂ y ∂y
dxdy +∬ v x
∂x
φi +v y
∂y i
φ dxdy
Ω Ω

( R eij ) =∬ φ(e)
¿ (e)
i φ j dxdy 3.16
Ω

❑ ❑

( F ej ) =∫ q ¿n φ(e)j d Γ +∫ I φ(e)j d Ω
¿
And
Γ Ω

Where q n=∫ ¿ ¿
¿

Similarly, equation (3.15b) can be discretized using the Crank-Nicolson scheme as

was done before in the case of the groundwater flow equation. Similarly, we will

obtain

( 12 [ P ]+ ∆1t [ R ]) {c }
¿ ¿
t+ ∆ t =
1 ¿
2 (
1
2
1
∆t )
( { F }t + { F ¿ }t +∆ t )− [ P¿ ] + [ P¿ ] { c }t 3.17

where the subscripts t and t+Δt denote the concentrations values at current and

subsequent time steps. [P*] is the advection-dispersion matrix containing dispersivity

and advectivity terms, [R*] is the coefficient matrix, Δt is time step size, {c} is

concentration, {F*} is node recharge or discharge vector; { c }t +∆ t is concentration

vectors yet to be determined, { c }t is the known concentration vector value at time t

and “ω , relaxation factor depends on the kind of finite difference scheme used. In

this thesis as earlier stated, the Crank-Nicholson scheme is used with ω = 0.5. These

global matrices can be built from the element matrices of dissimilar shapes based on

the discretization of the domain. Linear simultaneous equations that are derived

above are solved to find the concentration distribution at nodal points using any

scheme”. Subsequent nodal concentration values are gotten by increasing the time

78
step and then the solution continues by bringing up-to-date the time matrices and

computing the nodal concentration values again.

Equation.3.17 is called the Crank-Nicolson finite-element Galerkin or CN-

FEG scheme for solute-transport flow equation. Finally, we have two equation to

solve;

( 12 [ P ] + ∆1t [ R ]) {h}t +∆ t
1
2
1
2( 1
)
= ( { F }t + { F }t+ ∆ t ) − [ P ] + [ R ] { h }t 3.13
∆t

( 12 [ P ]+ ∆1t [ R ]) {c }
¿ ¿
t+ ∆ t =
1 ¿
2 ( 1
2
1
∆t )
( { F }t + { F ¿ }t +∆ t )− [ P¿ ] + [ P¿ ] { c }t 3.17

3.6. Evaluation of element integral matrices

After applying the Galerkin weighted residual method to the 2D groundwater

flow and solute transport equations, the result is a series of matrix integral equation

for each element in the mesh. These equations are listed here and evaluated for

reference. To be able to run the time steps above, the matrices appearing above have

to be determined. The element matrices for the linear triangular element can be easily

computed using an integration formular. Which is stated below:

For a linear triangular element,

❑
a!b!c!
∫ ( φ(e)
a b c
i ) ( φ j ) ( φk ) dA=
(e) (e)
2 A(e) 3.18
A
(e) (a+b+ c+ 2) !

where a, b, and c are exponents of the interpolation functions;φ(e) (e) (e)

i , φ j ∧φk

( Istok,1989 )

For example consider the integral

79
 ❑

M = ∫ φi φ j dA
(e) (e)

(e)
A

In this case, a=1, b=1, c=0 and we can immediately write

❑ (e)
1 ! 1! 0 !
∫ φ(e)i φ(e)j dA = (1+1+0+ 2 A =A
(e)
, where 0!=1
A
(e) 2) ! 3

Another example.

❑ (e)
∂ φj
N=∫φ
(e)
dA i
A
∂x (e)

∂ φ(e)
j b
In this case a = 1, b = c = 0 and = j(e) from equation (3.14d )
∂x 2A

hence we have

(e) ❑
❑
∂ φj b
∫ φ ∂ x dA=∫ φ(e)i 2 Aj(e) dA
(e)
(e)
i
(e)
A A

❑
bj
=
2A
(e) ∫ φ(e)i dA
A(e)

bj 1! 0 ! 0 ! (e) bj
= (e)
∙ 2A =
2A (1+0+0+ 2)! 6

Element conductance matrix for the linear triangular element

80
 [ ]
( ) ( )
∂ φ 1e ∂ φ1e

[ ]
( ) ( ) ( )
∂x ∂y ∂ φ 1e ∂ φ2e ∂ φ 3e

[ ]
(e )
❑ ∂ φ (2e ) ∂ φ(2e ) T x 0 ∂x ∂x ∂x
[
[ P ]=∬ ∂ x
( e)
(e )
]d A (e ) ¿
( e)
∂y ( e)
0 T y ∂ φ1 ∂ φ(2e ) ∂ φ3(e )
A
∂ φ (3e ) ∂ φ(3e ) ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂x ∂y
¿

Using (3.14d) in section 3.5.4 we have

[ ][ ][
b1 c1 (e)
( )( ) ]
❑
1 1 Tx 0 b1 b 2 b 3
=
2A (e)
2A (e) b2 c2
0 T (e) c 1 c 2 c3
∬ d A(e)
(e)
A
b3 c3 y

[ ][ ][
b1 c 1 (e)
=
1
4 ( A(e) )
2
b3 c3
T
b2 c 2 x
0 b1 b2 b 3 (e)
0 T (e)
y
c 1 c 2 c 3
A
]

[ ] [ ]
(e) b21 b 1 b 2 b1 b3 (e) c 21 c1 c 2 c1 c 3
T x T y
= (e) b2b1 b2
2 b2 b3 + (e) c2 c1 c 22 c2 c 3
4A 2 4A
b3b1 b3b2 b 3 c 3 c 1 c3 c 2 c32

for homogeneous case;T x =T y = T. The above equation becomes;

{[ ][ ]}
2 2
b1 b1 b2 b1 b3
c 1 c 2 c 1 c3 c1
T
= (e) b 2 b1 b 2 b2 b3 + c2 c 1 c22 c 2 c3
2
3.19
4A 2 2
b3 b1 b3 b2 b3 c3 c 1 c 3 c 2 c 3

The element capacitance matrix

[]
❑
φ(e)
1
[ Re ]=∬ φ(e)
2
[S (e)
] [ φ(e)
1 φ2
(e)
φ3 ] d A
(e) (e)

