DECLARATION

I certify that
a) The work contained in this report is original and has been done by me under the
guidance of my supervisor.
b) The work has not been submitted to any other Institute for any degree or diploma.
c) I have followed the guidelines provided by the Department in preparing the report.
d) Whenever I have used materials (data, theoretical analysis, figures, and text) from
other sources, I have given due credit to them by citing them in the text of the
report and giving their details in the reference.

Amarkant
Reg. No.:210126
M. Tech. (VLSI Design And Embedded System)
Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering

i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Dissertation Report entitled. Non-Toxic All Perovskite tandem
solar cell : A numerical Analysis submitted by Amarkant to National Institute of
Technology Raipur is a record of bonafide project work carried out by him/her under my
supervision and guidance and is worthy of consideration for partial fulfillment for
awarding the degree of M. Tech. in Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
(Specialization: VLSI Design & Embedded System) of the Institute.

Date:

Dr. Deboraj Muchahary

Assistant Professor
Electronics and Communication
(Seal)

Departmental Seal

ii
 THESIS APPROVAL

The thesis entitled

Non-Toxic All Perovskite tandem solar cell : A

numerical Analysis
by

Amarkant
(Roll No.: 21266002)
is approved for the degree of
Master of Technology (Specialization: VLSI Design & Embedded system)

External Examiner Dr. Deboraj Muchahary

Supervisor

Dr. A.S Raghuvanshi Dr. Alok Naugarhiya

Head of the Dept. Coordinator

Date:
Place:
(Seal)

iii
 ABSTRACT
Recent advancements in solar cell technology have sparked immense interest in achieving
higher conversion efficiencies, prompting rigorous investigations into innovative device
architectures and novel materials for improved performance. So, In this work, four all-
perovskite tandem solar cells are created and compared. The device 1 (DE1) stack
comprises of FTO/ZnO/ CH3NH3GeI3/ Cu2O /Au as top cell(T1) and
FTO/GO/CS2SnI6/Cu2O/Au as bottom cell(B2) and device 2 (DE2) comprises of same top
cell as DE1 (i.e. T1) and FTO/ Zn(O0.3S0.7)/ CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 / Nio/Au as bottom cell
(B2). The next two devices are created by making the T1 HTAL free in both the devices
DE1 and DE2, and that new devices are commonly known as DE3(T1 HTAL Free + B1) and
DE4(T1 HTAL Free + B2). The 4 devices mentioned are based on inorganic and non-toxic
lower band gap Cs2SnI6 (1.48 eV) and CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 (1.5 eV) materials for bottom cell
B1,B2 respectively, whereas the top cell is composed of a wideband gap material
CH3NH3GeI3 (1.9 eV) as top cell for T1,T2 cell. The cell T1 is calibrated from literature [1]
and B1,B2 are calibrated from literature [2][3]. To match the current, transmitted
spectrum are applied to the bottom cell and standard AM 1.5 spectrum are lit on the top
cell. Both tandem devices have impressive open circuit voltage and short circuit current
densities of more than 2V and 14 mAcm -2, respectively, resulting in conversion efficiencies
(CE) exceeding 28%. Additionally, the standalone top cell T2, performance is optimized in
terms of absorber thickness, metal contact work-function. For a work function of 5.3 eV at
the contact, offers CE up to 16.23%, and a tandem consisting of such an HTAL free device
can achieve CE as high as 24%. Additionally, the influence of increasing temperature on
the tandem device's performance shows that CE is declining as temperature rises.

Keywords: Perovksite, HTAL, HTAL Free, Tandem, Filtered Spectrum

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to all those who have
contributed to the successful completion of my M.Tech thesis. First and foremost, I am
grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Deboraj Muchahary, for their constant guidance, support,
and encouragement throughout the research process. Their expertise, valuable insights,
and constructive feedback have been instrumental in shaping this thesis. I am truly
grateful for their mentorship and dedication.

I am indebted to the M.tech Coordinator of the National Institute of Technology, Raipur

especially Dr. Alok Naugarhiya, for their unwavering support, valuable suggestions, and
scholarly advice. Their knowledge and expertise have broadened my understanding of the
subject matter and helped me overcome various challenges. I would like to thank my
family for their unconditional love, understanding, and continuous support throughout
this academic journey. Their encouragement and belief in my abilities have been a
constant source of motivation, inspiring me to strive for excellence. Furthermore, I express
my gratitude to my friends and colleagues for their valuable insights, discussions, and
moral support. Their friendship and camaraderie have provided a conducive environment
for intellectual growth and shared learning experiences. Lastly, I would like to
acknowledge all the researchers, authors, and scholars whose work I have referenced in my
thesis. Their pioneering research and scholarly contributions have served as a solid
foundation for my study and have enriched the academic discourse.

