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CHAPTER 4
The Bureaucracy, Presidential Management, and the
National Security Council

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain the importance of presidential management.
2. Identify ways how presidents manage the large and complex bureaucracy.
3. Describe the role the National Security Council (NSC) system plays in managing and
governing foreign policy.

 SUMMARY OVERVIEW
This chapter addresses presidential management of the foreign policy bureaucracy; emphasizing
the role of the National Security Council system in the foreign policy process. The chapter begins
with a discussion of the foreign policy bureaucracy in general, highlighting its functions across
time as well as the ways in which it has both empowered and impeded the foreign policy
decision-making process. The bulk of this chapter looks at the components of presidential
management of the foreign policy apparatus and how management has changed over time
alongside an evolving bureaucracy. To start, the text address three main choices that direct this
management of the foreign policy bureaucracy: orientation and agenda, personnel appointments,
and organizing the process. The second part looks specifically at the National Security Council
system, its evolution and the role it plays in the foreign policymaking process. This section goes
into historical detail on presidential management of the NSC system and the policymaking
process in general, emphasizing points of similarity and departure across administrations. This
chapter colorfully depicts how the foreign policy bureaucracy at the executive level has
functioned over time.

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26 Chapter 4: The Bureaucracy, Presidential Management, and the National Security Council

 CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. A HUGE AND COMPLEX FOREIGN POLICY BUREAUCRACY
A. Bureaucratic Size
 Large size and many components
o Five million people
o 15 departments
o Every federal department and agency contains an
international component.
B. Bureaucratic Complexity
 Subculture
 Goals
 Overlapping/competing functions
 Independence and coordination
 Internationalized domestic bureaucracies
C. Historical Development of the Bureaucracy
 Four waves of growth
o Roosevelt: New Deal
o Roosevelt, Truman, Eisenhower: World War II and Cold War
o Johnson: Great Society programs
o Bush: War on Terror, Obama: Recession
 History
o Early Years: Small
o National Security Act (1947)
 Create National Military Establishment
 Create CIA and director
 Create National Security Council
 Office of Homeland Security

II. PRESIDENTIAL MANAGEMENT

 Three sets of choices
o Foreign policy orientation, agenda, and level of involvement
o Appointment of executive branch personnel
o Organization of foreign policymaking process
A. The President’s Orientation, Agenda, and Level of
Involvement
 Selective as to issues
 General policy review for involvement
 Rely on others to assist
B. Appointment of Staff and Advisors
 Three general sets of presidential appointments:
o Personal staff
 EOP
 WHO
 Chief of staff—Gatekeeping
 Vice President
o Major policy advisors

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 Chapter 4: The Bureaucracy, Presidential Management, and the National Security Council 27

 NSC advisor
 Secretary of State
 Secretary of Defense
 Director of National Intelligence
 NEC advisor
 Secretary of the Treasury
o Officials responsible for cabinet departments and
executive agencies
 Directors
 Top of hierarchy (3-4)
o Selection criteria
 Professions:
 Law
 Business
 Politics and government
 Academia and research
 Time
 Senate approval–Advice and consent
 A CLOSER LOOK Transforming the Vice Presidency, From Gore to
Cheney to Biden
C. Organizing the Policymaking Process
 White House or State Department-centered
o Cabinet government
o State Department-centered
 Centralized or decentralized
 Open or closed to staff/advisors
 Historical record:
o Usually White House-centered
o Gradually increasing centralization
o Gradually decreasing openness
 Type of system based on presidential personal characteristics

III. THE NATIONAL SECURITY COUNCIL SYSTEM

 Modern Components
o NSA
o NSC staff
o NSC interagency process
A. Origins
 Original functions
o Advise
o Long-range planning
o Coordinate/integrate national security processes
B. Changing Patterns in the NSC
 Decline of long-range planning—NSC–68
 NSC overall decline, staff/individual increase
 National security advisor—Honest-broker, process manager, advisor