(e)
A
φ(e)
3

81
 []
❑
φ(e)
1

2 [ 1
¿[S ]∬ φ3 ] d A
(e) (e) (e) (e) (e)
φ(e) φ φ2
A (e)
φ(e)
3

[ ]
❑
φ(e)
1 φ1
(e)
φ(e)
1 φ2
(e)
φ(e)
1 φ3
(e)

¿[S ]∬
(e) (e)
φ(e)
2 φ1
(e)
φ(e)
2 φ2
(e)
φ(e)
2 φ3
(e)
dA
A (e)
φ(e)
3 φ1
(e)
φ(e)
3 φ2
(e)
φ(e)
3 φ3
(e)

Now

❑ ❑

∬ φ(e)
1 φ1 d A =∬ ( φ 1 ) d A
(e) (e) (e) (e) 2

(e) (e)
A A

Using equation 3.18, we have

(e)
2!0!0! (e) A
¿ 2A =
( 2+ 0+0+2 ) ! 6

Similarly,

❑ (e)
1! 1 ! 0 ! A
∬ φ φ d A =¿ ( 1+1+0+2
(e)
(e)
1
(e)
2
)!
(e)
2A =
(e)
12
¿
A

❑ (e)
1! 0! 1 ! A
∬ φ1 φ3 d A =¿
(e)
(e) (e) (e)

( 1+0+1+2 ) !
(e)
2A =
12
¿
A

And so on for each term in the integral.the final result is;

[ ]
(e) 2 1 1
[ R(e) ]= A [ S(e) ] 1 2 1 3.20
12
1 1 2

Element advection-dispersion matrix

82
 [ ]
( ) ( )
∂ φ 1e ∂ φ1e

[ ]
( ) ( ) ( )
∂x ∂y ∂ φ 1e ∂ φ2e ∂ φ3e

[ ]
( e)
❑ ∂ φ (2e ) ∂ φ(2e ) D x 0 ∂x ∂x ∂x
[ ]d A (e ) ¿
[ P¿ ] ∬ ∂ x
(e) ¿−
( e)
∂y ( e)
0 Dy ∂ φ1
(e )
∂ φ(2e ) (e )
∂ φ3
A
∂ φ (3e ) ∂ φ(3e ) ∂y ∂y ∂y
∂x ∂y
¿ ❑

[ ][ [ ]
(e) (e) (e)
(e) (e) ∂ φ1 ∂ φ2 ∂ φ3
φ1 φ1
V (e)
]
❑
0 ∂x ∂x ∂x
+∬ φ (e)
φ
(e) x
(e) (e) (e) d A
(e)

A
(e)
2
(e)
2
(e) 0 V (e)
y
∂ φ1 ∂ φ2 ∂ φ3
φ 3 φ 3
∂y ∂y ∂y

Aplying equation (3.14d), we have

[ ][ ][
b1 c1
( )( ) D(e)
]
❑
1 1 0 b1 b 2 b 3
¿−
2A (e)
2A (e) b2 c2
x

0 D(e) c 1 c 2 c3
∬ d A(e)(e)
A
b3 c3 y

[ ]
φ(e) φ(e)

[ ][ ]∬
(e) ❑ 1 1
+1 V 0 b1 b 2 b 3 (e)
(e)
x
(e) φ(e)
2 φ(e)
2
dA
2A 0 V c1 c2 c3 A
❑
y
φ(e)
3 φ(e)
3

[ ][ ][
b1 c 1
=
−1
2
4 ( A(e) )
b2 c 2
b3 c3
D(e)
x 0 b1 b2 b 3 (e)
0 D(e)
y
c 1 c 2 c3
A
]

[
0 b1 b 2 b 3 A(e) 1 1
][ ]{ [ ]}
(e)
+1 V x
1 1
2 A(e) 0 V (e)
y
c1 c2 c3 3
1 1

83
 [ ] [ ]
b 21 b1 b2 b 1 b 3 c 21 c1 c 2 c 1 c 3
(e)
Dx 2
−D(e)
y
¿− (e)
b2 b1 b 2 b2b3 (e) c2 c1 c 22 c2 c3
4A 2 4A
b3 b1 b3 b2 b 3 c 3 c 1 c3 c 2 c23

[ ] [ ]
(e) b b b (e) c c c
+V x 1 2 3 V y 1 2 3
b1 b 2 b3 + c c c
6 6 1 2 3
b1 b 2 b3 c 1 c2 c 3

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will now apply the given model to a hypothetical problem.

The given problem aquifer is a simple rectagular domain and it is assumed to be

isotropic,homogeneous and two dimensional.In this problem also,the contaminant in

84
question is considered non reactive. This is a typical case of wells (boreholes) located

near suckaway tank which is leaking.The problem here is to determine when and for

how long it will take this contaminant to reach these wells and when it eventually

reaches these wells (for it will) , we must determine whether a groundwater

remediation is needed

4.2 Example

Consider a rectangular domain of size 2600×1200 m2. In this problem, we

supposed that the aquifer domain is “isotropic with regard to the hydraulic

conductivities”, we also assumed also that contaminants don’t degenerate and divides.

Using a constant time step (∆ t ¿ of 10 years for transport of contaminant

concentrations and 10 days for hydraulic head computations. The solute source has a

concentration of 100,000 ppm (parts per million) ( ≅ 100kg/m3) from the leaking water

overhead the domain. Flux of fluid q is taken to be 00.00014000 m per “day per unit

aquifer thickness. Left and right boundaries have no flow condition, whereas the

bottom boundary and the top boundary are given a constant head value of 100 m”.

For initial condition, a constant head of 100m is also presumed within the aquifers.

Two wells that are pumping at 1000 m3 per day “per unit aquifer thickness”, are

situated at nodes (0900m, 2200m) and (0300m, 2000m) respectively. For the

contaminant transport, the dispersive flux q is zero on the “left and right” boundaries,

and the topmost and bottommost boundaries are expected to have zero concentration

boundary condition. Using these “aquifer properties and solute source concentration”

values, simulate the contaminant concentrations after t =100 years at the two wells.

An “unsafe” level of contaminant is 100ppm (10kg/m3).

85
 Question. How long would the wells have to wait in order to make sure they

were extracting water with under 100ppm? The aquifer properties are presented in

Table 4.below.

