Distribution Level

Power Flow
Engr. Daxter William L. Gulben
Faculty, Electrical Engineering Department
Module 3 Overview

 Part 1 - Review of Balanced Powerflow Techniques

 Part 2 - Forward Backward Sweep (FBS) Method

 Part 3 - Three Phase Current Injection (TCIM) Newton Raphson (NR) Method

2
Part 1 - Review of Balanced Power Flow

 Powerflow is the fundamental analysis tool and provides the input information
for many planning and operations tools.

 Powerflow was originally developed only for the transmission level because of
the cost of computing.

 To further reduce computing requirements a number of assumptions were

made:
 Balanced system
 Transposed transmission lines
 Loads are constant power

3
 The Powerflow Problem
 The goal of powerflow is to determine the voltage and angle at all nodes
in the system, when given the end-use load and generator inputs.

Vi , i PGi , QGi , PDi , QDi

➢ To relate the two sets of variables the powerflow problem

breaks the system into two concepts:
➢ Power injections
➢ Network formulation

4
The Powerflow Problem Cont.
Power Injections

G1 G2

SG1 SD2 SG2

SD1

1 2 V2
V1

V3
V4
3 4
SG3 SG4
SD3 SD4

G3 G4

Network Formulation
5
 Power Injections

➢ Injection of power at a node is from the perspective of the interconnecting

transmission system.
➢ A positive injection indicates generated power.
➢ A negative injection indicates consumed power.

➢ The node injections are generally known for all but one bus in advance. This
is known as the swing or slack bus.

➢ The net complex power injected into a bus is given by

𝑆𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑗𝑄𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 − 𝑃𝐷𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑄𝐺𝑖 − 𝑄𝐷𝑖 (1)

where complex power supplied by the generator is:

𝑆𝐺𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 + 𝑗𝑄𝐺𝑖 (2)
and the complex power consumed by the loads is:
𝑆𝐷𝑖 = 𝑃𝐷𝑖 + 𝑗𝑄𝐷𝑖 (3)
6
 The Network Formulation

 In addition to the power injections that occur due to the generators and the
loads, power flows into and out of each node on the interconnecting lines.

 These flows are not injections from the perspective of the transmission
system, they are simple flows between nodes.

 Given the voltage and angle at the nodes on either end of a line, the flows
can be determined.

 Because of the potentially large number of nodes and links, these equations
are formulated with sets of equations.
7
 The Network Formulation Cont.

 The network consists of the lines

and transformers that connect
the nodes of a system.
G1 G2

SG1 SD2 SG2

SD1
 While the diagram shows only a 1 2 V2

single line, three phases are

V1

actually represented.

V3
 The power that is injected at the 3 4
V4

nodes flows across the lines. SD3

SG3 SG4
SD4

G3 G4

8
 The Network Formulation Cont.

 The “pi” model is a common

representation for a transmission
line. G1 G2
I1 I2
1 Y12,chr/2 Y12,chr/2 2
y12

 There are two parts: Y13,chr/2

Y24,chr/2

 A series impendence
y23
y13 Y23,chr/2
 Two shunt capacitances y24
Y13,chr/2
Y23,chr/2

Y24,chr/2
 The pi model is adequate for a
single line section when solving 3
I3
Y34,chr/2
y34
Y34,chr/2
I4
4

for a steady state values, i.e. G3 G4

powerflow.

9
 The Network Formulation Cont.

 A node will often have multiple

lines connected to it.

G1 G2
y12 I2
The capacitance values from the
I1 1 2

multiple lines can be combined y10 y20

into a single effective value.

y13 y23
y24

 The resultant model is a series

impendence between each node,
and a single shunt value.
3 4
I3 y34 I4
G3 G4
y40
y30

10
 The Network Formulation Cont.

➢ The lumped shunt capacitance values can determined using

the equations of (4).

𝑦12,𝑐ℎ𝑟 𝑦13,𝑐ℎ𝑟
𝑦10 = +
2 2

𝑦12,𝑐ℎ𝑟 𝑦24,𝑐ℎ𝑟 𝑦23,𝑐ℎ𝑟

𝑦20 = + +
2 2 2
(4)
𝑦13,𝑐ℎ𝑟 𝑦34,𝑐ℎ𝑟 𝑦23,𝑐ℎ𝑟
𝑦30 = 2
+ 2
+ 2

𝑦24,𝑐ℎ𝑟 𝑦34,𝑐ℎ𝑟
𝑦40 = 2
+ 2

11
 The Network Formulation Cont.

➢ Besides the ground node, there are four other nodes (buses) at
which the current from the sources is injected into the network.
➢ Applying Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) at nodes 1,2,3 and 4,
respectively, to get the following four equations:

𝐼1 = 𝑉1 𝑦10 + 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑦12 + 𝑉1 − 𝑉3 𝑦13

𝐼2 = 𝑉2 𝑦20 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑦12 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉3 𝑦23 + 𝑉2 − 𝑉4 𝑦24

(5)
𝐼3 = 𝑉3 𝑦30 + 𝑉3 − 𝑉1 𝑦13 + 𝑉3 − 𝑉2 𝑦23 + 𝑉3 − 𝑉4 𝑦34

𝐼4 = 𝑉4 𝑦40 + 𝑉4 − 𝑉2 𝑦24 + 𝑉4 − 𝑉3 𝑦34

12
 The Network Formulation Cont.

 Rearranging and writing in matrix form gives:

𝐼1 𝑦10 + 𝑦12 + 𝑦13 −𝑦12 −𝑦13 0 𝑉1

𝐼2 −𝑦12 𝑦20 + 𝑦12 + 𝑦23 + 𝑦24 −𝑦23 −𝑦24 𝑉2
= −𝑦23 −𝑦34
𝐼3 −𝑦13 𝑦30 + 𝑦13 + 𝑦23 + 𝑦34 𝑉3(6)
𝐼4 0 −𝑦24 −𝑦34 𝑦40 + 𝑦24 + 𝑦34 𝑉4

➢ Equation (6) is for a system with 4 nodes, but the general

formulation can be expanded to include any number of nodes.

➢ When the correct values of voltage are known, the currents

calculated in equation (6) will equal the currents of the node
injections from generation and load.
13
 I1  ( y10 + y12 + y13 ) − y12 − y13 0  V1 
I   − y12 ( y20 + y12 + y23 + y24 ) − y23 − y24  V 
 =
2
  2  (7)
 I3   − y13 − y23 ( y30 + y13 + y23 + y34 ) − y34  V3 
I   − − + +  V 
 4  0 y 24 y 34 ( y 40 y 24 y 34   4 
)

➢ Equation (7) can be recognized to be of the standard form:

𝑌11 = 𝑦10 + 𝑦12 + 𝑦13
𝑌22 = 𝑦20 + 𝑦12 + 𝑦23 + 𝑦24
𝑌33 = 𝑦30 + 𝑦13 + 𝑦23 + 𝑦34
𝑌44 = 𝑦40 + 𝑦24 + 𝑦34
𝑌12 = 𝑌21 = −𝑦12
𝑌23 = 𝑌32 = −𝑦23 𝐼1 𝑌11 𝑌12 𝑌13 𝑌14 𝑉1
𝑌31 = 𝑌13 = −𝑦13 𝐼2 𝑌 𝑌22 𝑌23 𝑌24 𝑉2
= 21
𝑌14 = 𝑌41 = −𝑦14 𝐼3 𝑌31 𝑌32 𝑌33 𝑌34 𝑉3 (8)
𝑌24 = 𝑌42 = −𝑦24 𝐼4 𝑌41 𝑌42 𝑌43 𝑌44 𝑉4
𝑌34 = 𝑌43 = −𝑦34

YBUS 14
 The Network Formulation Cont.

