Calculus 1- Differential Calculus

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CHAPTER 1
FUNCTIONS

INTRODUCTION
Calculus is a branch of Mathematics that deals with how things change. With
Calculus, it enables us to analyze how a quantity, such as temperature, population, and
product price, changes with respect to another quantity such as time, location, and
amount of supply.
In Engineering, Calculus helps Engineers in developing models of systems and
machines that are useful in our day-to-day life. It is introduced on the very first semester
of the course because most of the major subjects in Engineering uses the concept of
Calculus.
In this course, we will focus on the study of Differential Calculus. Differential
Calculus deals with the instantaneous rate of change of quantities or slopes of curves.

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, it is expected that the students can
1. define the terms Calculus and Differential Calculus; and
2. enumerate some of the applications of Calculus.

Overview
When you are driving a car and you see a road sign that says ‘speed limit 50
kph’, you immediately look into the speedometer of your car to check your speed. The
speedometer tells you your instantaneous speed. Your speed at that very moment. This
is possible because of Calculus. The speedometer device uses the principle of
Differential Calculus to measure the speed of the car and gives a result right away.
In this lesson, we will define Calculus and its branch Differential Calculus and
enumerate some of its applications in Engineering.

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What is Calculus and What is Differential Calculus?
Calculus is focused on the study of the rate of change of quantities, interpretation
and analysis of graphs, and computation of areas and volumes of irregular shapes. It is
divided into two major branch, Differential Calculus and Integral Calculus.
Differential Calculus focuses on the analysis of how things change in relation to other
things.

Common Applications

Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

If you walk from home to school, your location or position changes. You will also
spend time to reach your destination. The change of location in relation to the change of
time is defined by another quantity called speed. Differential Calculus is used to study
speed or in technical term, the velocity. One of the most common applications of
Differential Calculus is the study of position, velocity, and acceleration. Velocity is the
first derivative of position with respect to time, and acceleration is the first derivative of
velocity with respect to time. We will discuss this deeply in the next Chapters.

Analysis of Functions
Another important quantity that we need to know in Calculus is the quantity
Function. For now, we will just define it as an equation that can be interpreted using a
curve.
A curve is a graphical interpretation that describes the relationship of two
quantities. Stock market uses curves to define the relationship of time, price, supply,
and demand of a product. With the aid of Calculus, Analysts can make predictions
based on the past and present data.

Optimization
Optimization means maximizing what is good and minimizing what is not. Let us say
you are a businessman, and you want to construct a rectangular building in a triangular

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lot. Differential Calculus can be used to determine the biggest possible rectangular
building that can fit to a triangular lot.

Flow Rate
You went to a swimming resort, and sadly, they are just filling the pool with water.
With Calculus, you can determine how long the pool will be filled based on the size of
the pool and the flow rate of the water source.

Engineering
Calculus is very much used in engineering. It is used to determine pressure in a pipe,
temperature change in different materials and surface areas, frictional force, calculating
power, energy, impulse, and many others. It is highly used in system design and rocket
science.

Differential Calculus deals with the instantaneous rates of change or slopes of

curves which can be expressed mathematically using functions. Hence, the study of
Calculus begins with understanding what a function is. Encountering the term “function”
in Mathematics subjects may be new to us, but we have encountered it everywhere in
real-life. In this chapter, we will be discussing what a function is, how to work with
functions and why we, Engineering Students, need to have understanding of this topic.
This chapter includes the following topics:
 definition and concept of a function
 types of functions
 graphing of functions
 working with functions
 shifting of functions, and
 domain and ranges.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this chapter, it is expected that the students can
 explain what a function is using technical terms or an analogy;

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 enumerate the different types of functions;
 graph a function;
 shift a function by manipulating the expression; and
 identify the domain and the range of a given function

Definition and Concept

When you turn on an electric fan and it works, you say it is functional. An electric
fan is a mechanical system that has a function of giving physical comfort to its users.
The behavior of the electric fan can be defined by mathematical equations. We call
these equations, functions. In this lesson, we will define a function and examine how it
is used in Calculus.

Figure 1.1. Example of a function.

What is a function?
A function can be defined as a relationship between two or more elements or
variables. These elements could be measurement of size, distance, speed, population
growth or any quantity that changes value.
In Calculus, a function is used to describe real world phenomena using
mathematical terms.

Definition:
Let 𝒙 and 𝒚 be sets. A function from 𝑥 into 𝑦, denoted by 𝑓: 𝑥 → 𝑦 means to assign
to each element of 𝒙 exactly one element of 𝒚. The sets 𝒙 and 𝒚 are called domain and
codomain respectively.

