Environmental Pollution 243 (2018) 1310e1316

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Environmental Pollution
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envpol

Environmental pollution and human body burden from improper

recycling of e-waste in China: A short-review*
Abhishek Kumar Awasthi a, b, Mengmeng Wang a, b, Mrigendra Kumar Awasthi c,
Zhishi Wang d, Jinhui Li a, b, *
a
School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
b
Key Laboratory for Solid Waste Management and Environment Safety (Ministry of Education of China), Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
c
Department of Earth Sciences, Barkatullah University, Bhopal (M.P.), India
d
Macau Environmental Research Institute, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Brief background: E-waste generation has become a serious environmental challenge worldwide. The
Received 27 March 2018 global quantity of e-waste was estimated 44.7 million metric tons (Mt) in 2016. The improper recycling of
Received in revised form e-waste is still a challenging issue in developing countries.
10 August 2018
Objective: The objectives of this a review article to present comprehensive information of recent studied
Accepted 13 August 2018
on environment pollution and effect on human health in China.
Available online 7 September 2018
Method: The search engines consulted, period of publications reviewed 2015e2018. For search study, we
used different key words: ‘improper recycling’, ‘primitive recycling,’ ‘backyard recycling,’ ‘e-waste,’
Keywords:
E-Waste
‘WEEE’, and the studies related to improper recycling of e-waste.
Unorganized sector Results: According to reports, the e-waste recycled by unorganized sectors in China. These unorganized
Environmental media sector workers daily go for work, such as e-waste collection from consumer house and manual
Public health risk dismantling of e-waste by using simple method, at unauthorized workshop. These backyard workshop
China are reported in small clusters in or around city e.g., Qingyuan village; Taizhou, Longtang Town, Guiyu,
nearby Nanyang River and Beigang River in China.
Discussion: The earlier reported studies directed the heavy metals effect (causing effects both acute and
chronic effects; respiratory irritation, reproductive problem, cardiovascular and urinary infection/dis-
ease) on human health. According the reports, the improper recycling of e-waste which need to be
address for the environment protection and prevention of public health risk. However, if e-waste
exposure is not avoided very well, the associated contamination will be continuing, and simultaneously
needful to increase the awareness for proper e-waste management in China.
Conclusions: In order to solve the e-waste problem in China, more detail research is needed. Further-
more, for environment protection and health safety, the proper e-waste dismantling techniques, envi-
ronmentally sound management, and the regular monitoring are very important.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) quantity is

abbreviations: WEEE, Waste electrical and electronic equipment or E-waste;
BFRs, Brominated flame retardants; E-waste, Electronic or Electrical waste; PAHs,
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; PBDEs, Polychlorinated diphenyl ethers; PCBs,
Polychlorinated biphenyls; PCDD/Fs, Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and di-
benzofurans; WHO, World Health Organization.
*
This paper has been recommended for acceptance by David Carpenter.
* Corresponding author. Rm. 805, Sino-Italian Environment and Energy Efficient
Building, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
E-mail address: jinhui@tsinghua.edu.cn (J. Li).
growing with higher rate (Zeng et al., 2016a). By 2016, the esti-
mated quantity about 44.7 million metric tons (Mt) e-waste
generate worldwide, and just 20% recycled by proper channelized
system (Balde et al., 2017). China formally collected and treated
four kinds of WEEE [Air conditioners, refrigerators, TVs, washing
machines, and computers (desktop and laptops)] with total
quantity about 1.3 Mt, which was just only 28% of the over-all e-
waste in year 2013 (Balde et al., 2015). The earlier studies

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.08.037
0269-7491/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 A.K. Awasthi et al. / Environmental Pollution 243 (2018) 1310e1316
suggested that, the e-waste has been recycled using very simple
methods [eg. Manual handling/crude recycled/open burning/
open disposed] in Guiyu town in China (Zhao et al., 2015; Cong
et al., 2018). In this context, review articles summarized by
Quan et al. (2015), Huang et al. (2016), Wu et al. (2015) and Liu
et al. (2018a) evaluated the environmental pollution (soil, air,
water, sediments samples etc.) and human body burden (serum,
blood, breast milk, and hair samples etc.) related work authored
by researcher presented in Table 2, about either direct or indirect
exposure of pollutants from recycling of e-waste in China. WEEE
contains numerous toxic substances, such as, brominated flame
retardants (BFRs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and
heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc,
etc.) can be released during the course of improper recycling
process, and causing negative impact to the environment and to
the public health (Carlson, 2016; Awasthi et al., 2016).