➢ Each admittance Yii (i = 1,2,3,4) is called the self admittance (or

driving point admittance) of node i and equals the algebraic sum of
all the admittances terminating on the node.

➢ Each off-diagonal term Yik (I, k = I1

G1
y12
G2
I2
1 2
1,2,3,4) is the mutual admittance y10 y20

(transfer admittance) between nodes

i and k and equals the negative of the y13 y23
y24

sum of all admittances connected

directly between these nodes.
3 4
I3 y34 I4

➢ Further, Yik = Yki G3 G4

y40
y30

15
 The Network Formulation Cont.
𝐼1 𝑌11 𝑌12 𝑌13 𝑌14 𝑉1
𝐼2 𝑌 𝑌22 𝑌23 𝑌24 𝑉2
= 21 (8)
𝐼3 𝑌31 𝑌32 𝑌33 𝑌34 𝑉3
𝐼4 𝑌41 𝑌42 𝑌43 𝑌44 𝑉4
➢ From index notation, Eq. (8) can be written in compact form as:
𝑛

𝐼𝑖 = ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 (9)

𝑘=1

➢ or, in matrix form:

𝐼𝐵𝑈𝑆 = 𝑌𝐵𝑈𝑆 𝑉𝐵𝑈𝑆 (10)

where YBUS denotes the matrix of bus admittance and is

known as bus admittance matrix.
➢ The dimension of the YBUS matrix is (n × n) where n is the number of
buses.
➢ The total number of nodes are m = n + 1 including the ground
16

(reference) node.
 Powerflow Formulation
➢ The complex power injected by the source into the ith bus of a
power system is:

𝑆𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑗𝑄𝑖 = 𝑃𝐺𝑖 − 𝑃𝐷𝑖 + 𝑗 𝑄𝐺𝑖 − 𝑄𝐷𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝐼𝑖∗ 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛 (11)

where Vi is the voltage at the 𝑖th bus with respect to

ground and Ii is the source current injected into the bus.

➢ As shown in (11), the power injections should equal the network

flows.

➢ The load flow problem is handled more conveniently by use of Ii

rather than Ii*.
17
 Powerflow Formulation Cont.

➢ Therefore, taking the complex conjugate of Eq. (11) gives:

𝑃𝑖 − 𝑗𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖∗ 𝐼𝑖 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛 (12)

➢ Substitute 𝐼𝑖 = σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 from Eq. (9) to get:

𝑛

𝑃𝑖 − 𝑗𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖∗ ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛 (13)

𝑘=1

18
 Powerflow Formulation Cont.
➢ Equating real and imaginary parts:
𝑛

𝑃𝑖 =Re 𝑉𝑖∗ ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘

(14)
𝑘=1

𝑄𝑖 = − Im 𝑉𝑖∗ ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 (15)

𝑘=1

➢ In polar form:
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑒 𝑗𝛿𝑖
(16)
𝑌𝑖𝑘 = 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖𝑘 19
 Powerflow Formulation Cont.

➢ Real and reactive power flows between lines can be calculated:

𝑛

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 ෍ 𝑉𝑘 𝑌𝑖𝑘 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑘 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 (17)

𝑘=1

𝑄𝑖 = − 𝑉𝑖 ෍ 𝑉𝑘 𝑌𝑖𝑘 sin 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑘 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 (18)

𝑘=1

➢ Because there are no energy storage elements, the complex

power flows in (17) and (18) are equal to the power injections in
(1)-(3).

➢ By relating these equations, the fundamental power flow 20

equations are derived.

 Powerflow Formulation Cont.
𝑛

𝑃𝑖 =𝑃𝐺𝑖 − 𝑃𝐷𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 ෍ 𝑉𝑘 𝑌𝑖𝑘 cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑘 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 (19)

𝑘=1
𝑛

𝑄𝑖 =𝑄𝐺𝑖 − 𝑄𝐷𝑖 = − 𝑉𝑖 ෍ 𝑉𝑘 𝑌𝑖𝑘 sin 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃𝑘 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 (20)

𝑘=1

➢ Equations (19) and (20) represent 2n power flow equations at n buses of a

power system (n real power flow equations and n reactive power flow
equations).

➢ Each bus is characterized by four variables; 𝑃𝑖 , 𝑄𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖 and 𝛿𝑖 , resulting in a

total of 4n variables.

➢ Equations (19) and (20) can be solved for 2n variables if the remaining 2n
variables are specified.
21
 Powerflow Considerations

➢ Practical considerations allow a power system analyst to fix a priori two

variables at each bus.

➢ The solution for the remaining 2n bus variables is obtained by iterative

numerical techniques.

➢ Depending upon which two variables are specified, the buses are classified
into three categories – PQ Buses (Load Buses), PV Buses (Generator Buses),
Slack or Reference Bus.

➢ Slack bus (ref. bus) - Voltage magnitude and angle known : 𝑉𝑖 , 𝛿𝑖

➢ PV Bus : real power and voltage magnitude known : 𝑃𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖

➢ PQ Bus : real and reactive powers known : 𝑃𝑖 , 𝑄𝑖 22

 Powerflow Considerations
When we solve the power flow problem, all the variables must lie
within practical limits.
(i) Voltage magnitude 𝑉𝑖 must satisfy the inequality:

𝑉𝑖 min ≤ 𝑉𝑖 ≤ 𝑉𝑖 max (19)

(ii) Certain of the 𝛿𝑖 ’s must satisfy the inequality constraint:

𝛿𝑖 − 𝛿𝑘 ≤ 𝛿𝑖 − 𝛿𝑘 max (20)
(iii) Physical limitations on the generators, PGi and QGi are constrained as follows:

𝑃𝐺𝑖,min ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑃𝐺𝑖,max (21)

𝑄𝐺𝑖,min ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 ≤ 𝑄𝐺𝑖,max (22)

23
 Powerflow Considerations

The total generation of real and reactive power must equal the total
load demand plus losses, i.e.,

෍ 𝑃𝐺𝑖 = ෍ 𝑃𝐷𝑖 + 𝑃𝐿 (23)

𝑖 𝑖

෍ 𝑄𝐺𝑖 = ෍ 𝑄𝐷𝑖 + 𝑄𝐿 (24)

𝑖 𝑖

where PL and QL are system real and reactive power loss, respectively
24
 Power Flow Solution Techniques

 Once the non-linear power flow problem is properly formulated it is necessary

to solve the equations.

 Since the problem is highly non-linear and an analytic solution is not readily
available, iterative solver are commonly used.

 The following sections will examine some of the most common solution
techniques.