TABLE.4. Aquifer properties

K αt (m) Ss

(m/day) b(m) θ α l ( m)

1 12 50
0.00
0 10 0.3 0
5

86
4.3. Solution

The finite element methodology used in resolving this groundwater problem

includes first sharing the solution domain into small sub-sections or finite elements.

Connected with every element are numerous nodal points at which head-to-head

elements are well connected together, and at which the values of the significant

variables (heads or/and contaminant concentration) are to be solved. An investigation

based on physical point of view such as stability and compatibility is used to develop

a set of simultaneous arithmetical equations for these nodal values at each point.

4.3.1 Model design

The area around the contaminant source and the two boreholes has been given

considerate smaller (fine) grid. In resolving the advective and dispersive transport

equations, some mathematical mistakes mostly “oscillations” can be associated to

twofold “dimensionless parameter” or numbers. The Peclet number, Pe, is one. This is

defined as “Pe = Δl/α, where Δl is a characteristic nodal spacing”. There are several

ways of defining Pe in a grid system, “Anderson and Woessner (1992)” mention that

the network (grid) be planned so that Δl < 4α or Pe < 4. Even though “Ségol (1994)”

vouch for a measure of Pe ≤ 2 . Also, “time discretization” can be linked to the

“Courant number”, Co = VΔt/Δl . “According to Anderson and Woessner (1992) time

steps be specified so that Δt < Δl/V (or Co<1.0)”, This is same as demanding that no

contaminant be evacuated by advection other than one grid element throughout one

time increment. Hence ,using (Anderson and Woesser 1992) ,the Peclet number is

calculated to be 1 around the two well and 2 around the contaminant source. There

87
also,∆ l=50 m∧100 mrespectively.The time step of 10years chosen also satisfied the

Courant number criteria ie.CO<1.0.

Below is a portion of the discretized domain. Figure 2 shows 2D territory

(domain) shared into a net of small triangular sub sections or finite elements.

Connected with every element are three points (nodes), at the ends of the triangle.

One of the benefit of using triangles to discretize a domain is that, they can fit any

shape boundary, on condition that, the boundary can be represented with adequate

accuracy by a succession of small straight lines.

The domain was discretized using MICROFEM 4.10.

88
 Fig. 4; A two-dimensional domain distributed into a mesh of small triangular

sub sections or finite elements.

89
 The X and Y values are tabulated as it appears in the grid coordinate. Also the

connectivity list is shown in appendices . The connectivity list is a list containing the

nodes numbers as it is connected to each element in the mesh. This connectivity list

will help in forming the global matrix from the element matrix. The domain size is

approximately 2600 ×1200 m2 while the area of interest covers (800,2000) ×

(300,900) m2. The model domain was defined in order to assign the boundary

conditions at a sufficient distance not to interfere with the modeling results. The

domain size was divided into 10 super-elements in order to be able to enter every

detail of the domain and allow Microfem to discretized it. The mesh consists of

elements with triangular shape; the elements’ dimension ranges between 220 m, along

the South and nouth of the area, to 50–100 m around the area of interest. The mesh

was refined along the site in order to have a good detail in the site area along the two

wells.

To answer the given problem,the resulting algorithm is used.

4.3.2 Algorithm

The CN-FEG method defined earlier can now be shortened into the

subsequent code:

“1. Enter flow and time properties along with the initial and boundary conditions.

2. Enter the GCT (global convergence tolerance) , and the

MGIT ( maximum global Iterations) allowed to increase the time step.

3. See to Steps 4 to 6 for all element.

4. Calculate and store element properties example the determinant A(e)

90
 ∂Nj
∧∂ N j
5. Calculate and store the shape function Nj and its derivatives ∂ x for all
∂y

nodal points

6. Do Steps 7 to 11 for each element.

7. Do Steps 8 to 11 for each component.

∂φj ∂φj
8. Calculate the increment functionφ j and its derivatives and for each nodal
∂x ∂y

point of the component.

9. Calculate each component matrices and vectors .ie, the stiffness matrix; P( e ),the

mass matrix ; R( e ) and flux vector; F (e ).

10. Collect each component matrices into the global matrices P;R, and F.

11. Store global matrices P;R, and F for each element on scratch files.

12. Calculate the hydraulic head h from the approximate groundwater flow equation

using ∆ t=10

13.Compute the velocity vectors V x ∧V y for each element using the computed head.

14.Compute the transport parameter D ie the dispersivity coefficient for each element

15. Do Steps 16 to 21 for each element.

¿ ¿ ¿
16.Compute the element matrices for the transport equation ( Pe ) , ( Re ) ∧( F e )

¿ ¿ ¿
17. Gather the component matrices to the global matrices . P R ∧F

91
 ¿ ¿ ¿
18. Store the global matrices P R ∧F for the element on scratch files.

19. Regain the global matrices P¿ R¿ ∧F ¿ from the scratch files.

20. Fill in F ¿ according to the boundary conditions for the duration of ( t k ,t k +∆ t )

21. Calculate the concentration c from the approximate transport equation using

∆ t=10 ”

For this thesis, step 5 and 8 is the same since N j=φ j.(gerlakin method). The

algorithm designated directly above has been executed on a private computer and the

program is called the CN-FEGGCT (CRANK-NICOLSON FINITE ELEMENT

GERLAKIN SCHEME FOR GROUNDWATER CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT).

Currently, linear elements only, are used and these include 2-D plane flow “triangular

elements” . The code also allow operator-defined iteration acceptances, hence the

convergence condition is problem specific.

4.4. Explainations

The element matrices P(e) , R(e) ∧F (e) are first solved for each element in the

mesh. This is done by using equations (3.19), (3.20) and the boundary conditions of

the aquifer. These are 3 ×3 square matrixes, except for the last, which is a vector. For

this domain, we have 221elements and 127 nodes. The area around the two wells and

the contaminant site has higher number of elements (i.e. smaller element size or Δx)

in order to reduce numerical oscillation in advective transport simulation due to high

flow rate condition. Injection of contaminant was initiated at node #23 ,and so they

are 221 matrices to be solved for each equations. These matrices are then assembled

into a global matrix using the connectivity list in this manner; for example, element 1

92
is made up of node 1,2 and 3 respectively. This means that entries of the element

matrix of element 1 will be filled into the global matrix in the same row and column

as it appears. That is ,

1 3 2
P =a
[ ]
b c 1
↔[P]¿ 1 2 3 ⋯ 126 127
(1 )
etc
d e f 3 ¿
g h i 2

2 3 5

[ ]
P = j k l 2↔
[P]¿ 1 2 3 ⋯ 126 127
(2 )
etc
m n o 3 ¿
p q r 5

Continuing in this way, we obtained a global matrix. All the element matrices

are filled in, and where necessary , the new entries are added to the existing one just

as was done for P(2) . In this method , we do not need to use up large computer

memory. But there is yet another method in which large computer memory is needed.