The some of the sites affected owing to improper e-waste
recycling sites are Qingyuan village; Taizhou, Longtang Town,
Guiyu, nearby Nanyang River, and Beigang River in China, where
e-waste has been recycled using primitive technology and resid-
ual disposed. Since almost two decades, the metal extraction is
one of the main livelihood source for economically poor peoples
in Guiyu town, where e-waste recycling practice had been re-
ported frequently (Awasthi et al., 2016; Ghosh et al., 2016). The
local inhabitants exposed to these pollutants through several
environmental media (eg., soil, air and water etc.) either direct or
indirect routes that includes dietary intake, inhalation, ingestion,
and dermal absorption from informal recycling of e-waste. In
addition, several studies about human biomonitoring study
showed that pregnant women/children's are significantly exposed
to a different type of chemicals living or engaged in improper
recycling in developing countries (Cong et al., 2018; Dai et al.,
2017; Jedrychowski et al., 2015; Li et al., 2017). Electronic waste
has therefore become an emerging environmental and public
health issue for critically exposed inhabitants in China (Pascale
et al., 2018; Li et al., 2017; Huang et al., 2015). The reports are
attributed in specific to the persistent growth in electronic waste,
and the resultant continually stated environmental pollution with
metals and other pollutants, including flame retardants
(Chakraborty et al., 2016; Zheng et al., 2017; Yu et al., 2018). In
addition, the researchers study focus on both maternal and fetal
pollutant exposure (Xu et al., 2016), for example, Lu et al. (2018)
investigated vascular inflammatory biomarkers and cardiovascu-
lar effects of Pb exposed children [590 children (3e7 years old);
exposed group Guiyu (n ¼ 337) and a reference group Haojiang
(n ¼ 253). Additionally, another study also discussed environ-
mental gaps and further presents some suggestions to prevent the
chemical exposure and its negative effects on reproductive system
of human health (Yu et al., 2018). In the same time, China has
enforced number of e-waste rules and regulations by environ-
mental authority, however unauthorized e-waste sectors are
somehow managed to exiting in China (Zeng et al., 2016a). In this
context, China has registered number (formal 109 Units) of
authorized recycling units (Awasthi and Li, 2017), also strength-
ened the laws for e-waste, and as a results of these continuous
effort by, several unauthorized e-waste recycling sectors are now
closed (Zeng et al., 2017).
2. Objective
This “short-review article” provides a brief comprehensive in-
formation by evaluating the recent literature about environmental
pollution and human body burden owing to improper recycling of
e-waste in China.
1311
3. Method
For search strategies, the information collected by using the
key words: ‘improper recycling’, ‘unorganized e-waste,’ ‘primi-
tive recycling,’ ‘backyard recycling,’ ‘e-waste,’ ‘WEEE’, ‘e-scrap,’
‘workshop recycling. We only covered specific years (2015e2018)
of publications journal articles, and reports focused on WEEE
sectors, and informal recycler engaged in primitive methods
(dismantling, heating/burning/leaching processing) for the
extraction of valuable metal including other resource materials.
To the best of our knowledge, this review article is updated re-
view article focus on environmental pollution and human health
burden owing to improper recycling of e-waste in China.
4. Results
4.1. Recent research on environmental pollution caused owing to
improper recycling of the e-waste sector
High concentrations of pollutants in the environment pose
serious threats to public health, as exposure through different route
such as, inhalation, and intake etc., can result in a number of
adverse health effects (Ceballos and Dong, 2016; Heacock et al.,
2016). While the route of exposure depending upon the e-waste
recycling method involved. The improper recycling using crud/
simple dismantling of e-waste to extract valuable materials,
without concerning associated environmental pollution and public
health risk, permitting the release of hazardous chemicals
(Annamalai, 2015; Awasthi et al., 2016; Zeng et al., 2016a). In gen-
eral, human exposure to these e-waste pollutants may be through
different environmental media such as, via inhalation of contami-
nated air, intake of contaminated water, plant as food crop culti-
vated from contaminated soil, affecting to engaged worker as well
as local inhabitants In this context, a number of earlier studies
conducted in China, there were often in which the informal sector is
used primitive methods, for exampledburning of waste PCBs, open
burning of wire and acid leaching practices caused contamination
in nearby the sites (Zhao et al., 2015; Yekeen et al., 2016; Zheng
et al., 2016c, 2016d).