To everyone who has played a part, big or small, in the completion of my M.Tech thesis, I
offer my heartfelt appreciation. Your support, encouragement, and guidance have been
invaluable, and I am forever grateful for your contributions.

Thank you.
Amarkant

(Name of the Student)

v
 CONTENTS
DECLARATION..........................................................................................................................................i

CERTIFICATE............................................................................................................................................ii

THESIS APPROVAL................................................................................................................................iii

ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.............................................................................................................................v

CONTENTS................................................................................................................................................vi

LIST OF SYMBOLS................................................................................................................................viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.....................................................................................................................x

LIST OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................................................xi

LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................................xiii

CHAPTER – 1...............................................................................................................................................1

Introduction 1

1.1. Introduction 1

1.2. History of Solar cell 1

1.3. Limitations of solar cell 2

1.4. Solutions 2

1.5. Solar Cell Parameters 3

1.6. Physics of Solar Cell 4

1.7. Different types of Solar Cell 5

1.8. Organization of the report 7

CHAPTER-2.................................................................................................................................................8

Literature Survey 8

2.1. Literature survey 8

2.2. Problem Statement 13

2.3. Objectives 13
vi
CHAPTER-3...............................................................................................................................................14

Simulation Platform (SCAPS-1D)..........................................................................................................14

3.1. Introduction 14

CHAPTER-4...............................................................................................................................................17

Proposed Work..........................................................................................................................................17

4.1. Device Configurations 17

4.2. Validation of Simulation to experimental 19

4.3. Spectrums 20

4.4. Devices 21

4.5. Comparison of different tandem configurations 25

4.6. Impact of temperature on tandem performance 26

CHAPTER-5...............................................................................................................................................28

Conclusion and future work...................................................................................................................28

References..................................................................................................................................................29

vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS

viii
JSC Short-Circuit Current
VOC Open- Circuit Voltage
FF Fill-Factor
(η) efficiency (η)
q elementary charge
NA acceptor doping concentration,
E electric field,
ND donor doping concentration
N¿ defect density
φ electrostatic potential
Es static relative permittivity of the
material and the charge density
ρ charge density
Un electron generation rate
Up Hole generation rate
jn the electron current densities,
jp hole current densities
G net recombination rate
S(λ) filtered spectrum
SO(λ) spectrum incident on the top
subcell
α material i ( λ ) absorption coefficient
d material i Thickness of the ith material
Jl Light generated current density
JO reverse saturation current
density
k boltzmann constant
n ideality factor
T temperature
A area
D diffusivity of the minority
carrier
L minority carrier diffusion length

ix
ni intrinsic carrier concentration

x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

T1 Top Cell 1
T2 Top Cell 2
B1 Bottom Cell 1
B2 Bottom Cell 2
DE1 Device 1
DE2 Device 2
DE3 Device 3
DE4 Device 4
APTSC All Perovskite Tandem Solar
Cell.
TSC Tandem Solar Cell
SCAPS solar cell capacitance simulator
1-D

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No. Figure Caption Page No.
1 Cross-Section of a basic Solar Cell 4
2 Basic Classification of different types of Solar Cells 5
3 (a) Basic Structure of TSC 7
3 (b) Basic Structure APTSC 7
4 Homepage of Scaps-1D 15
5 Layer Stacking page 15
6 Parameters adding page 16
7 (a) Material layer stack of (a) DE1 (b) DE2 (c) DE3 (d) DE4 17
7 (b) Material layer stack of (a) DE1 (b) DE2 (c) DE3 (d) DE4 17
7 (c) Material layer stack of (a) DE1 (b) DE2 (c) DE3 (d) DE4 18
7 (d) Material layer stack of (a) DE1 (b) DE2 (c) DE3 (d) DE4 18
Filtered spectrums for different absorber thickness of T1
8 calculated using AM 1.5 spectrum. 21

9 (a) Plot of JSC vs. thickness of CH3NH3GeI3 and CS2SnI6 22

9 (b) Plot of J-V curve of T1, B1 and DE1 tandem solar cell 22
10 (a) Plot of JSC vs. thickness of CH3NH3GeI3 and CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 22
10 (b) Plot J-V curve of T1, B2 and DE2 tandem solar cell. 22
11 (a) Plot of Work function vs Voc for T2 23
11 (b) Plot of Work function vs Jsc for T2 23
11 (c) Plot of Work function vs FF for T2 24
11 (d) Plot of Work function vs CE for T2 24
Filtered spectrums for different absorber thickness of T2
12 calculated using AM 1.5 spectrum. 24