Here we simply create each element matrix in its full global form, where the only

entries of this global matrix are made up of the entries of the element matrix. Then,

this matrices are then simply added up to form the global matrix. These matrices ie,P ,

R ,F etc are 127×127 square matrices. Both matrices are symmetric and sparse (most

of the entries are zero). The mass matrix (Capacitance matrix) [R] is “positive-

definite”. This implies that all main minors of [R] are not negative, they are positive.

The stiffness matrix or the global conductance matrix [P] is positive semi-definite

(atleast one entry in the diagonal is negative) and even nearly positive definite: if we

remove any index i that is negative and erase the i-th row and the i-th column of [P],

the resultant matrix is positive definite.

93
 The properties of these matrices P,R ,P*, R*, are associated with Gerlakin

finite element method. [F] gotten by applying the specified conditions at the nodes on

the boundaries and at the two wells (boundary and initial conditions). After

assembling the three matrices, equation (3.13) is then solved for h using time step

( 10 days). The velocity in the x and y direction is then solved using the acquired

hydraulic heads h. The above (velocity) is necessary for the contaminant transport

equation. The velocity field shows the direction the groundwater flow. The minus sign

indicated that water is being pumped at the well field (well 1 and well 2) With these

result ,we are at present prepared to solve the finite element approximated advection-

dispersion equation describing contaminant transport flow from the source to the two

wells.

To do this, we proceed as before and calculate the element advection-

dispersion matrix, P(e)

¿ ¿ that the “fluid velocity is expected to be uniform inside each

element” in the derivation of P(e) (e) (e)

¿ ¿ , the element mass matrix R¿ and F ¿ which are

also assembled using the same method as was discussed for the groundwater equation.

We are now prepared to resolve equation 3.17. These “linear simultaneous equations”

are now solved to find the concentration spreading at each node using direct inverse

method. Once nodal concentration values are gotten, the time step is increased and the

calculation continues by updating the time matrices and calculating the nodal

concentration values again . This is done for a time step of 10 years and then

increased to a time step of 20 years. Sufficiently large time step size was used to

avoid numerical dispersion and a lengthy simulation. However, a time step size Δt

cannot be exceedingly large to obtain accurate results.

The iteration is done as follows;

94
Consider

( 12 [ P ]+ ∆1t [ R ]) {c }
¿ ¿
t+ ∆ t =
1 ¿
2
1
2 ( 1
∆t )
( { F }t + { F ¿ }t +∆ t )− [ P¿ ] + [ P¿ ] { c }t … (3.17)

Let M = ( 12 [ P ]+ ∆1t [ R ]) . Then from equation (3.17) ,

¿ ¿

C t+ ∆ t = ( 12 [ {F } + { F }
¿
t
¿
t +∆ t ]−M C t )∙ M −1
,

where M −1 is the inverse matrix of M

For the 1st run , ( for t = 0, ∆ t=10 )

C t+ ∆ t =C0 +10 = Yet to be calculated

{ F ¿ }t +∆ t ={ F ¿ }0 +10={ F¿ }10=0∧¿

C t=C 0=0 ∀ nodes except at node 23 ,

¿ I at node 23 ,

where I is the concentration at the source ,which is equal to 100kg/m2

([ ( )])
1
I
{ F }t =0 ∀ nodes except at node 23
¿
¿−
3
(1 x j y j) 1 at node 23
1

For the 2nd run ( t=10,∆ t=10 )

C t+ ∆ t =C10+ 10=C20= Yet to be calculated

C t=C 10=C 0+10 calculated from the 1st run.

95
 ([ ( )])
C10 1
{ F ¿ }t ={ F ¿ }10=− (1 x j y j) 1 Only at nodes where C 10 ≠ 0.
3
1

Similarly,C 30 , C 40 , C 50, C 60 ,C 70 , C 80, C 90 ,∧C 100are gotten in this manner.

Table 5. shows the concentration values of contaminant at specific nodes in the

aquifer for the iterations.

96
 Table 5.: Concentration Values Of Contaminant At Specific Nodes

Iteratio Iteratio Iteratio Iteratio Iteratio Iteratio Iteratio Iteratio Iteratio Iteratio
Iterati
n1 n2 n3 n4 n5 n6 n7 n8 n9 n 10
on

NOD

ES

NO.

C 10 C 20 C 30 C 40 C 50 C 60 C 70 C 80 C 90 C 100

102 0 0 0 0 0 0.07 0.25 0.03 0.78 23.3

104 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.08 2.10 62.9

23 100 78.2 52.1 26.2 19.8 22.4 7.96 9.28 2.48 7.43

97
4.5. Discussion

The two main transport processes; advection and dispersion, are presented

here; Advection is the flowing of the pollutant with the flow of groundwater.

Dispersion is the seeming mixing and dispersal of the pollutant inside the aquifer”.

That is why at some part in the territory outside the injection location, the pollutant

initially appears as at a little concentration value and then steadily increase at each

time step until a higher concentration value is realized. As the pollutant flow along

with the groundwater, it also spread out. The pollutant mass occupies an even more

extensive length of the domain thus lessening in concentration with time . If the

advection process is considered only, the pollutant would reach at some point in the

domain as a mass with complete concentration as in the injection water. However,

since dispersion is involve, the full concentration is reached at a time higher than the

first arrival of the spread contaminant.

In well 1 (nodes 102) the contaminant was first seen after 60 years of being

introduced but at a very low concentration. This was as a result of dispersion .It

reaches an unsafe level for drinking at the 100 th year. Well 2 was a bit far from the

contaminant source and it was not until after 80 years that the disperse concentration

was seen. This also was at a very low concentration and gradually increase in

concentration value at the 100th year. This was as a result of the two wells discharging

water at constant pumping rate. At the node of the contaminant source, the

concentration of the contaminant decreases with time . Monitoring of the groundwater

in the aquifer shall be done taking into account their spatial sharing and closeness to

the two wells .And also how long the contaminant takes to reach the wells from its

98
location. Half of the travel time at least should be allocated as the frequency of study.