25
Power Flow Solution Techniques

 Review of balanced power flow

 Gauss Iterative Technique

 Gauss-Seidel Iterative Technique
 Newton Raphson
 Fast Decoupled
 DC Power Flow

26
 Gauss Iterative Technique

 Given 𝑉1 , 𝑆2 ,𝑆3 ,…… , 𝑆𝑛 , we need to find 𝑆1 , 𝑉2 ,𝑉3 ,…… , 𝑉𝑛 .

𝑛
∗
𝑆1 = 𝑉1 ෍ 𝑌1𝑘 𝑉𝑘∗ (25)
𝑘=1
𝑛
∗ ∗
𝑆𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 𝑖 = 2,3, … , 𝑛 (26)
𝑘=1
 Knowing 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 ……, 𝑉n , it is possible to find 𝑆1 . Since 𝑉1 is already
known, only 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 ……, 𝑉𝑛 need to be found. These 𝑛 − 1 unknowns may
be found from the 𝑛 − 1 equations of (26).
 Taking the complex conjugate, replace (25) and (26) by:

𝑆𝑖∗ = 𝑉𝑖∗ ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 𝑖 = 2,3, … , 𝑛 (27)

𝑘=1
27
 Gauss Iterative Technique

 Dividing (27) by 𝑉𝑖∗ and separating out the 𝑌𝑖𝑖 term, (27) can be rewritten as:

𝑛
𝑆𝑖∗
∗ = 𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 𝑖 = 2,3, … , 𝑛 (28)
𝑉𝑖
𝑘=2

or, rearranging:

𝑛
1 𝑆𝑖∗
𝑉𝑖 = − ෍ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 𝑖 = 2,3, … , 𝑛 (29)
𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖∗
𝑘=2

28
 Gauss Iterative Technique
 Thus, we get 𝑛 − 1 implicit nonlinear algebraic equations in the unknown
complex 𝑉𝑖 in the form:

𝑉2 = ℎ෨ 2 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , … , 𝑉𝑛
𝑉3 = ℎ෨ 3 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , … , 𝑉𝑛
(30)
⋮
𝑉𝑛 = ℎ෨ 𝑛 (𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , … , 𝑉𝑛 )

where the ℎ෨ 𝑖 are given by (29).

 The numbering of (30) can be changed such that 𝑥1 =𝑉2 , 𝑥2 =𝑉3, … , 𝑥𝑛 =𝑉𝑛 .

29
 Gauss Iterative Technique
 In vector notation, (30) is written in the form :

𝐱 = 𝐡(𝐱) (31)

 Solving (31) by iteration we get

𝐱 𝑣+1 = 𝐡 𝐱 𝑣 𝑣 = 0,1, … (32)

where the superscript indicates the iteration number.

 Thus, starting with an initial value 𝐱 0 , a sequence of 𝐱1 , 𝐱 2 , 𝐱 3 ……are generated

until convergence is achieved.

30
 Gauss Iterative Technique
 In practice, the iterations are stopped when the changes in 𝐱 𝑣 become very
small.
∆𝐱 𝑣 ≤ 𝜀
Typically 𝜀 is the Euclidean norm

➢ Thus, Gauss iteration, v = 0,1,2,…..:

𝑥1𝑣+1 = ℎ1 𝑥1𝑣 , 𝑥2𝑣 , … , 𝑥𝑁𝑣

𝑥2𝑣+1 = ℎ2 𝑥1𝑣 , 𝑥2𝑣 , … , 𝑥𝑁𝑣
(33)
⋮
𝑥𝑁𝑣+1 = ℎ𝑁 (𝑥1𝑣 , 𝑥2𝑣 , … , 𝑥𝑁𝑣 )

31
Power Flow Solution Techniques

 Review of balanced power flow

 Gauss Iterative Technique

 Gauss-Seidel Iterative Technique
 Newton Raphson
 Fast Decoupled
 DC Power Flow

32
 Gauss-Seidel Iterative Technique

 Recall: Gauss iteration, v = 0,1,2,…..:

𝑥1𝑣+1 = ℎ1 𝑥1𝑣 , 𝑥2𝑣 , … , 𝑥𝑁𝑣

𝑥2𝑣+1 = ℎ2 𝑥1𝑣 , 𝑥2𝑣 , … , 𝑥𝑁𝑣 (33)
⋮
𝑥𝑁𝑣+1 = ℎ𝑁 (𝑥1𝑣 , 𝑥2𝑣 , … , 𝑥𝑁𝑣 )

 When 𝑥2𝑣+1 is being solved, 𝑥1𝑣+1 would be known. Since 𝑥1𝑣+1 is a better
estimate than 𝑥1𝑣 , the updated value is used.

 Similarly, when solving for 𝑥3𝑣+1 , then 𝑥1𝑣+1 and 𝑥2𝑣+1 can be used. This
modification is called the Gauss-Seidel iteration.

33
 Gauss-Seidel Iterative Technique

Gauss-Seidel iteration, v = 0,1,2,…..:

𝑥1𝑣+1 = ℎ1 𝑥1𝑣 , 𝑥2𝑣 , … , 𝑥𝑁𝑣

𝑥2𝑣+1 = ℎ2 𝑥1𝑣+1 , 𝑥2𝑣 , … , 𝑥𝑁𝑣
𝑥3𝑣+1 = ℎ3 (𝑥1𝑣+1 , 𝑥2𝑣+1 , 𝑥3𝑣 … , 𝑥𝑁𝑣 ) (34)

⋮
𝑥𝑁𝑣+1 = ℎ𝑁 (𝑥1𝑣+1 , 𝑥2𝑣+1 , … , 𝑥𝑁−1
𝑣+1 𝑣
, 𝑥𝑁 )

34
Power Flow Solution Techniques

 Review of balanced power flow

 Gauss Iterative Technique

 Gauss-Seidel Iterative Technique
 Newton Raphson
 Fast Decoupled
 DC Power Flow

35
 Newton Raphson Method

 Newton-Raphson Methods were originally developed for use on transmission level

analysis.

 They are based on the power injections at each node, both real and reactive.

 These power injections are then used to update the voltage and voltage angle.

 The NR method is a powerful method of solving a system of non-linear algebraic

equations, requiring the calculation and inversion of a Jacobian matrix, which is
computationally intensive.

 It solves in a relatively few number of iterations.

 It is the most widely used method for solving power flow problem.

36
 Newton Raphson General Form

➢ Consider a set of 𝑛 non-linear algebraic equations:

𝑓𝑖 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 = 0 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 (35)

➢ Assume initial values of unknowns as 𝑥10 , 𝑥20 ,…, 𝑥𝑛0 .

➢ Let ∆𝑥10, ∆𝑥20 ,…, ∆𝑥𝑛0 be the corrections, which upon being added
to the initial guess, give the actual solution.

➢ Therefore:
𝑓𝑖 𝑥10 + ∆𝑥10 , 𝑥20 + ∆𝑥20 , … , 𝑥𝑛0 + ∆𝑥𝑛0 = 0 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 (36)

37
 Newton Raphson General Form

➢ Expanding these equations in Taylor series around the initial guess

gives:

0 0
𝜕𝑓𝑖 𝜕𝑓𝑖
𝑓𝑖 𝑥10 , 𝑥20 , … , 𝑥𝑛0 + 0
∆𝑥1 + ⋯ + ∆𝑥𝑛0 + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥𝑛
(37)

𝜕𝑓𝑖 0 𝜕𝑓𝑖 0 𝜕𝑓𝑖 0

where 𝜕𝑥1
, 𝜕𝑥2
, … 𝜕𝑥 are the derivatives of fi with respect
𝑛
0 0
to x1, x2, …., xn evaluated at 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛0 .