13 (a) Current matching profile of HTAL free Top Cell with bottom
absorber layer CS2SnI6 24

13 (b) J-V curve of Top HTAL free cell, Bottom cell and DE3 24
Current matching profile of HTAL free Top Cell with bottom
14 (a) absorber layer CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 25

14 (b) J-V curve of T2, B2, and DE4. 25

15 (a) Plot of temperature Vs Voc for DE3 27
15 (b) Plot of temperature Vs Jsc for DE3 27
15 (c) Plot of temperature Vs CE for DE3 27

xii
15 (d) Plot of temperature Vs FF for DE3 27

xiii
 LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Table Caption Page No.
1 Input parameters of absorber later materials and FTO 18
2 Parameter for interface defect densities. 19
3 Performance parameters of all the devices under study. 20
4 Performance parameters of different device configurations. 26

xiv
 CHAPTER – 1

Introduction
1.1. Introduction

A solar cell, also called a photovoltaic cell, is a technology that uses sunshine to create
electricity. A semiconductor material—typically silicon—that absorbs photons from
sunshine and releases electrons to produce an electrical current is the fundamental
component of a solar cell. From small devices like calculators and watches to massive
power plants, solar cells are employed in a wide range of industries. They provide a clean,
renewable energy source that can lessen reliance on fossil fuels.

1.2. History of Solar cell

The photovoltaic effect was discovered by French physicist Alexandre Edmond Becquerel
in the middle of the 19th century, which is when solar cells first appeared on the scene.
This phenomenon occurs when certain materials are exposed to light and generate an
electric current.
The first silicon solar cell was developed by American researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin
Fuller, and Daryl Chapin in 1954 at Bell Labs. This cell's efficiency was only about 6%,
making it unprofitable from a commercial standpoint at the time.
Researchers gradually increased silicon solar cells' effectiveness throughout the 1960s and
1970s, with the finest commercial cells achieving efficiencies of over 14%.
Thin-film solar cells composed of components like cadmium telluride and copper indium
Gallium Selenide were developed in the 1980s as a result of research into new solar cell
architectures and materials. Despite being less efficient than silicon cells, these cells were
less expensive to make.
Researchers made small but steady advancements in silicon solar cell efficiency during
the 1990s and 2000s; some lab-grown cells achieved efficiencies of over 25%. Thin-film

1
solar cells also advanced at the same period, with some commercial cells achieving
efficiencies of about 20%.
Perovskite solar cells, which have the potential to be less expensive and more effective
than silicon cells, have attracted a lot of attention in recent years. They're still in the
research and development stage, though.

1.3. Limitations of solar cell

Although solar cells are a sustainable and clean source of energy, there are significant
drawbacks and difficulties in their manufacture, installation, and use. Here are a few such
problems:

Cost: Solar cells can still be more expensive to make and install than conventional energy
sources, despite recent dramatic reductions in their cost. As a result, they could be harder
to reach for communities and low-income households.

Efficiency: Temperature, shadowing, and dust buildup are just a few of the variables that
can affect how efficient solar cells are and thus, how much energy they can produce.

Land Use: Significant amounts of land are needed for large-scale solar farms, which may
result in habitat loss and ecological disruption. Furthermore, some communities can
object to the construction of solar farms due to worries about how it will affect their
property values and aesthetics.

1.4. Solutions

In order to address solar cell efficiency and cost, perovskite materials are used. To
improve the solar cell characteristics, research is being done on various perovskite
materials in this effort. Perovskite materials also aid in lowering solar cell production
costs. The solution-based fabrication approach makes the solar cell thin and flexible,
enabling it to be adhered to multi-story buildings and reducing the amount of land needed
for installation.