Therefore ,at least one can have half to quarter of its full transport time to regulate

the impurity before it poisons the whole well area.

In addition , when the contamination is seen in the 1 st well, pumping must not

be stopped, this is because, it can be used to regulate the pollution. Discontinuing

pumping of contaminated well will let the contaminant to spread to the whole aquifer.

Instead, the discharge rate should be greater than before and the water should be

disengaged from the system and discharged under an organized mechanism out of the

aquifer. However, the effect of the contaminant movement is presently minimal, the

model established in this thesis obviously shows that pollution of the aquifer and

hence the two wells is impending, unless strong environmentally friendly protection

plan as well as aquifer controlling policy is executed.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY , CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Summary

A groundwater flow and contaminant transport model has been presented. The

purpose of this thesis was to show the movement or the flow of contaminants from

one point to another in the groundwater system using a numerical method. In

particular, the finite element Galerkin method was used and the resulting equation

discretized with the Crank-Nicolson finite difference in time. The objective of this

work was as follows: To develop a generic finite element model that is simple, easy to

99
understand, available and that would solve the two dimensional groundwater flow and

advection-dispersion equations describing contaminant transport in an aquifer, to

develop a software for the model and to apply the developed model on a 2D

homogeneous, isotropic hypothetical system.

The substance of chapter three summarizes the justification for subsequent

attention on the 2D horizontal groundwater flow on regional domains (large aquifers).

In this chapter , we derived the mathematical solute transport model, which was

practically derived ,by the using conservation of mass law and the Fickian law of

dispersion. These laws make use of the hydrogeological methods of flow and

contaminants transport to formulate the “differential equations governing flow and

contaminant transport in groundwater” due to advection and dispersion.

At the end of chapter three also, we were able to derive the finite- element

Galerkin scheme for solving the groundwater flow equations and solute transport

equation so derived. After applying the Galerkin weighted residual method to the 2D

flow of “groundwater and solute transport” equation, the resultant is a series of matrix

integral equation for each element in the mesh. The element matrices for the linear

triangular elements were computed using an integration formular. Finally, application

and discussion of results to the hypothetical example was treated in chapter four .

Using the computed element matrices, we were able to modeled the transport of a

contaminant in a homogeneous isotropic aquifer discretized with triangular elements.

5.2. Conclusion

This work presented a development, presentation and the application of a two

dimensional Crank-Nicolson Finite-Element Galerkin scheme for the groundwater

100
flow, and the advection and dispersion equations describing contaminant transport

(CN-FEGGCT). We demonstrated the program’s capability of simulating the

transport of contaminants by applying it to a homogeneous and isotropic aquifer .

The contaminant in this hypothetical example was considered to be non-reactive and

the diffusive effect was negligible. Nevertheless, the effect of the contaminant

movement in this aquifer was found to be presently insignificant, the model

established in this thesis undoubtedly shows that pollution of the aquifer and hence

the well field is impending, unless strong environmental friendly protection plan

along with aquifer regulatory policy is executed

5.3. Recommendation

Many finite element models exist for solving groundwater contaminant

problem, which are sophisticated and unavailable for researchers who would want to

solve a local contaminant problem using numerical models, without having to develop

one. This thesis presented a Galerkin finite element model which is simple and will be

of help to such researchers .The programs are written in Q-basic, which is simple to

understand. This work will be of help to groundwater regulatory agencies,

groundwater modelers and other agencies interested in the quality of groundwater.

101
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109
 APPENDICES A

The X and Y values are tabulated below as it appears in the grid coordinate of the

problem domain .