Several studies conducted for measurement of dust, air and soil
samples collected from an informal site, and reported excessive
concentration level of different metals, such asdPb: 1980 (mg/g),
(He et al., 2017), Heavy metals; Cu: 2159.32; Zn: 1365.96; Pb:
576.32; Cd: 6.33; Ni: 78.14; Hg: 1.38; As: 80.22; (ng/g dw) (Wang
et al., 2015). On the other hand, other pollutant PCB (S57):
14,765.8 (ng/g) reported by Wang et al. (2016a,b), SPBDE
433.85 ± 284.48; (Nie et al., 2015), then reference sites (Table 1).
The different heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Zn) were measured
in collected sample of indoor dust from the informal recycling of e-
waste site, and control sites in South China, the study revealed the
spatial distributions of heavy metal, and also estimated associated
public health risk (He et al., 2017). Especially, the metals concen-
tration was higher in indoor dust sample collected from informal e-
waste site, than the control site (He et al., 2017). Accordingly, the
pollutant concentrations reported higher in most of the studies as
presented in Table 1(see Fig. 1).
The concentrations of different metals, such asd(Cd: 49.3;
Cu: 1340; Cr: 170; Pb: 1980; Zn: 306; mg/g) in the dust sample
collected from the unauthorized sectors, and reference site (Cd:
2.45; Pb: 214; Cu: 235; Cr: 41.6; Zn: 180; mg/g) were signifi-
cantly higher in unauthorized sectors than non-recycling sites
in city (He et al., 2017). This indicates, the informal recycling of
e-waste sites are suffering with air pollution. Similarly, the
pollutant (eg., PCBs) concentration was almost two times higher
in dust sample collected from the labors' houses than in native
1312 A.K. Awasthi et al. / Environmental Pollution 243 (2018) 1310e1316

Table 1
The pollutant concentration level in environmental media (Ash, air/particular matter, road dust, sediment, soil, river sediments, plant, beef, fish, pork, tissues and eggs of hens,
and water sample) nearby informal e-waste recycling area in China.

E-waste site Concentration References

Guiyu, Guangdong Province, China Paddy soil- As: 4.70; Hg: 1.18; Cr: 58.1; Co: 10.8; Ni: 57.0; Cu: 50.0; Zn: 102; Cd: 0.128; Pb: 77.5; Mn: 45.3; V: 75.2; Sn:
Guiyu, Guangdong Province, China Acid leaching area, soil- Cr: 7.43; Co: 11.9; Ni: 278; Cu: 684; Zn: 573; Cd: 1.36; Pb: 223; V: 52.9; Sn: 3472; Sb:1706; Li:
Guiyu, Guangdong Province, China Paddy fields soil- SPBDE: 433.85 ± 284.48; Pb: 71.63 ± 15.72; Zn: 99.322 ± 19.54; Cu: 25.83 ± 9.83; Cd: 1.313 ± 0.56;
Longtang, Guangdong province,
China
Guiyu, Guangdong Province, China Soil- Pb: 448.73*; Cd: 0.71*; Cr: 63.90; Mn: 806.54 (mg/kg); Road dust: Pb: 589.74*; Cd: 1.94*; Cr: 69.71; Mn: 693.74
Longtang, Guangdong province,
China
Qingyuan, China
Taizhou, Zhejiang Province, China Indore dust- PCB (S57): 14,765.8 Vs Control (Local residents’ house)1954.2 (ng/g)
Guiyu Guangdong Province,
Southeast China.