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Example 1.1:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1 read as “a function f of x is equal to x minus 1.”
Independent and Dependent Variable
The function above can also be written as 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1, where a variable 𝑦
represents the image of 𝑥 under function 𝑓. In every value of 𝑥, there is an equivalent
value of 𝑦. Hence, in this example, 𝑦 is dependent to 𝑥. We can therefore say that the
variable 𝑥 is the independent variable and the variable 𝑦 is the dependent variable.
It is sometimes better to write 𝑦 as 𝑓(𝑥) to indicate that this parameter is
dependent to 𝑥 and not to any other variables.

Illustration:
Figure 1.2 below is a simple illustration of a function where the output is definitely
dependent on the input. The value of 𝑓(𝑥) is dependent to whatever is the value of 𝑥, and
the function 𝑓 describes the system’s performance. The variable 𝑥 here is the
independent variable and 𝑓(𝑥) is the dependent variable since its value is dependent on
𝑥. The variables 𝑥 and 𝑓(𝑥) can be any variable such as distance, time, temperature, and
any parameter in the real world.

Figure 1.2. A very simple system with two parameters involved (one input and one
output)

Let’s say for example, if the function 𝑓 is equal to 2𝑥, then, the value of 𝑓(𝑥) is
always twice the value of 𝑥, because the function of the system is to multiply the input
by two. So, if 𝑥 is 3, then 𝑓(𝑥) is equal to 6. If 𝑥 is 1/2, then 𝑓(𝑥) is equal to 1.

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 The function could be in any form of expression except those that will give an
undefined result. Below are some examples of functions written in equation form.

s(t) = f(x) = x + 1 g(x) = s2 + s – 2

The variables 𝑡, 𝑥, and 𝑠 are the independent variables while 𝑠(𝑡), 𝑓(𝑥), and 𝑔(𝑠) are
dependent variables.

Self-Activity 1
Now, it’s a little bit clearer for us what a function is. Let’s try our comprehension
by completing the table below. From the given examples, identify the independent
variable, the dependent variable and the function. This will take you about five minutes.
If the independent variables are equal to 2, what are the values of the dependent
variables? Input them in the last column.
Independent Dependent Function Value of
Variable Variable Dependent
Variable
f(x) = 1 – x2
g(s) = s2(s – 2)
s(t) =

Types of Function
There are different categories and types of functions. In this lesson, we will
classify a function in terms of its category and type.

Two Categories of Functions

Functions can be generally categorized into two: algebraic and transcendental
functions.
Algebraic functions are functions that can be expressed in terms of finite
sequence of the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Algebraic functions can be further categorized as linear, power, quadratic, polynomial or
rational.

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 Transcendental functions are functions that transcend to the definition of
algebraic function. Exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions are under this
category. Some functions can also be categorized as odd or even.
Types of Functions

1. Linear Functions
These functions have the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, where 𝑚 is the slope and 𝑏 is its y-
intercept (the point where the line intersect the y-axis). Both 𝑚 and 𝑏 are constants. Of
the eight functions mentioned, this is the only one with a constant slope.

2. Polynomial Functions
These are functions of polynomials and is usually expressed as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥
𝑛−1
+ ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎0.

3. Power Functions
Power Functions are polynomial functions. These functions have the form 𝑓(𝑥)

= 𝑎𝑥𝑛 where 𝑎 and 𝑛 are real numbers.

4. Quadratic Functions
These functions are a type of polynomial functions with a degree of 2 and is in
the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎2𝑥2 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎0.

5. Rational Functions
Are functions written in the form 𝑓(𝑥)⁄𝑔(𝑥) where 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are both polynomials.

6. Exponential Functions
These functions have a variable exponent. One example is the Euler’s function,
written as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒𝑥 .

7. Trigonometric Functions

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 Any functions that have the presence of either sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent,
cosecant, secant, or their hyperbolic counterparts.
Example is 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥.
8. Logarithmic Functions
Are functions with logarithms (log 𝑥) or natural logarithm (ln 𝑥)

Odd and Even Functions

A function is an EVEN function if the graph of the function is symmetric with
respect to the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. A function is an ODD function if the graph of the function is
diagonally symmetric with respect to the origin.

Figure 1.3. Even and Odd Function.

Graphing of Functions
A function is an equation that can be expressed using a graph. The graph of a
function is the set of all points in a Cartesian Plane of the form (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)), where 𝑓(𝑥) is
commonly interpreted as 𝑦.
In this lesson, we will discover methods of graphing different types of functions.

How to graph a linear function?

A linear function, as stated in the previous lesson, have the form 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, where 𝑚
is the slope and 𝑏 is its y-intercept. Example: 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 To graph a line, all we need is
to identify two points, then connect them. In the given function, 𝑚 = 3 and 𝑏 = 2. This
means that the function intersects the y-axis at 𝑦 = 2. Hence, the first point is at (0, 2).