110
 TABLE 6. The X and Y values

Element X1 X2 X3 Y1 Y2 Y3

1. 1200 1200 950 0 266.67 0

2. 950 1200 863.42 0 266.67 238.86

3. 950 863.42 700 0 238.86 0

4. 1200 1200 942 266.67 533.33 466.29

5. 1200 942 863.42 266.67 466.29 238.86

6. 700 863.42 700 0 238.86 242.18

111
7. 700 700 564.59 0 242.18 249.51

8. 700 564.59 500 0 249.51 0

9. 863.42 942 700 238.86 466.29 453.74

10. 863.42 700 700 238.86 453.74 242.18

11. 1200 1200 978.84 533.33 800 673.42

12. 1200 978.84 942 533.33 673.42 466.29

13. 942 978.84 700 466.29 673.42 638.55

14. 942 700 700 466.29 638.55 453.74

112
15. 500 564.59 300 0 249.51 266.67

16. 500 300 300 0 266.67 0

17. 700 700 564.59 242.18 453.74 249.51

18. 978.84 1200 998.64 673.42 800 800

19. 978.84 998.64 834.24 673.42 800 800

20. 978.84 834.24 700 673.42 800 638.55

21. 300 300 0 0 266.67 0

22. 998.64 1200 1052.51 800 800 952.70

113
23. 998.64 1052.51 889.87 800 952.70 971.47

24. 998.64 889.87 834.24 800 971.47 800

25. 0 331.48 0 0 266.67 266.67

26. 564.59 700 486.6 249.51 453.74 534.82

27. 564.59 486.6 300 249.51 534.82 266.67

28. 700 700 486.6 453.74 638.55 534.82

29. 1200 1200 1052.51 800 1080 952.7

30. 700 834.24 700 638.55 800 800

114
31. 700 700 540 638.55 800 800

32. 700 540 486.6 638.55 800 534.82

33. 300 486.6 300 266.67 534.82 533.33

34. 300 300 0 266.67 533.33 266.67

35. 834.24 889.87 727.6 800 971.47 993.23

36. 834.24 727.6 700 800 993.23 800

37. 1052.51 1200 974.57 952.7 1080 1112.49

38. 1052.51 974.57 889.87 952.7 1112.49 971.47

115
39. 889.87 974.57 753.16 971.47 1112.49 1172.13

40. 889.87 753.16 727.6 971.47 1172.13 993.23

41. 0 300 0 266.67 533.33 533.33

42. 700 727.6 638.69 800 993.23 983.92

43. 700 638.69 540 800 983.92 800

44. 974.57 1048.06 902.24 1112.49 1243.19 1253.63

45. 974.57 902.24 753.16 1112.49 1253.63 1172.13

46. 974.57 1200 1048.06 1112.49 1080 1243.19

116
47. 486.6 540 300 534.82 800 800

48. 486.6 300 300 534.82 800 533.33

49. 1200 1200 1048.06 1080 1360 1243.19

50. 540 638.69 472.53 800 983.92 962.9

51. 540 472.53 300 800 962.9 800

52. 300 300 0 533.33 800 533.33

53. 727.6 753.16 582.47 993.23 1172.13 1152.59

54. 727.6 582.47 638.69 993.23 1152.59 983.92

117
55. 753.16 902.24 776.83 1172.13 1253.63 1337.78

56. 753.16 776.83 651.74 1172.13 1337.78 1343.3

57. 753.16 651.74 582.47 1172.13 1343.3 1152.59

58. 0 300 0 533.33 800 800

59. 638.69 582.47 472.53 983.92 1152.59 962.9

60. 1048.06 1200 962.84 1243.19 1360 1409.93

61. 1048.06 962.84 902.24 1243.19 1409.93 1253.63

62. 902.24 962.84 902.24 1253.63 1409.93 1253.63

118
63. 776.83 962.84 798.73 1337.78 1409.93 1491.14

64. 776.83 798.73 651.74 1337.78 1491.14 1343.3

65. 300 472.53 300 800 962.9 1077.92

66. 300 300 0 800 1077.92 1040

67. 300 0 0 800 1040 800

68. 1200 1200 1076.75 1360 1640 1551.93

69. 1200 1076.75 962.84 1360 1551.93 1409.93

70. 472.53 582.47 300 962.9 1152.59 1077.92

119
71. 582.47 651.74 530.92 1152.59 1343.3 1307.25

72. 582.47 530.92 300 1152.59 1307.25 1077.92

73. 651.74 798.73 636.38 1343.3 1491.14 1494..5

74. 651.74 636.38 483.64 1343.3 1494.5 1449.07

75. 651.74 483.64 530.92 1343.3 1449.07 1307.25

76. 962.84 1076.75 937.51 1409.93 1551.93 1630.59

77. 962.84 937.51 798.73 1409.93 1630.59 1491.14

78. 798.73 937.51 819.02 1491.14 1630.59 1633.14

120
79. 798.73 819.02 689.39 1491.14 1633.14 1604.05

80. 798.73 689.39 636.38 1491.14 1604.05 1494.50

81. 1076.75 1200 1079.48 1551.93 1640 1717.45

82. 1076.75 1079.48 937.51 1551.93 1717.45 1630.59

83. 636.38 689.39 558.54 1494.5 1604.05 1581.43

84. 636.38 558.54 483.64 1494.5 1581.43 1449.07

85. 819.02 837.8 722.21 1633.14 1764.61 1728.58

86. 819.02 722.21 689.39 1633.14 1728.58 1604.05

121
87. 819.02 937.51 837.8 1633.14 1630.59 1764.61

88. 689.39 722.21 601.18 1604.05 1728.58 1698.87

89. 689.39 601.18 558.54 1604.05 1698.87 1581.43

90. 722.21 837.8 750.52 1728.58 1764.61 1850.84

91. 722.21 750.52 635.69 1728.58 1850.84 1818.63

92. 722.21 635.69 601.18 1728.58 1818.63 1698.87

93. 601.18 635.69 501.72 1698.87 1818.63 1785.17

94. 601.18 501.72 500.45 1698.87 1785.17 1669.06

122
95. 601.18 500.45 558.54 1698.87 1669.06 1581.43

96. 0 300 0 1040 1077.92 1280

97. 300 530.92 300 1077.92 1307.25 1309.34

98. 300 300 0 1077.92 1309.34 1280

99. 1200 1200 1079.48 1640 1920 1717.45

100. 530.92 483.64 300 1307.25 1449.07 1309.34

101. 483.64 558.54 440.29 1449.07 1581.43 1579.13

102. 483.64 440.29 300 1449.07 1579.13 1502.04

123
103. 483.64 300 300 1449.07 1502.04 1309.34

104. 937.51 1079.48 989.06 1630.59 1717.45 1847.08

105. 937.51 989.06 837.8 1630.59 1847.08 1764.61

106. 1079.48 1200 989.06 1717.45 1920 1847.08

107. 558.54 500.45 440.29 1581.43 1669.06 1579.13

108. 837.8 989.06 855.19 1764.61 1847.08 1886.33

109. 837.8 855.19 750.52 1764.61 1886.33 1850.84

110. 750.52 855.19 775.58 1850.84 1886.33 1963.97

124
111. 750.52 775.58 673.76 1850.84 1963.97 1934.88

112. 750.52 673.76 635.69 1850.84 1934.88 1818.63

113. 635.69 673.76 563.1 1818.63 1934.88 1908.5

114. 635.69 563.1 501.72 1818.63 1908.88 1785.17

115. 500.45 501.72 400.54 1669.06 1785.17 1698.39

116. 500.45 400.54 440.29 1669.06 1698.39 1579.13