38
 Newton Raphson General Form

0 0
𝜕𝑓𝑖 𝜕𝑓𝑖
𝑓𝑖 𝑥10 , 𝑥20 , … , 𝑥𝑛0 + 0
∆𝑥1 + ⋯ + ∆𝑥𝑛0 + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥𝑛

Neglecting higher order terms, write the above equation in matrix form.

0 0
𝜕𝑓1 𝜕𝑓1
⋯
𝑓10 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥𝑛 ∆𝑥10 0
⋮ + ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ = ⋮
0 0
𝑓𝑛0 𝜕𝑓𝑛 𝜕𝑓𝑛 ∆𝑥𝑛0 0
⋯ (38)
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥𝑛

39
 Newton Raphson General Form
➢ Equation (38) can also be expressed as:
𝐟 0 + 𝐉 0 ∆𝐱 0 = 𝟎 (39)

➢ 𝐉 0 is known as the Jacobian matrix (obtained by differentiating the

function vector f with respect to x and evaluating it at x0)

➢ Equation (39) can be rearranged:

𝐟 0 = −𝐉 0 ∆𝐱 0 (40)

40
 Newton Raphson General Form
𝑘+1 𝑘 𝑘 −1
𝑥 =𝑥 − 𝐽 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥𝑘 (41)

➢ Approximate values of corrections ∆𝐱 0 can be obtained from Eq. (40). These

being a set of linear algebraic equations that can be solved efficiently by
triangularization and back substitution.

➢ For the (𝑘 + 1)th iteration:

𝑥 𝑘+1 = 𝑥 𝑘 + ∆𝑥 𝑘 (42)

➢ Iterations are continued until Eq. (35) is satisfied to any desired accuracy, i.e.,

𝑓𝑖 (𝑥 𝑘 ) < 𝜀 (a specified value) 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛

41
Newton Raphson For Power Systems

∆𝑃𝑖 = −𝑃𝑖 + ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑘 𝐺𝑖𝑘 cos 𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝐵𝑘 sin 𝜃𝑖𝑘 =0

𝑘=1
𝑁 (43)
∆𝑄𝑖 = −𝑄𝑖 + ෍ 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑘 𝐺𝑖𝑘 sin 𝜃𝑖𝑘 + 𝐵𝑖𝑘 cos 𝜃𝑖𝑘 =0
𝑘=1

42
 Newton Raphson For Power Systems
➢ Consider the equations in (43) re-written:
∆𝑃𝑖 = −𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝑖 𝑥 = 0
(44)
∆𝑄𝑖 = −𝑄𝑖 + 𝑄𝑖 𝑥 = 0

𝜃
such that 𝑃𝑖 𝑥 and 𝑄𝑖 𝑥 are functions of 𝑥 = , with 𝜃
𝑉
being the vector of 𝜃𝑖 ’s, and 𝑉 the vector of 𝑉𝑖 ’s.

➢ The vector f(x) may be expressed as:

∆𝑃
𝑓 𝑥 =
∆𝑄

where ∆𝑃 is the vector of ∆𝑃𝑖 ’s, and ∆𝑄 the vector of ∆𝑄𝑖 ’s.
43
Newton Raphson For Power Systems

➢ From equation (40):

𝐟 = −𝐉 ∆𝐱

∆𝐏 ∆𝛉
=−𝐉
∆𝐐 ∆𝐕

∆𝛉 −𝟏 ∆𝐏
=−𝐉
∆𝐕 ∆𝐐

𝛉 𝛉 −𝟏 ∆𝐏
= − 𝐉 𝒌 (45)
𝐕 𝒌+𝟏 𝐕 𝒌 ∆𝐐 𝒌

➢ Equation (45) shows how the state variable can be solved for
each iteration.
➢ The number of iterations depends on the desired accuracy.
44
Worked Powerflow Examples

 Gauss Siedel

 Newton Raphson

45
 Gauss-Seidel Worked Example

The figure below shows a single-line diagram of a

five-bus power system. The four tables on the
following slides contain input data.
T2
800 MVA
1 5 4 345/15 kV 3 520 MW
T1 Line 3
B1 B51 B41 B3
345 kV
50 mi
400 MVA 800 MVA
15 kV B52 B42 15 kV
400 MVA 80 MW
Line 2

Line 1
15/345 kV 40 Mvar
345 kV
345 kV 200 mi
100 mi

B21 B22

2
280 Mvar 800 MW
46
Bus input Data
Bus Type V 𝛿 𝑃𝐺 𝑄𝐺 per 𝑃𝐿 per 𝑄𝐿 per 𝑄𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑄𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑛
per degrees per unit unit unit per per
unit unit unit unit

1 Swing 1.0 0 0 0 0 0 - -
2 PQ - - 0 0 8 2.8 - -
3 PV 1.05 - 5.2 - .8 .4 4 -2.8
4 PQ - - 0 0 0 0 - -
5 PQ - - 0 0 0 0 - -

➢ Bus 1 has a generator connected and is a swing bus.

➢ Bus 3 has a generator and a load connected. It is a voltage
controlled bus.
➢ Buses 2,3, and 5 are all load buses.
47
Line input Data
Bus-to-Bus R’ per unit X’ per unit B’ per unit Maximum
MVA per
unit
2-4 0.0090 0.100 1.72 12.0
2-5 0.0045 0.050 0.88 12.0
4-5 0.00225 0.025 0.44 12.0

Transformer input Data

Bus-to- R per unit X per unit 𝐵𝑚 per Maximum Maximum
Bus unit MVA per TAP
unit Setting
per unit
1-5 0.00150 0.02 0 6.0 -
3-4 0.00075 0.01 0 10.0 -

48
Input Data and Unknowns
Bus Input Data Unknowns
1 𝑉1 = 1.0, 𝛿1 = 0 𝑃1 , 𝑄1
2 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝐺2 − 𝑃𝐿2 = −8 𝑉2 , 𝛿2
𝑄2 = 𝑄𝐺2 − 𝑄𝐿2 = −2.8
3 𝑉3 = 1.05 𝑄3 , 𝛿3
𝑃3 = 𝑃𝐺3 − 𝑃𝐿3 = 4.4
4 𝑃4 = 0, 𝑄4 = 0 𝑉4 , 𝛿4
5 𝑃5 = 0, 𝑄5 = 0 𝑉5 , 𝛿5

Now compute the elements of the second row of 𝒀𝑏𝑢𝑠 .