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 To identify the second point, we will use the slope. In geometry, slope is defined
as
m= or m=

Since our slope m = 3, the equation

above
will become =
From the first point (0,2), we will move
Three steps up and one step right. Therefore,
The second point is (1, 5). The graph is shown
In Fig. 1.4.

Fig. 1.4. Graph of f(x) = 3x + 2.

How to graph a quadratic function?
A quadratic function is an even function. One
side of its graph is symmetrical to the other side.
To graph a quadratic function, the equation must
be in the form

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 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + 𝑘 or 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + ℎ

where 𝑎, ℎ and 𝑘 are constants and (ℎ, 𝑘) as

its vertex. If 𝑥 is in second degree, the
parabola is facing either upward(+𝑥) or
downward(−𝑥). Otherwise, if 𝑦 is in second
degree, the parabola is facing either right(+𝑦)
or left(−𝑦).
Example 1.2: 𝑓(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 + 1) 2 + 3
From the given equation, ℎ = −1 and 𝑘
= 3. Hence, its vertex is at (−1, 3) and is

Fig. 1.5. Graph of f(x) = 2(x + 1)2 + 3.

Graphs of Trigonometric Sine and Cosine

Functions
Sine and Cosine functions are
sinusoidal in nature as shown in their
graphs. These functions are very important in dealing with right triangles.
Sine Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 sin(𝑥) Cosine Function: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐴 cos(𝑥)

They are very much the same. The only difference is their phase. We can say
that sin 𝑥 = cos (𝑥 − 90).

Self-Activity 2. Graph the following functions.

1. y = 2x – 1 3. 𝑦 + 1 = 𝑥2 + 3
2. x = y2 + 1 4. 𝑓(𝜃) = 2 + cos(𝜃 − 90

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Lesson 4 – Working with Functions
We have discussed before that the value of the function is dependent on the
variable inside the parenthesis. In other words, the dependent variable 𝑓(𝑥) is always
dependent to 𝑥, which is the independent variable.
In this lesson, we will evaluate functions according to the value of the
independent variable.
How to work with functions?
Working with functions is very simple. If we encounter something that looks like
this, 𝑔(2), it means that the value of the independent variable is 2 and should be
substituted in the function to get the value of the dependent variable.
To make it clearer, let’s have some examples.
Example 1.3: If f(x) = 3x2 + 1, find the following:
1. f(3), this means that variable x will be substituted by a value of 3 in the given
equation. So
f(3) = 3(3)2 + 1 = 28
2. f(t – 1), here, the value of x will be replaced by the binomial expression t – 1.
F(t – 1) = 3(t – 1) + 1 = 3t2 – 6t + 4
Replacing the variable x by the expression t – 1 resulted into a quadratic
expression.
3. f(z2) = 3(z2)2 + 1 will result to f(z2) = 3z4 + 1
4. 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) − 𝑓(1)
In this problem, we need to determine two functions. The first is 𝑓(𝑥 + 1)
and the second is 𝑓(1). 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = 3(𝑥 + 1) 2 + 1 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 4 𝑓(1) = 3(1) 2
+ 1 = 4 Then, we need to find their difference to get the final answer for
this problem.
𝑓(𝑥 + 1) − 𝑓(1) = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 4 − 4 = 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 = 3𝑥(𝑥 + 2)

5. 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) = 3(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 1 − (3𝑥2 + 1)
ℎ ℎ

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 = 3𝑥2 + 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2 + 1 − 3𝑥2 – 1
ℎ

= 6𝑥ℎ + 3ℎ2 = ℎ(6𝑥 + 3ℎ) = 6𝑥 + 3

ℎ ℎ

Self-Activity 3. Give what is required of the following.

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = , find the following:
1. 𝑓(3)
2. 𝑓(−1)
3. 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏)
4. 𝑓(√𝑥)
5. 𝑓(𝑥 + 2)

Shifting of Functions
We have mentioned that a function can also be expressed as a graph, usually a
curve. When the curve is shifted to another location, the equation that defines that curve
also changes. In this lesson, we will perform shifting of functions by manipulating the
equations that define them.

How to shift a function?