117. 501.72 563.1 446.03 1785.17 1908.5 1897.42

118. 501.72 446.03 364.08 1785.17 1897.42 1807.75

125
119. 501.72 364.08 400.54 1785.17 1807.75 1698.39

120. 855.19 949.1 871.29 1886.33 1971.07 1999.04

121. 855.19 871.29 775.58 1886.33 1999.04 1963.97

122. 855.19 989.06 949.1 1886.33 1847.08 1971.07

123. 0 300 0 1280 1309.34 1520

124. 300 300 0 1309.34 1502.04 1520

125. 1200 1200 1061.72 1920 2200 2037.63

126. 1200 1061.72 989.06 1920 2037.63 1847.08

126
127. 300 440.29 300 1502.04 1579.13 1662.49

128. 300 300 0 1502.04 1662.49 1520

129. 440.29 400.54 300 1579.13 1698.39 1662.49

130. 989.06 1061.72 949.1 1847.08 2037.63 1971.07

131. 775.58 871.29 795.95 1963.97 1999.04 2070.54

132. 775.58 795.95 703.63 1963.97 2070.54 2039.94

133. 775.58 703.63 673.76 1963.97 2039.94 1934.88

134. 673.76 703.63 608.25 1934.88 2039.94 2013.85

127
135. 673.76 608.25 563.1 1934.88 2013.85 1908.5

136. 563.1 608.25 509.61 1908.5 2013.85 1991.86

137. 563.1 509.61 330.65 1908.5 1991.86 1908.04

138. 400.54 364.08 300 1698.39 1807.75 1796.11

139. 400.54 300 300 1698.39 1796.11 1662.49

140. 364.08 446.03 330.65 1807.75 1897.42 1908.04

141. 364.08 330.65 300 1807.75 1908.04 1796.11

142. 446.03 509.61 407.78 1897.42 1991.86 1980.83

128
143. 446.03 407.78 330.65 1897.42 1980.83 1908.04

144. 949.1 1061.72 966.84 1971.07 2037.63 2085.84

145. 949.1 966.84 871.29 1971.07 2085.84 1999.04

146. 871.29 966.84 886.2 1999.04 2085.84 2103.39

147. 871.29 886.2 795.95 1999.04 2103.39 2070.54

148. 0 300 0 1520 1662.49 1760

149. 1200 1200 1064.08 2200 2400 2200

150. 1200 1064.08 1061.72 2200 2200 2037.63

129
151. 1061.72 1064.08 966.84 2037.63 2200 2085.84

152. 300 300 181.1 1662.49 1796.11 1875.59

153. 300 181.1 0 1662.49 1875.59 1760

154. 703.63 795.95 728.57 2039.94 2070.54 2142.86

155. 703.63 728.57 642.86 2039.94 2142.86 2114.29

156. 703.63 642.86 608.25 2039.94 2114.29 2013.85

157. 795.95 886.2 814.29 2070.54 2103.39 2171.43

158. 795.95 814.29 728.57 2070.54 2171.43 2142.86

130
159. 608.25 642.86 557.14 2013.85 2114.29 2085.71

160. 608.25 557.14 509.61 2013.85 2085.71 1991.86

161. 509.61 557.14 471.43 1991.86 2085.71 2057.14

162. 509.61 471.43 407.78 1991.86 2057.14 1980.83

163. 300 330.65 300 1796.11 1908.04 1907.36

164. 300 300 181.1 1796.11 1907.36 1875.59

165. 330.65 407.78 300 1908.04 1980.83 2000

166. 330.65 300 300 1908.04 2000 1907.36

131
167. 407.78 471.43 385.71 1980.83 2057.14 2028.57

168. 407.78 385.43 300 1980.83 2028.57 2000

169. 966.84 1064.08 967.96 2085.84 2200 2200

170. 966.84 967.96 886.2 2085.84 2200 2103.39

171. 886.2 967.96 900 2103.39 2200 2200

172. 886.2 900 814.29 2103.39 2200 2171.43

173. 300 300 232.04 1907.36 2000 2000

174. 300 232.04 181.1 1907.36 2000 1875.59

132
175. 967.96 1064.08 900 2200 2200 2278.72

176. 967.96 900 900 2200 2278.72 2200

177. 0 181.1 0 1760 1875.59 2000

178. 1200 1200 900 2400 2600 2403.19

179. 1200 900 1064.08 2400 2403.19 2200

180. 1064.08 900 900 2200 2403.19 2278.72

181. 181.1 232.04 135.92 1875.59 2000 2000

182. 181.1 135.92 0 1875.59 2000 2000

133
183. 728.57 814.29 797.84 2142.86 2171.43 2253.66

184. 728.57 797.84 683.05 2142.86 2253.66 2216.95

185. 728.57 683.05 642.86 2142.86 2216.95 2114.29

186. 642.86 683.05 584.85 2114.29 2216.95 2204.98

187. 642.86 584.85 557.14 2114.29 2204.98 2085.71

188. 814.29 900 797.84 2171.43 2200 2253.66

189. 557.14 584.85 495.55 2085.71 2204.98 2153.89

190. 557.14 495.55 471.43 2085.71 2153.89 2057.14

134
191. 471.43 495.55 402.13 2057.14 2153.89 2133.44

192. 471.43 402.13 385.71 2057.14 2133.44 2028.57

193. 300 385.71 300 2000 2028.57 2079.76

194. 300 300 232.04 2000 2079.76 2000

195. 385.71 402.13 300 2028.57 2133.44 2079.76

196. 900 900 797.84 2200 2278.72 2253.66

197. 232.04 300 135.92 2000 2079.76 2000

198. 900 900 797.84 2278.72 2403.19 2253.66

135
199. 1200 900 900 2600 2600 2403.19

200. 0 135.92 0 2000 2000 2200

201. 900 900 700 2403.19 2600 2600

202. 900 700 661.39 2403.19 2600 2366.71

203. 900 661.39 797.84 2403.19 2366.71 2253.66

204. 135.92 300 300 2000 2079.76 2194.8

205. 135.92 300 0 2000 2194.8 2200

206. 683.05 797.84 661.39 2216.95 2253.66 2366.71

136
207. 683.05 661.39 584.85 2216.95 2366.71 2204.98

208. 584.85 661.39 463.3 2204.98 2366.71 2287.71

209. 584.85 463.3 495.55 2204.98 2287.71 2153.89

210. 495.55 463.3 402.13 2153.89 2287.71 2133.44

211. 402.13 463.3 300 2133.44 2287.71 2194.8

212. 402.13 300 300 2133.44 2194.8 2079.76

213. 0 300 300 2200 2194.8 2360.71

214. 0 300 0 2200 2360.71 2400

137
215. 700 500 661.39 2600 2600 2366.71

216. 661.39 500 463.3 2366.71 2600 2287.71

217. 300 463.3 300 2194.8 2287.71 2360.71

218. 463.3 500 300 2287.71 2600 2360.71

219. 0 300 300 2400 2360.71 2600

220. 0 300 0 2400 2600 2600

221. 300 500 300 2360.71 2600 2600

138
 APPENDICE B

The connectivity list is shown below; the connectivity list is a list containing the node

numbers as it is connected to each element in the mesh.

The connectivity list

1) 1, 3, 2.

139
2) 2 ,3 ,5.

3) 2 ,5, 4.

4) 3 ,6 ,7.

5) 3 ,7, 5.

6) 4 ,5 ,9.

7) 4 ,9, 14.

8) 4 ,14 ,8.

9) 5 ,7, 15

10) 5 ,15, 9.

11) 6 ,16, 10.

12) 6 ,10 ,7.