Since buses 1 and 3 are not directly connected to bus 2,

𝑌21 = 𝑌23 = 0

49
Gauss-Seidel Worked Example
By using values from the Line input Data, compute the following.
−1 −1
𝑌24 = ′ +𝑗𝑋 ′ =
𝑅24 24 0.009+𝑗0.1

= −0.89276 + 𝑗9.91964 = 9.95972∠95.143° per unit

−1 −1
𝑌25 = ′ +𝑗𝑋 ′ =
𝑅25 25 0.0045+𝑗0.05

= −1.78552 + 𝑗19.83932 = 19.9195∠95.143° per unit

′ ′
1 1 𝐵24 𝐵25
𝑌22 = ′ +𝑗𝑋 ′ + ′ +𝑗𝑋 ′ + 𝑗 2 + 𝑗 2
𝑅24 24 𝑅25 25

= 0.89276 − 𝑗9.91964 + 1.78552 − 𝑗19.83932

1.72 0.88 50
+𝑗 +𝑗
2 2
Gauss-Seidel Worked Example Cont.

 Note that half the shunt admittance of each line connected to bus 2 is included in 𝑌22 , and the other half is
at the other end of these lines.
 Nodal equations for the power system network may now be written as
𝑰 = 𝒀𝑏𝑢𝑠 𝑽.

 For each load bus, 𝐼𝑘 is calculated by

𝑃𝑘 −𝑗𝑄𝑘
𝐼𝑘 = .
𝑉𝑘∗

 Applying the Gauss-Seidel power flow method to the nodal equations, with 𝐼𝑘 as expressed above, gives
𝑘−1 𝑁
1 𝑃𝑘 − 𝑗𝑄𝑘
𝑉𝑘 𝑖 + 1 = − ෍ 𝑌𝑘𝑛 𝑉𝑛 𝑖 + 1 − ෍ 𝑌𝑘𝑛 𝑉𝑛 (𝑖)
𝑌𝑘𝑘 𝑉𝑘∗ (𝑖)
𝑛=1 𝑛=𝑘+1

 The above equation can be applied twice during each iteration, first using 𝑉𝑘∗ (𝑖), then replacing that by
𝑉𝑘∗ (𝑖 + 1) on the right side.

51
Gauss-Seidel Worked Example

 For a voltage-controlled bus, 𝑄𝑘 is unknown, but can be calculated from the following.
𝑁

𝑄𝑘 = 𝑉𝑘 (𝑖) ෍ 𝑌𝑘𝑛 𝑉𝑛 (𝑖) sin 𝛿𝑘 𝑖 − 𝛿𝑛 𝑖 − 𝜃𝑘𝑛

𝑛=1

 Now, use Gauss-Seidel to calculate the voltage at load bus 2 after the first iteration (𝑉2 (1)).

1 𝑃2 − 𝑗𝑄2
𝑉2 1 = − 𝑌21 𝑉1 (1) + 𝑌23 𝑉3 (0) + 𝑌24 𝑉4 (0) + 𝑌25 𝑉5 (0)
𝑌22 𝑉2∗ (0)

1 −8 − 𝑗(−2.8)
= − −1.78552 + 𝑗19.83932 1.0 + −.89276 + 𝑗9.91964 1.0
28.5847∠ − 84.624° 1.0∠0°
−8+𝑗2.8 − −2.67828+𝑗29.7589
= 28.5847∠−84.624°
= 0.96132∠ − 16.543° per unit

52
Gauss-Seidel Worked Example

 Now recalculate 𝑉2 1 using 𝑉2∗ 1 = 0.96132∠16.543° in place of

𝑉2∗ (0).

1 −8+𝑗2.8
𝑉2 1 = − −2.67828 + 𝑗29.75829
28.5847∠−84.624° 0.96132∠16.543°
−4.4698−𝑗24.5973
= = 0.87460∠ − 15.675° per unit
28.5847∠−84.624°

 After performing computations at buses 3, 4, and 5, the first Guess-

Seidel iteration will be complete.

53
Newton Raphson Worked Example
 This is a transmission level
system.
 3 nodes
 2 generators
-.1i  1 load
PG1 PG2=1.5

V1 = 10 V2 = 1.05
 The transmission lines are
-.25i -.5i
assumed to be purely
inductive, with no resistance.

SD3=1+.25i
 Node types:
 Node1 :Swing bus
 Node 2: PV bus
 Node 3: PQ bus
54
Newton Raphson Worked Example

 Pi ( x ) − Pi   P( x )
f (x ) =   = 
 i
Q ( x ) − Q i  Q ( x )
(46)

 P P 
 V 
J ( x ) =  
Q Q  (47)
 
  V 

   −1  P ( x )
V  = J ( x ) Q( x ) (48)
   

55
Newton Raphson Worked Example

 n +1   n 
= − n
 ( ) −1  P x n ( )
 n +1   n   n 
( )
J x (49)
V  V   Q x 

−1
 P2 P2 P2 
 
 n +12   n 2    2  3 V3   P2 (xn ) − 1.5 
 n +1   n   P3 P3 P3   P (x ) − 1 
 3  =  3  −    3 V3   3 n  (50)
V n +13  V n 3   2 Q3 (xn ) − .25
    Q3
 Q3 Q3 
  2  3 V3 

56
Newton Raphson Worked Example

Initial 1 2 3 4
Theta 2 0 5.546556 5.593182 5.593524 5.593524
Theta 3 0 -7.43451 -7.88595 -7.89849 -7.89849
Voltage 3 1 0.9745 0.95735 0.956977 0.956977

57
Part 1 - Review of balanced power flow

 Review of balanced power flow

 Gauss Iterative Technique

 Gauss-Seidel Iterative Technique
 Newton Raphson
 Fast Decoupled
 DC Power Flow

58
Fast Decoupled Power Flow

 As described in the Newton Raphson section, the Jacobian Matrix can be

expressed as

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑃
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑉
𝐉= (51)
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑉

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
 The values of the off-diagonal sub-matrices and are small and can
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝜃
be approximated to zero.

 Hence, the power flow problem can be decoupled.

59
 Fast Decoupled Power Flow

 Substitute approximations into Eq. (48).

𝜕𝑃
0 ∆𝜃 ∆𝑃
𝜕𝜃
=
0
𝜕𝑄 ∆𝑉 ∆𝑄
𝛿𝜕𝑉

 Then,
𝜕𝑃
∆𝜃 = ∆𝑃
𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑄
∆𝑉 = ∆𝑄
𝜕𝑉 (52)

60
Fast Decoupled Power Flow

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
 Further assumptions can be made about the terms in and .
𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑉

 Usually the 𝐺𝑖𝑗 terms of the 𝑌𝑏𝑢𝑠 are smaller than the 𝐵𝑖𝑗 and can be ignored.

 All per unit bus voltage magnitudes are considered approximately equal and
difference between bus angles are considered small.