Shifting of functions means moving the graph of a function upward, downward,
leftward, rightward, or even diagonally. If the function is flipped or rotated, it can no
longer be considered as shifting of functions.
To shift a function, the following formulas are used:
Formulas:
𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑏) shift graph to the left
𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑏) shift graph to the right
𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑏 shift graph upward
𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑏 shift graph downward

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 The variable 𝑏 is the number of steps you want your graph to move. If you want
your graph to shift to the left two steps, add 2 to the independent variable. Study the
following examples to understand it clearer.
Examples 1.4. Give what is required. Graph the original and the shifted functions.
1. Shift the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 three steps to the right.
sol’n.
To shift the function rightward three steps, we need to subtract 3 from 𝑥. So
𝑓(𝑥 − 3) = 2(𝑥 − 3) + 1

= 2𝑥 − 6 + 1
= 2𝑥 – 5
Next, graph the original and the shifted functions. Apply what you have learned in
graphing of functions.

2. Shift the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 + 4𝑥 − 3 two steps rightward and one step upward.
sol’n.
To shift the function two steps to the right, we need to subtract 2 from 𝑥. So, it will
become
𝑓(𝑥 − 2) = (𝑥 − 2)2 + 4(𝑥 − 2) – 3
= 𝑥2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 4𝑥 − 8 − 3
= 𝑥2 − 7
We are not done yet. We still need it to shift one step upward. Based on the formula, to
shift the function one step upward, we need to add 1 to the entire function. Hence,

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 𝑓(𝑥 − 2) + 1 = 𝑥2 – 7 + 1 = 𝑥2 – 6

Original function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 + 4𝑥 – 3 Shifted function 𝑓(𝑥 − 2) + 1 = 𝑥2 – 6

You can see that the vertex of the parabola moved from (−2, −7) to (0, −6). In
other words, the parabola moved two steps to the right and one step up.

3. Shift the function 𝑓(𝜃) = 3 sin(𝜃) one step downward and 90° leftward.
sol’n. 𝑓(𝜃 + 90) − 1 = 3 sin(𝜃 + 90) – 1

Self-Activity 4. Provide what is required. Graph the original and shifted function.
1. Shift the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1 two steps to the left.
2. Shift the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 so that its vertex will be at (1, 0).

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Domain and Ranges
Every function has a domain and a range. The domain and the range contain all
the possible inputs and outputs of a function, respectively. If we consider the human
body to be a function, its domain is the list of all things that he can possibly eat. Rock
and pesticides are definitely not one of them. The range is the list of all things that he
can possibly do like dancing, talking, and running.
In this lesson, we will develop techniques in identifying the domain and the range
of a function.

Definition:
The domain of a function is the complete set of possible values (real numbers) of the
independent variable. It means that any element of the domain set, when substituted to
the independent variable, will give a quantifiable result.
The range of a function is the complete set of all possible resulting values of the
dependent variable. In other words, it is the set of all results when all the elements of
the domain are substituted in the given function.
Illustration:
Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, we can see that only all positive real numbers are
valid. If 𝑥 is negative, the result is imaginary. Hence, the domain is [0, ∞). A bracket
means that the number is included. If it is a parenthesis, only the number next to it is
included and not that number.
The range will be [0, ∞).

Examples. Find the domain and the range of the following functions.
Domain Range
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 + 4 (−∞, ∞) or ℝ [4, ∞)
𝑔(𝑥) = (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞) or ℝ ≠ 2 (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
ℎ(𝑥) = (−∞, 3] [0, ∞)

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 For example, 1, the domain is (−∞, ∞). All real numbers are included in its
domain. It means that whatever real number we will substitute to variable 𝑥, we will get a
quantifiable result. The range is [4, ∞) because whatever the value of 𝑥 is, we will not
get a result lower than 4. If you noticed, a bracket is used because 4 is included in the
range. If it’s not, a parenthesis is used as shown in example 2. In example 2, all real
numbers are part of the domain except 2, because an 𝑥 = 2 will give an undefined result.
The range is all real numbers except 0, because it is not possible to get a 𝑔(𝑥) = 0. In
example 3, what we are trying to avoid is a negative value inside the square root. We
already know that the square root of a negative number is imaginary, not a real number.
Hence, the domain is all number less than and equal to 3. The range has no negative
values because the square root of any number is always positive.

Self-Activity 5. Find the domain and the range.

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥2 – 6
2. 𝑝(𝑥) =
3. 𝑔(𝑥) =
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 7 + ln(𝑥 + 3)
5. 𝑓(𝑥) =

Summary 
 Differential Calculus deals with the instantaneous rates of change or slopes of
curves.
 A function defines the relationship between two or more real world quantities
such as speed, temperature, pressure, population growth, time, and many
others.
 There are two categories of functions: algebraic and transcendental functions.
 A function can be expressed using an equation or a graph.

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 To shift a function, the following formulas are used:
𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑏) shift graph to the left
𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑏) shift graph to the right
𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑏 shift graph upward
𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑏 shift graph downward
 A domain of a function is the set of all values that when substituted to the
independent variable, will give a quantifiable result.
 The range of a function is the complete set of all possible resulting values of the
dependent variable.

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