13) 7 ,10, 17.

14) 7 ,17 ,15.

15) 8 ,14, 18.

16) 8 ,18 ,11.

17) 9 ,15, 14.

18) 10 ,16, 12

19) 10 ,12, 19.

20) 10 ,19, 17.

21) 11 ,18 ,13.

22) 12 ,16, 20

23) 12 ,20 ,21

24) 12 ,21, 19

25) 13, 18 ,22

26) 14 ,15, 25

140
27) 14 ,25 ,18

28) 15, 17 ,25

29) 16 ,26, 20

30) 17, 19, 23

31) 17 ,23, 27

32) 17, 27 ,25

33) 18 ,25 ,28

34) 18 ,28 ,22

35) 19 ,21 ,29

36) 19 ,29 ,23

37) 20 ,26, 24

38) 20 ,24 ,21

39) 21, 24 ,30

40) 21 ,30 ,29

41) 22, 28, 31

42) 23, 29, 32

43) 23, 32 ,27

44) 24, 33 ,34

45) 24 ,34 ,30

46) 24, 26 ,33

47) 25, 27 3,6

48) 25 ,36, 28

49) 26, 37, 33

50) 27 ,32 ,38

51) 27 ,38, 36

141
52) 28 ,36, 31

53) 29 ,30, 39

54) 29, 39, 32

55) 30, 34 ,35

56) 30, 35, 40

57) 30 ,40, 39

58) 31, 36 ,41

59) 32, 39, 38

60) 33 ,37 ,42

61) 33 ,42 ,34

62) 34, 42, 35

63) 35, 42 ,43

64) 35 , 43 ,40

65) 36 ,38 ,51

66) 36, 51 ,50

67) 36 ,50, 41

68) 37, 52 ,44

69) 37, 44, 42

70) 38, 39 ,51

71) 39 ,40, 53

72) 39, 53, 51

73) 40 ,43, 45

74) 40 ,45 ,54

75) 40 ,54 ,53

76) 42, 44, 55

142
77) 42, 55, 43

78) 43 ,55 ,46

79) 43 ,46 ,47

80) 43, 47, 45

81) 44 ,52 ,56

82) 44, 56 ,55

83) 45, 47 ,57

84) 45, 57 ,54

85) 46 ,58, 48

86) 46, 48, 47

87) 46 ,55 ,58

88) 47 ,48 ,49

89) 47, 49, 57

90) 48, 58, 59

91) 48 ,59 ,60

92) 48 ,60, 49

93) 49 ,60, 62

94) 49, 62, 61

95) 49, 61, 57

96) 50, 51, 64

97) 51, 53, 65

98) 51, 65, 64

99) 52 ,66 ,56

100) 53 ,54 ,65

101) 54, 57 ,68

143
102) 54 ,68, 67

103) 54 ,67, 65

104) 55, 56 ,69

105) 55, 69, 58

106) 56, 66 ,69

107) 57, 61, 68

108) 58, 69, 63

109) 58, 63, 59

110) 59 ,63 ,70

111) 59 ,70 ,71

112) 59 ,71, 60

113) 60 ,71 ,72

114) 60 ,72 ,62

115) 61, 62 ,73

116) 61 ,73, 68

117) 62 ,72, 75

118) 62, 75, 74

119) 62, 74, 73

120) 63, 76, 77

121) 63 ,77 ,70

122) 63, 69 ,76

123) 64 ,65, 78

124) 65, 67 ,78

125) 66, 79, 80

126) 66, 80 ,69

144
127) 67, 68 ,81

128) 67, 81 ,78

129) 68 ,73 ,81

130) 69, 80 ,76

131) 70, 77, 83

132) 70, 83 ,82

133) 70, 82 ,71

134) 71, 82 ,84

135) 71 ,84 ,72

136) 72 ,84, 85

137) 72, 85 ,75

138) 73 ,74 ,86

139) 73, 86, 81

140) 74, 75, 87

141) 74, 87, 86

142) 75, 85, 88

143) 75 ,88, 87

144) 76 ,80, 89

145) 76 ,89, 77

146) 77, 89 ,90

147) 77 ,90, 83

148) 78, 81, 93

149) 79, 94, 95

150) 79, 95, 80

151) 80 ,95 ,89

145
152) 81, 86, 96

153) 81 ,96, 93

154) 82, 83, 97

155) 82, 97, 98

156) 82 ,98, 84

157) 83, 90, 99

158) 83, 99, 97

159) 84. 98 ,100

160) 84, 100 ,85

161) 85 ,100 ,101

162) 85 ,101 ,88

163) 86, 87, 91

164) 86. 91 ,96

165) 87, 88 ,102

166) 87 ,102, 91

167) 88, 101 ,103

168) 88, 103 ,102

169) 89 ,95 ,92

170) 89 ,92 ,90

171) 90 ,92 ,104

172) 90, 104, 99

173) 91, 102 ,105

174) 91 ,105, 96

175) 92 ,95, 106

176) 92 ,106 ,104

146
177) 93, 96 ,108

178) 94, 107 ,109

179) 94 ,109, 95

180) 95, 109, 106

181) 96, 105 ,110

182) 96, 110 ,108

183) 97, 99, 112

184) 97, 112 ,111

185) 97 ,111, 98

186) 98 ,111, 113

187) 98 ,113 ,100

188) 99, 104, 112

189) 100 ,113 ,114

190) 100, 114, 101

191) 101, 114 ,115

192) 101 ,115, 103

193) 102 ,103, 116

194) 102 ,116 ,105

195) 103 ,115, 116

196) 104, 106, 112

197) 105, 116, 110

198) 106 ,109, 112

199) 107, 117, 109

200) 108 ,110 ,118

201) 109, 117 ,119

147
202) 109 ,119 ,120

203) 109 ,120 ,112

204) 110 ,116, 121

205) 110 ,121, 118

206) 111, 112 ,120

207) 111, 120 ,113

208) 113, 120, 122

209) 113, 122, 114

210) 114 ,122, 115

211) 115 ,122 ,121

212) 115 ,121, 116

213) 118 ,121, 124

214) 118, 124 ,123

215) 119, 125, 120

216) 120, 125, 122

217) 121, 122, 124

218) 122 ,125 ,124

219) 123 ,124, 127

220) 123, 127 ,126

221) 124, 125, 127

148
222)

149
150