61
 Fast Decoupled Power Flow

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
➢ Then, the diagonal terms of 𝜕𝜃
and 𝜕𝑉
can be written as:

𝜕𝑃𝑖
= −𝑄𝑖 − 𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖 2
≈ σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑘 𝐵𝑖𝑘 − 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖 ≈ − 𝑉𝑖 2 𝐵𝑖𝑖
𝜕𝜃𝑖
(53)

𝜕𝑄𝑖 𝑄𝑖
= − 𝐵𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ≈ − σ𝑛𝑘=1 𝑉𝑘 𝐵𝑖𝑘 − 𝑉𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑖 ≈ − 𝑉𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑖 (54)
𝜕 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖

62
 Fast Decoupled Power Flow

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
➢ The off-diagonal terms of 𝜕𝜃
and 𝜕𝑉
can be written as:

𝜕𝑃𝑖
= 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑗 𝐺𝑖𝑗 sin 𝜃𝑖𝑗 − 𝐵𝑖𝑗 cos 𝜃𝑖𝑗 ≈ − 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑗 𝐵𝑖𝑗
𝜕𝜃𝑗

𝜕𝑄𝑖
= 𝑉𝑖 𝐺𝑖𝑗 sin 𝜃𝑖𝑗 − 𝐵𝑖𝑗 cos 𝜃𝑖𝑗 ≈ − 𝑉𝑖 𝐵𝑖𝑗 (55)
𝜕 𝑉𝑗

63
 Fast Decoupled Power Flow

𝑉2 ⋯ 0 𝐵22 𝐵23 𝐵2𝑛

➢ Consider 𝐕 ≜ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ and 𝐁 ≜ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ,
0 ⋯ 𝑉𝑛 𝐵𝑛2 𝐵𝑛3 𝐵𝑛𝑛

where B may obtained from 𝐘𝑏𝑢𝑠 by stripping away the first row and column and
then taking the imaginary part.

Then,
𝜕𝑃
=−𝐕𝐁𝐕
𝜕𝜃

𝜕𝑄
=−𝐕𝐁 (56)
𝜕𝑉

64
 Fast Decoupled Power Flow
➢ Substitute into equation (52) to get

− 𝐕 𝐁 𝐕 ∆𝜃 = ∆𝑃
(57)
− 𝐕 𝐁 ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑄

➢ Because of the assumption that all per unit 𝑉𝑖 are equal, assume the
second 𝐕 in (57) is the identity matrix.

➢ Thus
−𝐁 ∆𝜃 = 𝐕 −1
∆𝑃 = ∆𝑃෨

−𝐁 ∆𝑉 = 𝐕 −1
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑄෨ (58)

➢ Note that ∆𝑃෨ and ∆𝑄෨ are just scaled versions of ∆𝑃 and ∆𝑄 .

65
Fast Decoupled Power Flow

 An important observation is that B is a constant matrix, independent of

iteration count. Thus, only one matrix inversion of B is required.

 These equations are known as the fast-decoupled power flow equations and
this is most commonly used as the power flow solver in commercial packages.

66
Part 1 - Review of balanced power flow

 Review of balanced power flow

 Gauss Iterative Technique

 Gauss-Seidel Iterative Technique
 Newton Raphson
 Fast Decoupled
 DC Power Flow

67
DC Power Flow
 DC powerflow is a non-iterative solution because of various assumptions.
 Reactive power flows are ignored.
 All node voltages are assumed to be 1 per unit.
 The entire problem reduced to a single set of linear equations:

𝜃 = 𝐵−1 P

 The name DC Power Flow is derived from the fact that the equations are
linear and the solution of the equations is real power.

 DC Power Flow is used in Optimal Power Flow (OPF) solvers, Location

Marginal Price (LMP) solvers, and Contingency Analysis (CA).

68
Part 2 - Forward Backward Sweep (FBS)
Method
 At the distribution level the assumption of a three phase balanced system is
not longer appropriate.

 For distribution feeders which are generally operated in a radial

configuration, the FBS method is an effective unbalanced power flow solution
method.

 The FBS method will not work for a looped or meshed system.

69
Forward Backward Sweep (FBS) Method

Z12
Z23 Z34 Z45
1 2 3 4 5

I4 I5
I12 I2 I23 I3 I34 I45
VS
S2 S3 S4 S5

 The ‘Forward’ sweep computes the voltage at node 5 under no-load

condition.
 With no load currents, there are no line currents.
 Thus the node 5 voltage will equal that of the specified source voltage.
 The ‘Backward’ sweep commences by computing the load current at node 5.

70
Forward Backward Sweep (FBS) Method

 The load current at each node is computed by:

𝑆𝑛 ∗
𝐼𝑛 = (59)
𝑉𝑛

 The backward sweep will determine a computed source voltage 𝑉1 .

 However, the first iteration will produce a voltage that is not equal to the
specified source voltage 𝑉𝑠 .

 Because the system is non-linear, the solution must be found by again doing an
iteration of the ‘Forward’ sweep.

71
Forward Backward Sweep (FBS) Method

 The ‘Forward’ sweep is conducted with the specified source voltage and the line currents
from the previous backward sweep.

 Using KVL for the line between node 1 and node 2 gives:

𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑍12 ∙ 𝐼12 (60)

 This procedure is repeated for each line segment until a “new”

voltage is determined at node 5.

 Using the new voltage a backward sweep is started that will lead to a
new source current.
72
 FBS Example

Infinite
Bus
2000' 3500'
[Z12] [Z23]
I12 I23
Iload 3
Iload 2
1 2 3
Sload 2 Sload 3

➢ Nominal Voltage: 2400 V

➢ The following matrix is the standard impedance matrix from the
IEEE 4 node test feeder.

0.4013 + 𝑗1.4133 0.0953 + 𝑗0.8515 0.0953 + 𝑗0.7266

Ω
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 0.0953 + 𝑗0.8515 0.413 + 𝑗1.4133 0.0953 + 𝑗0.7802
mile
0.0953 + 𝑗0.7266 0.0953 + 𝑗0.7802 0.4013 + 𝑗1.4133
 FBS Example

➢ Using 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 , 𝑍12 and 𝑍23 may be computed.

0.1520 + 𝑗0.5353 0.0361 + 𝑗0.3225 0.0361 + 𝑗0.2752

2000′
𝑍12 = 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∙ = 0.0361 + 𝑗0.3225 0.1520 + 𝑗0.5353 0.0361 + 𝑗0.2955 Ω
5280′
0.0361 + 𝑗0.2752 0.0361 + 𝑗0.2955 0.1520 + 𝑗0.5353

0.2660 + 𝑗0.9368 0.0632 + 𝑗0.5644 0.0632 + 𝑗0.4816

3500′
𝑍23 = 𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∙ = 0.0632 + 𝑗0.5644 0.2660 + 𝑗0.9368 0.0632 + 𝑗0.5172 Ω
5280′
0.0632 + 𝑗0.4816 0.0632 + 𝑗0.5172 0.2660 + 𝑗0.9368
 FBS Example
➢ Initial voltages are set up as follows.

2400 ∠ 0°
𝑉1 = 2400 ∠ − 120° V
2400 ∠ 120°

➢ On the first pass, all nodes start at nominal.

➢ Therefore, 𝑉1 = 𝑉21 = 𝑉31

➢ 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑2 and 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑3 are defined.

0
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑2 = 75 + 𝑗30 kVA
0

127.5 + 𝑗80
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑3 = 110 + 𝑗75 kVA
13 + 𝑗10
 FBS Example

➢ Equations to be used:
𝑆 ∗
➢ Recall that current injection is calculated by 𝐼 = .
𝑉

➢ Also, the following standard circuit analysis equations will be used.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (𝑎)𝑉𝑖𝑛 − (𝑏)𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝐼𝑖𝑛 = (𝑐)𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + (𝑑)𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡

➢ Assume:
➢ 𝑎 = 𝑑 = 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
➢ 𝑏=𝑍
➢ 𝑐=0
➢ From circuit representations of distribution lines, 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
➢ Therefore, the resulting equations are as follows.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑍 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
 FBS Example
➢ Commence the backward sweep by calculating the load current at each
node starting at the bottom.