IV. PRESIDENTIAL MANAGEMENT STYLES AND THE ROLE OF THE NSC SYSTEM

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

28 Chapter 4: The Bureaucracy, Presidential Management, and the National Security Council

 Executive: overlap of policymaking and NSC system

o Informal process among advisors
o Formal NSC process with NSA and NSC staff
A. The Early NSC as Advisory Body, 1947–1960
 Evolution of NSC role
 Truman and Eisenhower: Advisory body
B. The Rise of the NSC Advisor and Staff, 1961–1968
 Kennedy and Johnson: NSC decline, NSA increase
o NSC replaced with interagency groups
o NSC staff becomes president’s personal foreign policy staff.
o NSA becomes manager for interagency groups.
C. The NSC Advisor and Staff Ascendant, 1969–1988
 Nixon: Ascendant NSC advisor and staff
o Distrust of bureaucracy
o Centralization
o White House-centered: Kissinger
 Other presidents:
o Carter
o Reagan
D. The Contemporary NSC Model, from 1989–Present
1. GEORGE H. W. BUSH’S NSC SYSTEM.
 White House-centered
 Three-tiered formal interagency process
o Principles Committee
o Deputies Committee
o Working Groups
 Teamwork, formal
 A DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE The Contemporary Role of the NSC
Advisor and Staff
2. BILL CLINTON’S NSC SYSTEM.
 Expansion and improvement of three tiered interagency process
 Informal, broad guidelines, consensus, inconsistency
3. GEORGE W. BUSH’S NSC SYSTEM.
 Supplemented, informal three tiered process
 Informality, limited admission, low engagement, isolation
o Political differences among advisers, lower staff
o Ineffective NSA: Rice
o “Heavyweights” in administration
o Downplayed role of NSA
 Second term changes
 THE LIBERTY-SECURITY DILEMMA Dealing with Terrorists,
Circumventing the Process. . .and the Law?
4. BARACK OBAMA’S NSC SYSTEM.
 Three tiers retained
o Opening, coordination
o Integration

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 Chapter 4: The Bureaucracy, Presidential Management, and the National Security Council 29

o Rise of particular staff

 Insistence on regular process

V. THE NSC AND PRESIDENTIAL MANAGEMENT TYPES IN PERSPECTIVE

 The president has come to rely heavily on the White House-centered foreign
policy process managed by the national security advisor.
 Many changes have occurred since WWII
o The increased importance in foreign economic policymaking
o Rise of the roles of White House staff

 CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

1. What are the different challenges that presidents face when dealing with the foreign
policy bureaucracy? What strategies employed by presidents have resulted in the best
results in dealing with the bureaucracy?
2. How has the role of the vice president changed? What are the consequences of this
changing role for presidential power and management of foreign policy?

3. Given the evolving role of the NSC, what are the essential characteristics for the person
holding the NSA position? How much power should the NSA have?

 LECTURE LAUNCHERS
1. Start the lecture by having the class name prominent members of the foreign policy
bureaucracy. Have them identify the NSA, Secretary of State, Secretary of Defense etc.
For each office, have an example of recent activity undertaken by this individual (a
simple search of recent news should find easy examples). Discuss the implications of
relatively unknown and unelected individuals having such a large impact on the foreign
policy of the United States.

2. Henry Kissinger is a prime controversial figure in the history of U.S. foreign policy. Start
the discussion with the role of Kissinger and whether or not he should be considered a
war criminal for his actions as Secretary of State. Information on Kissinger can be found
here: (http://www.pbs.org/now/politics/kissinger.html).

 IN-CLASS ACTIVITIES
1. Using the following list of executive agencies, have students brainstorm potential
international roles for agencies that are primarily “domestic” in focus:

 Department of Agriculture
 Department of Commerce
 Department of Education
 Department of Energy
 Department of Health and Human Services
 Department of Justice
 Department of Labor
 Department of Transportation

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30 Chapter 4: The Bureaucracy, Presidential Management, and the National Security Council

2. Pick a current foreign policy crisis and have the students role play the President and the
members of the National Security Council. Appoint a student to be the president, the
National Security Advisor, and the other members of the NSC (vice president, secretary
of state, secretary of defense, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Director of National
Intelligence). Each member of the council should have a unique take on the situation that
others do not know about. Make sure that some of the information is contradictory as
well. The president should leave the room. The NSA will devise a recommendation for
the president. The president will enter the room and be “briefed” on the situation and
presented with the NSA’s recommendation. It is then up to the president to adopt that
recommendation or to consult with the NSC to develop a separate plan.