2
1.5.Solar Cell Parameters

The most typical characteristics of a solar cell include the short-circuit current (Isc), open-
circuit voltage (Voc), fill factor (FF), and efficiency (η):
Short-Circuit Current (Isc): The highest current that a solar cell can generate when
the circuit is shorted, or when there is no load attached to the cell, is known as the short-
circuit current. Isc is inversely proportional with both the solar cell area and incident light
intensity.
Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc): The voltage that a solar cell can generate when the circuit
is open, or when there is no current flowing through it, is known as the open-circuit
voltage. The relationship between Voc and the cell's temperature and the semiconductor
material's band-gap is linear.
Fill Factor (FF): The ratio of the maximum power a solar cell can produce to the
product of ISC and VOC is known as the fill factor. The resistance of the cell and the quality
of the semiconductor material have an impact on FF.
Efficiency (η): The ratio of a solar cell's electrical output to the power of incident light is
known as the efficiency of the solar cell. The spectral composition of the incident light, the
cell's temperature, and the quality of the semiconductor material all have an impact on
efficiency.
A typical commercial solar cell has an efficiency of about 15-20%, however research is
being done to create cells with efficiencies closer to 30%. The widespread acceptance of
solar energy as a practical source of renewable energy depends on the development of
high-efficiency solar cells.
In conclusion, a solar cell is a device that uses the photovoltaic effect to turn sunlight into
electricity. The quality of the semiconductor material, the cell's design, the intensity, and
the spectrum distribution of the incident light are just a few of the variables that can
determine how efficient a solar cell is. The short-circuit current (Isc), open-circuit voltage
(Voc), fill factor (FF), and efficiency (η) are the terms frequently used to characterize a
solar cell. For solar energy to be widely accepted as a feasible source of renewable energy,
high-efficiency solar cells must be developed.

3
1.6. Physics of Solar Cell

A photovoltaic cell, commonly referred to as a solar cell, is a type of electronic device that
transforms sunlight directly into electrical energy. It is a phenomenon known as the
photovoltaic effect that allows some substances, including silicon, to transform light into
electricity. An electron-hole pair can be produced when photons of light strike a
semiconductor material and excite electrons to a higher energy level. If there is an electric
field that separates this electron-hole pair, current will flow through the material. This is
the fundamental idea behind how a solar cell works.
The most common semiconductor substance used in solar cells is silicon, a group IV
element with four valence electrons. Silicon is an insulator when it is pure, but it
transforms into a semiconductor when small amounts of impurities like boron or
phosphorus are added. To make p-type semiconductors, boron, which has three valence
electrons, is used as a dopant, whereas phosphorus, which has five valence electrons, is
used to make n-type semiconductors.
A p-n junction, which produces an electric field across the junction, is generated when p-
type and n-type semiconductors are brought into contact. The electrons and holes that are
formed by the light photons are split apart by this electric field, which also pushes the
electrons in the direction of n-type materials and the holes in the direction of p-type
materials. When a solar cell is linked to an external circuit, this separation of charge
results in a voltage difference and a current flow.
The quality of the semiconductor material, the solar cell's design, the spectrum and
intensity of the incident light, and other factors all affect how efficient a solar cell is.
Recombination of electron-hole pairs and light reflection, for example, reduce the
efficiency of solar cells.

Fig.1 Cross-Section of a basic Solar Cell

4
1.7. Different types of Solar Cell

There are numerous types of solar cells, and they each use a variety of materials and
technological advancements to harness solar energy.

Fig.2 Basic Classification of different types of Solar Cells.[35]

i. Mono-crystalline Silicon Solar Cells: A single silicon crystal structure is used to

create mono-crystalline solar cells. They are highly efficient and are distinguished
by their uniform black appearance.
ii. Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells: Multiple silicon crystals are used to create
polycrystalline solar cells. Compared to mono-crystalline cells, they are less
efficient but more economically produced.
iii. Thin-Film Solar Cells: A thin coating of photovoltaic material is deposited onto a
substrate to create thin-film solar cells. Amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium
telluride (CdTe), and copper indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) are examples of
several thin-film technologies. Although thin-film cells are more adaptable, lighter,
and less expensive to manufacture than crystalline silicon cells, they often perform
less efficiently.

5
 iv. Multi-junction Solar Cells: Multi-junction solar cells can capture a wider range of
the solar spectrum because they are constructed from multiple layers of
semiconductor materials with various band-gaps. High efficiency is essential in
space applications and concentrated solar systems, where these cells are frequently
utilized.
v. Organic Solar Cells: Organic photo-voltaics (OPV), commonly referred to as
organic solar cells, are devices that convert sunlight into energy by using organic
materials, mainly carbon-based polymers. They can be manufactured utilizing
cheap manufacturing techniques, are flexible and lightweight. When compared to
other solar cell types, their efficiency is currently lower.
vi. Perovskite Solar Cells: A substance known as perovskite serves as the light-
harvesting component in perovskite solar cells. Since their efficiency has been
rapidly increasing and they have the potential to be inexpensive, perovskite cells
have attracted a lot of attention. They are continuously being developed and
researched.
vii. Tandem Solar Cells: The two or more stack of sub-cells of different bandgap piled
up on each other to absorb different spectrum of solar cells is basically known as
tandem solar cells.
viii. All Perovskite tandem Solar Cells (APTSC): The two sub-cells comprises of
perovskite materials of different bandgap is known as all perovskite tandem solar
cell.