Qingyuan, villages, South China
Taizhou, China
Qingyuan villages, Guangdong
province China
Longtang Town, China
Qingyuan, China
Guangdong Province, China
Guangdong Province, China
Near, Nanyang River and Beigang
River
Neixi River Guiyu China
Sihe village, Qingyuan county,
South China
Rural area (about 330 km2)
Guangzhou, South China
Guangzhou, China
Zhao et al.,
40.0; Sb: 1.37; Li: 45.3; Be: 3.39 (mg/kg) 2015
Quan et al.,
22.4; Be: 1.98 (mg/kg) 2015
Nie et al.,
Cr: 31.99 ± 5.82; Leachates of paddy soils: 2.14 ± 1.33; Zn: 0.112 ± 0.03; Cu: 0.241 ± 0.03; Cr: 0.021 ± 0.02; 2015
River sediments- SPBDE: 7349.32 ± 1103.86; Pb: 385.15 ± 43.12; Zn: 744.69 ± 36.54; Cu: 2977.432 ± 358.63; Cd:
14.081 ± 1.22; Cr: 40.931 ± 7.93;
Leachates of river sediments: SPBDE: 24.08 ± 8.21; Pb: 0.153 ± 0.06; Zn: 0.18,170.05; Cu: 1.551 ± 0.68; Cd:
0.022 ± 0.01; Cr: 0.033 ± 0.02 [(ng g1, dw or ng L1) (Heavy Metals: mg kg1, dw or mg L1)].
Dumping site (Soil)- Cd: 0.14; Cr: 22.5; Cu: 513; Ni: 14.5; Pb: 198; Zn: 179 (mg kg1)
Burning site (Soil)- Cd: 0.52; Cr: 30.9; Cu: 1981; Ni: 16.6; Pb: 206; Zn: 194 (mg kg1)
Acid-leaching site (Soil)- Cd: 0.39; Cr: 58.3; Cu: 2981; Ni: 135; Pb: 131; Zn: 316 (mg kg1)
Paddy field (Soil)- Cd: 0.62; Cr: 46.8; Cu: 329; Ni: 14.8; Pb: 66.7; Zn: 182 (mg kg1)
Vegetation field (Soil)- Cd: 0.11; Cr: 24.5; Cu: 134; Ni: 13.6; Pb: 14.3; Zn: 46.9
Yekeen et al.,
(mg kg-1) 2016
Pond A- Cd: 1.66; Cr: 2.78; Cu: 31.1; Mn: 17.1; Ni: 7.31; Pb: 0.10; Zn: 21.0 (mg l1) Wu et al.,
Pond B- Cd:e1.59; Cr: 1.74; Cu: 55.1; Mn: 16.7; Ni: 9.04; Pb: 0.12; Zn: 24.4 (mg l1) 2015
Stream- Cd: 0.006; Cr: 0.19; Cu: 1.62; Mn: 1.45; Ni: 0.61; Pb: 0.057; Zn: 2.55 (mg l1)
Well- Cd: 5.60; Cr: 0.058; Cu: 112; Mn: 138; Ni: 3.07; Pb: 1.37; Zn: 34.0 (mg l1)
Tap water- Cd: N.D.; Cr: 0.022; Cu: 5.26; Mn: N.D.; Ni: N.D.; Pb: N.D.; Zn: 2.71 (mg l1)
Sediment- Cu: 3392.65; Zn: 2183.02; Pb: 1170.12: Cd: 11.07: Ni: 133.62; Hg: 4.08; As: 290.44; SPBDE: 5313.94 (ng/g Wang et al.,
dw) 2015
Soil (E-waste area)- Cu: 2159.32; Zn: 1365.96; Pb: 576.32; Cd: 6.33; Ni: 78.14; Hg: 1.38; As: 80.22; SPBDE: 2273.47
(ng/g dw)
Soil (Farmland soil)- Cu: 102.24; Zn: 104.35; Pb: 53.40; Cd: 0.09; Ni: 39.34; Hg: 0.12; As: 23.17; SPBDE: 115.81 (ng/g
dw)
Plant-E (Near the e-waste area)- Cu: 96.14; Zn: 137.69; Pb: 3.03; Cd: 0.34; Ni: n.d.; Hg: 0.17; As: 8.63; SPBDE: 52.06
(ng/g dw)
Plant-F (Farmland)- Cu: 6.84; Zn: 106.09; Pb: 0.23; Cd: 0.13; Ni: n.d.; Hg: 0.02; As: 0.94; SPBDE: 21.66 (ng/g dw)
Wang et al.,
2016a,b
PM2.5- (Particulate matter <2.5 mm) Zheng et al.,
Exposed Guiyu site- Pb: 160; Cd: 5.7; Cr: 4.5; Mn: 17; Vs Reference (n ¼ 33): Pb: 69; Cd: 3.4; Cr: 3.8: Mn: 16 (ng m3) 2016a,b