 KEY CONCEPTS
cabinet government Means that the president plans to rely heavily on his cabinet secretaries and
departments for information and advice. Such a policymaking process tends to be highly
decentralized and open, often allowing the State Department to act as the lead agency
responsible for coordinating the conduct of U.S. foreign policy. In this scenario, the
secretary of state is typically the principal spokesperson for U.S. foreign policy, acting as
the major adviser to the president, and the State Department is responsible for
coordinating the policy process within the rest of the foreign policy bureaucracy.

CEO style A less engaged and less collegial style of management of the National Security
Council. The system features a limited role played by the National Security Advisor and
the presidential decisions tend to be final. The policymaking process at the presidential
level is relatively closed and the range of views expressed very narrow.

Executive Office of the Presidency (EOP) Contains the people and organizations that a
president tends to rely on most in managing the bureaucracy and governing, including the
White House Office (WHO), Office of Management and Budget (OMB), National
Security Council (NSC), and National Economic Council (NEC).

foreign policy bureaucracy Made up of those agencies that have foreign policy roles. The main
elements of the foreign policy bureaucracy include the Department of Defense (DOD),
the Department of State, and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and other specialized
parts of the intelligence community engaged in intelligence-gathering and analysis
devoted to foreign affairs. Other agencies have important foreign policy roles as well,
including the Department of the Treasury and the Department of Homeland Security.

gatekeeping The process of controlling access to the something. In terms of the bureaucracy, it
is controlling access to the president and acting as an intermediary between the president
and the rest of the bureaucracy.

honest broker A neutral agent in a bargaining or negotiation process.

internationalization of domestic bureaucracies The development of international and foreign

policy roles for agencies that primarily handle domestic issues (i.e. the need for the
Department of Agriculture to be involved in foreign trade negotiations).

long-term planning A role of the NSC that has almost never been implemented. The ability of
the NSC to make long-term predictions about the future of international relations and

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 Chapter 4: The Bureaucracy, Presidential Management, and the National Security Council 31

devise recommendations appropriately.

NSC system The NSC has subsequently declined and been superseded by a NSC system made
up of three main components: The National Security Adviser (NSA), the NSC staff, and,
the NSC interagency process by which national policy is formulated, implemented,
and evaluated.

presidency The institution that consists of the president and other individuals and organizations
that represent, work for, and act in the president’s name.

presidential transition period The period between the November election and when the
president-elect takes over as the acting president of the United States

State Department–centered system A foreign policy-making process that tends to be highly

decentralized allowing the State Department to act as lead agency responsible for
coordinating the conduct of U.S. foreign policy. In this scenario, the secretary of state is
typically the principal spokesperson for U.S. foreign policy, acting as the major adviser to
the president, and the State Department is responsible for coordinating the policy process
within the rest of the foreign policy bureaucracy.

White House–centered system In managing the foreign policymaking process, the president
will rely on the National Security Advisor and National Security Council staff because
they are less entrenched bureaucracies than the Department of State and Department of
Defense making them more responsive to the president.

 WEB LINKS
Background on the NSC (http://www.whitehouse.gov/administration/eop/nsc/history/) from the
White House.
Inside the Real the West Wing
(http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://media.washingtonpost.com/wp-
srv/politics/daily/graphics/WhiteHouseMap_0204.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
srv/politics/administration/whbriefing/whitehousemap.html&usg=__64agsjajCo3p2YilU1j4_ehr-
TQ=&h=536&w=580&sz=100&hl=en&start=7&sig2=d5VCRBgcej2UMhpG0OvfFQ&um=1&
tbnid=UsCm56T0OJppSM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=134&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dwest%2Bwing%26
hl%3Den%26um%3D1&ei=JEaMSsCVH9CpmQfqx523DQ). Map.
National Archives Guide to National Security Council Records
(http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/273.html).
National Security Council Project
(http://www.brookings.edu/projects/archive/nsc/overview.aspx). Brookings Institute.
Useful NSC Web Sites (http://www.brookings.edu/projects/archive/nsc/useful.aspx).
Brookings Institute.