➢ Node 3: ∗
127.5+𝑗80 kVA
2400 ∠ 0° V
∗ 54.42 − 𝑗34.02
110+𝑗75 kVA
𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑3 = = −51.65 − 𝑗23.59 A
2400 ∠−120° V
∗ −22.55 + 𝑗49.21
13+𝑗10 kVA
2400 ∠ 120° V

➢ By KCL, 0 = −𝐼23 + 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑3

54.42 − 𝑗34.02
⇒ 𝐼23 = −51.65 − 𝑗23.59 A.
−22.55 + 𝑗49.21
 FBS Example
➢ Node 2:
∗
0 kVA
2400 ∠ 0° V
∗ 0
75+𝑗30 kVA
𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑2 = = −26.33 − 𝑗20.75 A
2400 ∠−120° V
∗ 0
0 kVA
2400 ∠ 120° V

➢ By KCL, 0 = −𝐼12 + 𝐼23 + 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑2

54.42 − 𝑗34.02
⇒ 𝐼12 = 𝐼23 + 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑2 = −78.64 − 𝑗44.34 A.
−22.55 + 𝑗49.21

➢ Node 1:
➢ This node is fixed, so there are no calculations to do.
 FBS Example
➢ Calculate the voltage updates and check for convergence. (Assume voltage
tolerance of 0.001 V)

➢ 1: 𝑉1 is going to remain fixed (infinite bus).

➢ 2:
➢ For iteration k+1, the voltage update is calculated as follows.

𝑉2𝑘+1 = 𝑉1 − 𝑍12 𝐼12

➢ Therefore,

2400 ∠ 0° 2376.71 ∠ 0.18°

𝑉22 = 2400 ∠ − 120° V − 𝑍12 𝐼12 = 2373.00 ∠ − 120.65° V
2400 ∠ 120° 2409.73 ∠ 119.64°

𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓2 = max 𝑉22 − 𝑉21 = 38.2402 V

 FBS Example

➢ 3:
➢ For iteration k+1, the voltage update is calculated as follows.

𝑉3𝑘+1 = 𝑉2𝑘+1 − 𝑍23 𝐼23

➢ Therefore,
𝑉32 = 𝑉22 − 𝑍23 𝐼23

2376.71 ∠ 0.18 °
= 2373.00 ∠ − 120.65° V − 𝑍23 𝐼23
2409.73 ∠ 119.64°

2345.99 ∠ .1131°
= 2345.86 ∠ − 121.18° V
2409.44 ∠ 119.00°

𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓3 = max 𝑉32 − 𝑉31 = 72.7965 V

 FBS Example
➢ Check for convergence.

max 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓2 , 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓3 = 72.7965 V > 0.0001 V

➢ Because the maximum calculated voltage difference is greater than the

tolerance value, another iteration is required.
➢ Iterations are repeated until convergence is achieved (difference is less than
0.0001 V).
➢ It took 6 iterations for this example to converge.
➢ The final values are shown below.

2400 ∠ 0° 2376.42 ∠ 0.1792° 2345.13 ∠ 0.0950°

𝑉1 = 2400 ∠ − 120° V 𝑉2 = 2372.44 ∠ − 120.65° V 𝑉3 = 2344.84 ∠ − 121.17° V
2400 ∠ 120° 2409.54 ∠ 119.65° 2408.72 ∠ 119.02°

64.18 ∠ − 32.01° 64.18 ∠ − 32.01°

𝐼12 = 90.28 ∠ − 150.58° A 𝐼23 = 56.78 ∠ − 155.45° A
54.13 ∠ 114.62° 54.13 ∠ 114.62°
Part 3 - Three Phase Current Injection
(TCIM) Newton Raphson (NR) method
➢ While the FBS is an efficient solution technique, it is not able to solve for
systems with loops. The TCIM formulation with the NR solution method
can solve for these systems.

➢ This method uses power flow formulations based on current injections.

➢ The current injections are split into real and reactive components.

➢ The set of nonlinear equations that results is solved using the Newton
Raphson method.

82
 TCIM-NR

 Three phase current mismatches for bus 𝑘 = {1, … , 𝑛} are:

𝑠𝑝 𝑠 𝑠𝑝 𝑠
𝑃𝑘 −𝑗 𝑄𝑘
∆𝐼𝑘𝑠 = ∗ − σ𝑖∈𝛺𝑘 σ𝑡∈𝛼𝑝 𝑌𝑘𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑖𝑡
𝐸𝑘𝑠
(61)

where 𝛼𝑝 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐

𝑠, 𝑡 ∈ 𝛼𝑝

𝛺𝑘 = 𝑖 Bus 𝑖 is directly connected to bus 𝑘 }

𝐸𝑘 = 𝑉𝑟𝑘 + 𝑗𝑉𝑚𝑘

𝑌𝑘𝑖𝑠𝑡 = 𝐺𝑘𝑖
𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡
+ 𝑗𝐵𝑘𝑖 is the nodal admittance bus matrix element.

83
TCIM-NR
➢ The specified active and reactive powers at bus 𝑘 for phase 𝑠 are:

𝑠𝑝 𝑠 𝑠𝑝 𝑠
𝑃𝑘 = 𝑃𝑔𝑠𝑘 − 𝑃𝑙𝑠𝑘 𝑄𝑘 = 𝑄𝑔𝑠 𝑘 − 𝑄𝑙𝑠𝑘 (62)

where 𝑃𝑔𝑠𝑘 , 𝑃𝑙𝑠𝑘 , 𝑄𝑔𝑠 𝑘 , 𝑄𝑙𝑠𝑘 are the active and reactive powers, respectively, of
generators and loads.

➢ The effect of voltage level on system loads is represented by second order

polynomial equations, as follows:

𝑃𝑙𝑠𝑘 = 𝑃0𝑠𝑘 + 𝑃1𝑠𝑘 𝑉𝑘 + 𝑃2𝑠𝑘 𝑉𝑘2

(63)
𝑄𝑙𝑠𝑘 = 𝑄0𝑠𝑘 + 𝑄1𝑠𝑘 𝑉𝑘 + 𝑄2𝑠𝑘 𝑉𝑘2

where 𝑃0𝑠𝑘 , 𝑄0𝑠𝑘 are constant power components, 𝑃1𝑠𝑘 , 𝑄1𝑠𝑘 are constant current
components, 𝑃2𝑠𝑘 , 𝑄2𝑠𝑘 are constant impedance components of phase84𝑠 load at bus
𝑘, and 𝑉𝑘 = 𝐸𝑘 .
TCIM-NR

 Express Eq. (61) in terms of its real and imaginary parts:

𝑠𝑝 𝑠 𝑠𝑝 𝑠 𝑛 (64)
𝑃𝑘 𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑘 + 𝑄𝑘 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑘 𝑠𝑡 𝑡 𝑠𝑡 𝑡
∆𝐼𝑟𝑠𝑘 = 2 2 − ෍ ෍ 𝐺𝑘𝑖 𝑉𝑟𝑖 − 𝐵𝑘𝑖 𝑉𝑚𝑖
𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑘 + 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑘 𝑖=1 𝑡∈𝛼𝑝

(65)
𝑠𝑝 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠𝑝 𝑠 𝑛
𝑠
𝑃𝑘 𝑉𝑚𝑘 + 𝑄𝑘 𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑘 𝑠𝑡 𝑡 𝑠𝑡 𝑡
∆𝐼𝑚 𝑘
= 2 2 − ෍ ෍ 𝐺𝑘𝑖 𝑉𝑚𝑖 − 𝐵𝑘𝑖 𝑉𝑟𝑖
𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑘 + 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑘 𝑖=1 𝑡∈𝛼𝑝

85
TCIM-NR

 Apply Newton’s method to (64) and (65).