Air dust- Cu: 80; Zn 820; Se 11; Pb 150; Sb 13; Cr: 21; Ni 10; As 22; Cd 5.8 (ng m3) Huang et al.,
2016
Riverine sediments: S8PBDEs: 32,053 (pg/g dry weight) Zhou et al.,
2017
Indore dust- Cd: 49.3; Cu: 1340; Cr: 170; Pb: 1980; Zn: 306 Vs Control (Urban region) Cd: 2.45; Pb: 214; Cu: 235; Cr: He et al., 2017
41.6; Zn: 180 (mg/g)
Home-produced (Hens) Eggs- SPCBs: 1360 (ng/g, lipid weight) Zeng et al.,
2018
House dust- PPBDEs: 2722 (ng/g) Yu et al., 2018
Beef- 0.174; Fish: 0.488; Pork: 0.113 (Median value; PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs, pg TEQ/g fw)) Wu et al.,
2018
1
Soil- Cd: 0.82 ± 0.22, Hg: 0.32 ± 0.09; Pb: 93.1 ± 18.2, Zn: 178.6 ± 21.1, Cr: 76.3 ± 11.6; and Cu: 89.2 ± 29.5 (mg kg ) Luo et al.,
2018
Surface sediments- Beigang River: Pb: 1.0; Zn: 113; Cu: 1236; Cd: 0.6; (mg/kg) PAHs: 1192; PCBs 85; PBDEs: 2735 (mg/ Liu et al.,
kg) and Nanyang River: Pb: 0.8; Zn: 150; Cu: 175; Cd: 2.1; (mg/kg) PAHs: 1551; PCBs 102; PBDEs: 2562 (mg/kg) 2018a
Surface sediments: Pall PBDEs: Guiyu (G1): 87,779 (ng g1). Huang et al.,
2018a
Home-produced (Hens) Egg sample - SPBDEs: 4741 ± 619 (ng/g lipid weight) Huang et al.,
2018b
PM2.5- PBDEs: 883 (pg/m3) Ding et al.,
2018
Tissues of Hens: Muscle: 2.53; Liver: 0.19; Fat: 0.24; Blood: 0.31; Yolk- 0.09; Ingluvies: 5.30 (SPBDE Median value; ng/ Cai et al.,
g lipid dry weight) 2018

inhabitants' houses. This substantial difference indicates
migrant labors likely to have an excessive dust exposure risk,
compared to native inhabitants. Similarly, Wu et al. (2015)
earlier reported that, the surface soil sample belongs to old
acid-leaching and burning sites are still extremely polluted with
metals, such as Cu (>1981 mg kg1) and Cd (>0.39 mg kg1),
which more than their specific permissible limits. In addition,
the study also highlights, the contaminated pond water utilized
as for irrigation purpose, therefore there is high possibility,
these polluted soil can also contaminate the agricultural crop, in
that case the public health will be potentially affected, if in case
they consumed the contaminated food. Therefore, such water
source (pond water) should be treated in order to avoid the
potential human health risk. On other hand, the variations of
metals concentration Cd: 0.82 ± 0.22, Hg: 0.32 ± 0.09, Pb:
93.1 ± 18.2, Zn: 178.6 ± 21.1, Cr: 76.3 ± 11.6 and Cu: 89.2 ± 29.5
mgkg1 were in surface soil (Table 1), that showing the uni-
formity of the substrate. Owing to the less variation of soil
metal concentrations, their mean values can symbolize the
pollution status of the related site.
 A.K. Awasthi et al. / Environmental Pollution 243 (2018) 1310e1316 1313

Table 2
Levels of pollutants in the sample of human body burden in China.