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32 Chapter 4: The Bureaucracy, Presidential Management, and the National Security Council

 INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
Alter, Jonathan. The Promise: President Obama, Year 1. New York: Simon and Schuster,
2010. Print.
Excellent overview and analysis of Obama Administration’s policymaking process, Iraq
and Afghanistan.

Badie, Dina. (2010) “Groupthink, Iraq, and the War on Terror: Explaining US Policy Shift toward
Iraq.” Foreign Policy Analysis 6:4 (October), 277–96. Print.
Very good overview of the closed and narrow policymaking process under George W.
Bush that led to the invasion of Iraq.

Baker, Russell. (2008) Condi and the Boys. The New York Review of Books (April 3).
Excellent overview on Condoleezza Rice, her personality and inability to manage the
NSC system.

Brookings Institution. (1998–2001) NSC Oral History Roundtables,

(http://www.brookings.edu/projects/archive/nsc/oralhistories.aspx).
Provides roundtable transcripts and reports on the Nixon, Bush, and Clinton
administrations, the role of the national security adviser, and a variety of related issues.

Burke, John P. Honest Broker? The National Security Advisor and Presidential Decision Making.
College Station, TX: Texas A&M UP, 2009. Print.
Good overview of the rise of the NSA and honest broker role, and to what extent it has
been implemented under different presidents.

Daalder, Ivo H., and I. M. Destler. In the Shadow of the Oval Office: Profiles of the National
Security Advisers and the Presidents They Served—From JFK to George W. Bush. New York:
Simon and Schuster, 2009. Print.
An insightful analysis of the advisory roles and structures in action.

Daalder, Ivo H., and James M. Lindsay. America Unbound: The Bush Revolution in Foreign
Policy. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2003. Print.
An excellent overview of the policymaking process within the younger Bush’s
administration.

Destler, I. M., Leslie H. Gelb, and Anthony Lake. Our Own Worst Enemy: The Unmaking of
American Foreign Policy. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984. Print.
An excellent overview of the evolution of the policy process and the NSC.

George, Alexander L. Presidential Decisionmaking: The Effective Use of Information and Advice.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1980. Print.
A good overview of presidential management styles and models.

Halberstam, David. War in a Time of Peace: Bush, Clinton, and the Generals. New York:
Scribner, 2001. Print.
A good discussion of foreign policy dynamics, divisions, and personalities during the
Bush and Clinton administrations.

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 Chapter 4: The Bureaucracy, Presidential Management, and the National Security Council 33

Rothkopf, David. (2005) Running the World: the Inside Story of the National Security Council
and the Architects of American Power. New York: Public Affairs. Print.
An insider account of the evolution and dynamics of the NSC system.

Woodward, Bob. Bush at War. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2002. Print.
Detailed account of the decisions and processes of the George W. Bush’s administration.

----------. Plan of Attack. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004. Print.
Detailed account of the decisions and processes of the George W. Bush’s administration.

----------. State of Denial. New York: Simon and Shuster, 2006. Print.
Detailed account of the decisions and processes of the George W. Bush’s administration.

----------. The War Within. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008. Print.
Detailed account of the decisions and processes of the George W. Bush’s administration.

----------. Obama's Wars. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2010. Print.
Detailed account of the decisions and processes of the Obama Administration.
Zegart, Amy B. Flawed by Design: The Evolution of the CIA, JCS, and NSC Stanford, CA:
Stanford UP, 1999. Print.
An excellent exploration of the creation of key elements of the national
security bureaucracy.

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34 Chapter 4: The Bureaucracy, Presidential Management, and the National Security Council

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