𝑎𝑏𝑐 (66)
∆𝐼𝑚 𝑘
∆𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑘
=𝐉
∆𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑘
∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑘
𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝜕∆𝐼𝑚 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝜕∆𝐼𝑚
𝑘 𝑘
𝜕𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝜕𝑉𝑚
where 𝐉 = 𝑘 𝑘
𝜕∆𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑘
𝜕∆𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑘
𝜕𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝜕𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑘 𝑘

 The off-diagonal elements are identical to the corresponding elements of the

bus admittance matrix.
86
TCIM-NR

 The current mismatch of (66) for bus 𝑘 and phase 𝑠 can be expressed:

𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑘 ∆𝑃𝑘𝑠 + 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑘 ∆𝑄𝑘𝑠

∆𝐼𝑟𝑠𝑘 =
𝑠 2 𝑠 2
𝑉𝑟𝑘 + 𝑉𝑚𝑘
(67)

𝑠
𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑘 ∆𝑃𝑘𝑠 + 𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑘 ∆𝑄𝑘𝑠
∆𝐼𝑚 𝑘
= 2 2
𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑘 + 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑘

87
 TCIM-NR

where active and reactive power mismatches given by:

𝑠𝑝 𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 𝑠
∆𝑃𝑘𝑠 = ∆𝑃𝑘 − ∆𝑃𝑘

(68)
𝑠𝑝 𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 𝑠
∆𝑄𝑘𝑠 = ∆𝑄𝑘 − ∆𝑄𝑘

where
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
∆𝑃𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = 𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑘 𝐼𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
𝑘
+ 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑘 𝐼𝑚
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
𝑘

𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
∆𝑄𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 = 𝑉𝑚𝑠𝑘 𝐼𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
𝑘
+ 𝑉𝑟𝑠𝑘 𝐼𝑚
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐
𝑘
(69)

88
 TCIM-NR

➢ The system of linear equations in (66) are solved for the voltage
increments using sparse matrix techniques using the Tinney-2
ordering scheme.

➢ At each iteration, the voltages are updated.

𝑎𝑏𝑐 ℎ+1 𝑎𝑏𝑐 ℎ 𝑎𝑏𝑐 ℎ

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑘 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑘 + ∆𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑘 (70)

where
𝑎𝑏𝑐 T
𝑉𝑟𝑚 𝑘
= 𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑟𝑏𝑘 𝑉𝑟𝑐𝑘 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑘 𝑉𝑚𝑏𝑘 𝑐
𝑉𝑚𝑘

89
TCIM-NR

 Representing PV Buses

 Assume a PV bus 𝑘 is directly connected to buses 𝑖 and 𝑙.

 Then equation (66) can be expressed:
𝑎𝑏𝑐
∆𝐼𝑚 1
∆𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐
1
∆𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐
1
∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑏𝑐
1
⋮ 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑌11 ⋯ 𝑌1𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
⋯ 𝑌1𝑘 ⋯ 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑌1𝑙 ⋯ ⋮
𝑎𝑏𝑐
∆𝐼𝑚 𝑖 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ∆𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑖
∆𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑌𝑖1 𝑎𝑏𝑐
⋯ 𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑎𝑏𝑐
⋯ 𝑌𝑖𝑘 ⋯ 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑌𝑖𝑙 ⋯ ∆𝑉𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑏𝑐

⋮
𝑖
(71)
𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐⋮ 𝑎𝑏𝑐
⋮ ⋮
𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
⋮ ⋮
∆𝐼𝑚 𝑘
𝑌𝑘1 ⋯ 𝑌𝑘𝑖 ⋯ 𝑌𝑘𝑘 ⋯ 𝑌𝑘𝑙 ⋯ ∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑘
∆𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ∆𝑄𝑘𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑘 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
⋮ 𝑌𝑙1 ⋯ 𝑌𝑙𝑖 ⋯ 𝑌𝑙𝑘 ⋯ 𝑌𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑐 ⋯ ⋮
𝑎𝑏𝑐
∆𝐼𝑚 ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ∆𝑉 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑙 𝑟𝑙
∆𝐼𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑙
∆𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑙
⋮ ⋮

90
TCIM-NR

𝑎𝑏𝑐
 Where each 𝑌𝑖𝑚 ;𝑖, 𝑚 ∈ {1, … , 𝑛} is a 6x6 sub-matrix.

 Since both the diagonal and off-diagonal elements of column 𝑘 of (71) are
functions of real and imaginary voltages, the Jacobian matrix will have to be
updated at every iteration.

 Three-phase current mismatches at bus 𝑘 are given by:

𝑎 ∆𝑃𝑎 𝑏 ∆𝑃𝑏 𝑐 ∆𝑃𝑐
𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚

∆𝐼𝑚
𝑎𝑏𝑐
= 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝑘 2 2 2
𝑉𝑘𝑎 𝑉𝑘𝑏 𝑉𝑘𝑐
𝑡
(72)
𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑘 ∆𝑃𝑘𝑎 𝑉𝑟𝑏𝑘 ∆𝑃𝑘𝑏 𝑉𝑟𝑐𝑘 ∆𝑃𝑘𝑐
∆𝐼𝑟𝑘
𝑎𝑏𝑐
= 2 2 2
𝑉𝑘𝑎 𝑉𝑘𝑏 𝑉𝑘𝑐

91
 TCIM-NR
∆𝐼𝑚𝑘 ∆𝑉𝑟𝑘 ∆𝐼𝑚𝑘 ∆𝑉𝑟𝑘
=𝐉 ⇒ 𝐉 −1 =
∆𝐼𝑟𝑘 ∆𝑉𝑚𝑘 ∆𝐼𝑟𝑘 ∆𝑉𝑚𝑘

𝑉𝑟𝑘 𝑉𝑟𝑘 ∆𝑉𝑟𝑘

= +
𝑉𝑚𝑘 𝑉𝑚𝑘 ∆𝑉𝑚𝑘
𝑘+1 𝑘

𝑉𝑟𝑘 𝑉𝑟𝑘 −1
∆𝐼𝑚𝑘
∴ = +𝐉
𝑉𝑚𝑘 𝑉𝑚𝑘 ∆𝐼𝑟𝑘
𝑘+1 𝑘
Module 3 Concluding Comments

 In this module we began with a review of the traditional power flow solution methods that were
based on the three phase assumption.
 Gauss-Seidel
 Newton-Raphson
 Decoupled
 DC

 The FBS method was one of the first methods of solving the power flow problem that took into
account the unbalanced nature of distribution systems. It used element models based on Carson’s
equations.

 The FBS has the limitation of only being able to solve radial systems, so the TCIM method with NR
solver is an option that is able to solve meshed systems.

 There are other unbalanced solver methods but they are not explicitly covered in this module.

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