Human body burden Reference

Guiyu town, Hair Sample: Exposed group- Antimony 160.78; Vs Reference group: 61.74 (ng/g) Huang et al.,
2015
Guiyu and Haojiang area, Blood levels- Exposed group: Pb 6.76 ± 0.18; Vs Reference group: Pb 6.05 ± 0.18 (mg/dL) Xu et al., 2015a
Guiyu town, Blood sample,: Exposed group: SP16-PAHs);: 68.53; Pb: 13.89; Vs Reference group 26.92; Pb: 8.55 (mg/dL) Xu et al., 2015b
Guiyu area, Blood sample: Exposed group- (Total PAHs): 68.53; Vs Reference group: 26.92 (mg/L) Xu et al., 2015c
Guiyu town, Blood sample: Exposed group- (Chromium) 61.9; Vs Control group: 22.5 (mg/L) Xu et al., 2015d
Guiyu site, Blood sample: Exposed area- Pb: 6.24; Cd: 0.576; Cr: 7.65; Mn: 28.18; Vs Reference areas- Pb: 4.75; Cd: 0.500; Cr: 7.49; Mn: 28.09 (mg/L) Zeng et al.,
2016a
South China, Serum sample: Male Vs Female: PCBs: 3173 Vs 3423; PBDEs: 690 Vs 2309 (ng/g lipid) Zheng et al.,
2017
Guiyu town, Blood sample: Exposed Group - 6.5; Vs Reference group- 4.5 (mg/dL) Dai et al., 2017
Guiyu and Haojiang, Blood samples: Exposed group- Pb: 9.43; As: 5.53; Hg: 1.92; Cd: 0.12; Cr: 14.38; Mn: 16.31; Ni: 4.41; Cu: 919.10; Zn: 4746.39; Se: Lin et al., 2017
135.77; Vs Reference group- Pb: 6.79; As: 6.56; Hg: 2.25; Cd: 0.27; Cr: 10.64; Mn: 15.08; Ni: 3.44; Cu: 842.45; Zn: 4313.03; Se: 149.06 (mg/dL)
Wenling Zhejiang Province, China, Breast milk sample: (Exposed longer time [>20 years]), SPBDE- 25.70; Vs Exposed shorter time [<3 years]- 6.68 ng/g, Li et al., 2017
lipid weight (lw)
Guiyu site, China, Blood sample: Exposed group Pb: 5.53; Cd: 0.58; Vs Reference group- Pb: 3.57; Cd: 0.57 (mg/dL) Zeng et al., 2017
Guiyu, China, Blood sample: Exposed group Pb: 9.40 ± 3.72; Vs Reference group- Pb: 5.04 ± 1.65 (mg/dL) Zhang et al.,
2017
Qingyuan, China, Semen sample: Exposed group Vs Control group BDE28: 5.02 ± 4.99 Vs 1.62 ± 2.15 (pg/g ww) Yu et al., 2018
Guiyu, Blood sample- Exposed group Pb: 7.14 Vs Reference group 3.91 (mg/dL) Lu et al., 2018
Guiyu town, and Haojiang, Blood sample- Exposed group Pb: 4.94 ± 0.20 Vs Reference group 3.85 ± 1.81 (mg/dL) Liu et al., 2018b
Guiyu and Haojiang, Blood sample- Exposed group Pb: 5.06 ± 0.17 Vs Reference group 3.60 ± 0.21 (mg/dL) Cao et al., 2018

Fig. 1. Simplified outline for environmental and public health exposure to improper recycling of e-waste site. A) E-waste loaded vehicle; (B) Manual handling (eg., dismantling); (C)
Air pollution; open burning; (DeE) Soil pollution; informal recycling resulted generates residues dispose of in open land, which causes soil pollution and water pollution (F) Openly
disposed E-waste can be release pollutants into surface soil nearby backyard; metal uptake through growing the plant (vegetables) near the house backyard; Plant growing at
contaminated soil (G) Intake of pollutants via different route, such as food, inhalation, dermal etc.

4.2. Recent research on human body burden due to the informal
recycling of e-waste sector
Exposure to pollutants has a major impact on public health
across the world, particularly in developing countries. Table 2
presents the body burden of PCBs, PBDEs, and heavy metals
mainly from three different e-waste recycling sites (Guiyu, Wenling
and Qingyuan) in China. The effect of potentially toxic exposures
can be varying for men, women, and even for children's. Particu-
larly children were more exposed to pollutants, by different ways
such asdthe breastfeeding from the mother, transferring via breast
milk in to the newly born child (Li et al., 2017). The fetus can also get
exposed to the several pollutants in the duration of pregnancy,
however owing to the lipophilic properties of the chemicals, the
lactating exposure can be higher.
Zheng et al. (2016e) found that, the hen's eggs sample collected
from an e-waste recycling site, the sample contained much higher
level of tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tris(1,3-dichloro-
2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP) compared to those samples collected
from a reference (control) e-waste site. Evidently, Dai et al. (2017)
study reported that, the significantly higher concentration of Pb
level (6.5 mg/dL) found in blood sample collected from children
inhabiting nearby e-waste recycling sites in Guiyu, then reference
group (4.5 mg/dL). The higher Pb concentration in blood of children
have revealed relation with production of immunoglobulin E (IgE)
which is correlated with asthma in humans (Zeng et al., 2016a).
Furthermore, Zeng et al. (2016a) stated that, they first time exam-
ined heavy metal concentration in PM2.5, in children's blood
sample, the incidence of asthma, and respiratory symptoms from
an e-waste sites (Guiyu) and a non-electronic waste site (Haojiang
1314 A.K. Awasthi et al. / Environmental Pollution 243 (2018) 1310e1316
as reference area). Those children were exposed to excessive con-
centration of Pb level (B ¼ 0.196, p < 0.001) in blood and blood Cd
(B ¼ 0.148, p < 0.05), and also a high occurrence of cough (OR, 2.37;
95% CI, 1.30e4.32; p < 0.01), those inhabiting nearby or at the e-
waste sites.
The average (median value) PBDEs level was suggestively
greater [19.5 ng/g lipid weight (lw)] in breast milk sample of local
inhabitant's near the informal recycling of e-waste area (more than
20 years) than for resident's inhabiting's in Wenling (less than 3
years) [PBDEs level: 3.88 ng/g lw)] possible exposure to pollutants,
such as PBDEs from informal recycling of e-waste (Li et al., 2017).
The results reported by Xu et al. (2015a) showed that concentra-
tions of Blood Pb level (6.76 ± 0.18 mg/dL) were significantly higher
in exposed area, than those from the children belongs to the
reference area 6.05 ± 0.18 (mg/dL). A study reveals that a declined
immune response (such as, immune system and hepatitis B vac-
cine) can cause potential risk to inhabiting children through serious
exposure of Pb. Notably, the seriously exposed children were not
success to develop necessary immunity against hepatitis (Lin et al.,
2016; Xu et al., 2015a). Therefore, diverse vaccination approaches
are necessary for those children are inhabiting's near exposed area
of Pb.
Huang et al. (2015) studied total of 205 hair samples collected
from engaged worker Guiyu, China. They reported that, total 80
samples collected from resident (non-engaged) Jinping town, and
their results revealed, that the antimony concentration (median
value, 160.78 ng/g) was potentially higher in hair sample of vol-
unteers from Guiyu, than control sites (median value, 61.74 ng/g).
Importantly, several studies reported that the environmental me-
dia, such as air, soil and water extremely contaminated with PAHs
in Guiyu, China. And both the labors and local residents are
frequently affected due to PAHs exposure via different route, such
asddietary ingestion, dermal absorption and inhalation. These
pollutants entered into the human body, afterward can be store in
the fatty tissues, and can cause a health effect on human in-
habitants living nearby informal e-waste sector in Guiyu (Liu et al.,
2018b; Zhang et al., 2017; Zeng et al., 2016a). It is well known that,
PAHs is one of the toxicological chemical compounds may pose
serious health effects on both” In vitro” and “In vivo” in very low
level, which may be increased risk of cancer, and disturbance of the
endocrine system. These data suggest the growing toxicity from
exposure of pollutant, for example; PAHs, can cause negative effect,
such asdlower birth weight. As yet, maximum studies dedicated
on the PAHs distribution in foods & air, umbilical cord blood and
human urine samples (Jedrychowski et al., 2015; Xu et al., 2015b).
Xu et al. (2015c) reported that, the PAHs concentration level in
blood sample of the exposed residents group were significantly
greater than the reference residents group (68.53 lg/L Vs 26.92 lg/L,
P < 0.01). These reports indicate that, the environmental pollution
related with human body burden owing to informal recycling of e-
waste in China.
5. General discussion
The complex EEEs composition enforces remarkable challenges
involve in their recycling process. Because of complex connections,
among different electronic components are not easy to breakdown,
and distinct owing to boundaries in theory of separation physics
along with unsuited thermodynamics (Li et al., 2015). Reportedly
many developed countries like, the United States of America (USA),
the European Union (EU) and Japan initiated the illegal trans-
boundary movement to less developed/developing nations (Cong
et al., 2018; Awasthi and Li, 2017). Once the e-waste reached to
developing countries, the consumer prefers either reuse it, or they
treated at “small level workshop” and unusable material dumped at
open environment in developing countries (Awasthi et al., 2016).
As briefly discussed in this review article, the information
available shows a significant environmental pollution caused as a
result of improper recycling of e-waste in China. Air pollution
owing to the burning and dismantling practices seems to be one of
the cause exposure from e-waste recycling sites (Zeng et al., 2016b;
Awasthi et al., 2016). In general, a developing body clinical and
epidemiological evidence has directed to an increased issue for the
possible negative effects of ambient air contamination on human
health. The atmospheric pollution possibly being the basis for the
causing a potentially risk to children's health, although in recent
time, the e-waste recycling facility improved in China. However,
informal sector remains an issue in some region, such as Guiyu in
China (Zhao et al., 2015). Considering the reported significant
number of children's exposed to excessive level of toxic metal
inhabiting in developing countries. But, now the often seems open
recycling practices has been declined in China, by aiming to
improve the environmental quality at Guiyu e-waste sites, by way
of setting up centralized recycling practices facilities in the form of
industrial park (Zeng et al., 2016b). In this context, china has
authorized formal e-waste recycling centres (109 units) (Awasthi
and Li, 2017).
Several studies reported that the pollutants concentrations were
evidently higher in the sample collected from informal site, than
those sample collected from reference site (He et al., 2017; Zheng
et al., 2016a, 2016b). These reports suggested, the reflection from
the actions taken as a result of the local authority are still faces
challenges to reduce the concentration of different pollutants
owing to prohibited pattern of recycling for e-waste in the recent
years. Earlier Nie et al. (2015) reported that the concentrations of
heavy metals, such as Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr were much higher in the
river sediments water and leachates of river sediments in Guiyu,
China. In this context, this is well known that, during the wet
season, the heavy metals are possible transported via rainfall from
the soil near recycling yard to the near water sources, such as
ponds. This advocated that, the continuous inflow of water stream
caused pollutant concentrate increased in the pond water (Wu
et al., 2015). Therefore, urgent measures (e.g., remedial approach)
must be taken place in order to prevent environment pollution and
public health risk owing to heavily polluted sites. The informal
sector labors have a substantial health safety issue owing to their
work-related exposure, existing environment issues in addition
distinctive standard of living in China. In addition, they do not have
better working and living conditions, because they are not
economically strong. Furthermore, it is very essential to evaluate
the success and challenges in e-waste management by simply
estimating the difference noticed recent findings with the earlier
studies conducted in China.
Apart from above discussion, some limitations in our article
should be considered during the interpreting the outcomes. First,
we briefly present this article focus on parameter, such asdthe
environmental exposure mediums like, heavy metals concentration
in water, soil, air/dust, foods were considered. Second, different
pollutant concentration in the human samples, such asdblood,
hair and milk samples were considered in the evaluation of human
body burden of informal e-waste sites in China. Though, this article
had a number of strengths; for example, firstly we selected several
indicators including environmental media (soil, dust/air, water),
and human body burden (i.e., Breast milk, Blood and hair sample)
were considered systematically established on the basis of local
inhabitants. Next, we delivered a comprehensive information on
type of pollutant exposure risk of informally engaged worker along
the local inhabitants. Therefore, this article provides a reference
information could be consider in order to further prevent pollutant
exposure in informal e-waste sites in China. In other words, this
 A.K. Awasthi et al. / Environmental Pollution 243 (2018) 1310e1316
article gives insight on the environmental effects of pollutants in
backyard recycling of e-waste, and therefore we assuming to be
increase environmental awareness of the residents and local au-
thorities may helpful to take appropriate action to prevent further
pollution and human health burden.
6. Concluding remark
This review article provides comprehensive information on the
environmental pollution (air, soil, water and plant) and human
body burden in China. Earlier reports suggested that, those resi-
dents living nearby the informal e-waste dismantling areas, they
yielded potential concentrations of various pollutants than those
living in reference site. This review article also presents, main
sources of human exposure to e-waste were excessive in associated
to informal e-waste sites. Therefore, in order to improve the envi-
ronmental condition in informal e-waste sites in China, need to
create a wide-range of information base, engineering based way to
provide safeguard to the involve informal groups, also very
important to increase the environmental awareness program about
consequences of human health exposure to e-waste pollutant, and
more preventive steps must be taken in order to protect the envi-
ronmental and public health risk, owing to improper recycling of e-
waste in China.
Acknowledgements
The work is financially supported by National Key Technologies
R&D Program (Grant No. 2014BAC03B04), and Key Laboratory for
Solid Waste Management and Environment Safety (Tsinghua Uni-
versity), Ministry of Education of China (Grant No. SWMES
2017e12).
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