6
 Fig.3 (a)Basic Structure of TSC [34] (b) Basic Structure APTSC

1.8. Organization of the report

The rest of the report has been organized as follows.

Chapter 2 contains a description of literature survey.
Chapter 3 contains a description Simulation platform details.
Chapter 4 contains a description of proposed work.
Chapter 5 contains a description of Conclusions and Future Scope.

(a) (b)

7
 CHAPTER-2

Literature Survey
2.

2.1. Literature survey

S.
Publication Publishe
N Name Of the Paper Remarks
Details d Year
o
1 *Numerical simulation of The proposed all–perovskite Solar Energy 2020
highly efficient lead-free tandem solar cell shows the (Journal)
all-Perovskite tandem remarkable photovoltaic
solar cell.[1] parameters i.e., open circuit
voltage (VOC) = 1.07 Volts,
short circuit current density
(JSC) = 28.36 mA/cm2, fill
factor (FF) = 84.39% and
efficiency (η) = 26.72%.
2 Numerical study of lead The results of the simulation Optik 2021
free CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 are as follows; maximum (Journal)
perovskite solar cell by power conversion efficiency
SCAPS-1D.[2] (PCE) 18.79%, short circuit
current density (Jsc) 27.05
mA/Cm2, open circuit
voltage (Voc) 0.87 V and fill
factor (FF) 79.25%.
3 Analysis of eco-friendly The novel configuration Journal of 2022
8
 possessed excellent
tin-halide Cs2SnI6-based photovoltaic outputs with a material
perovskite solar cell with power conversion efficiency science
all-inorganic charge of 25.12%.
selective (Journal)
layers.[3]
4 Performance optimization In the comparative study of Optical 2020
of CH3NH3Pb(I1-XBrx)3 different ETLs based on Materials.
based perovskite solar CBO, CdZnS has produced
cells by comparing the highest Jsc (23.3594 (Journal)
different ETL materials mA/Cm2), Voc (1.2436 v),
through conduction band and efficiency (25.20%).
offset engineering.[4]
5 Numerical simulation and The best performing Optical 2022
fabrication simulated PSCs device Materials
of Pb-free perovskite solar showed the efficiency of
cells 11.54% with excellent (Journal)
(FTO/Tio2/Cs3Bi2I9/ open circuit voltage.
spiro-OMETAD/Au)[5]
6 Recent progress and Review of different types of Applied 2021
future prospects of Solar Cell Physics
perovskite tandem solar reviews
cells.[6] (Journal)
7 Investigating the Formamidinium tin iodide Optical 2020
performance of (HC(NH2)2SnI3 – FASnI3)(η Materials
formamidinium tin-based =14.03%) absorber has (Journal)
perovskite solar cell by more temperature stability
SCAPS device simulation. than (η=1.03%)CH3NH3SnI3.
[7]

8 Performance In this work, for the first IEEE 2022

9
 Investigation of time, Cs3Sb2Br9 is transaction on
Organic/Inorganic investigated as a top electron
Bottom Cell on Lead-Free absorber for tandem device. devices
Cs3Sb2Br9Based All- A comparative study
Perovskite Tandem Solar between two perovskite
Cell.[25] materials, a highly stable
lead-free CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 and
the most popular MAPbI3 .

Cs3Sb2Br9/CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3
yields the PCE of 20.63%

9 All Weather Solar Cell- A Review of recent trend of ICEPES 2016

new trend of design of solar cells.
Solar Cell. [24]
10 Device simulation of Lead based all-Perovskite Solar Energy 2020
17.3% efficient lead-free solar cells with 17.3%
all-perovskite tandem conversion efficiency with
solar cell. [18] 1.83 V open circuit voltage.
11 Fully Lead-Free All Lead free all perovskite with Symposium 2020
Perovskite Tandem Solar top layer TENSYMP
Cell with Improved Cs2AgBi0.75Sb0.25Br6(1.8e
Efficiency: Device v) and bottom layer
Simulation Using SCAPS- CH3NH3SnI3(1.3ev) with
1D.[20] 24.86% conversion
efficiency and 1.944v open
circuit voltage.
12 Optimization of a Pb-free The Lead free all perovskite Optical 2022
all-perovskite tandem consists of top cell MAGeI3 materials
solar cell with 30.85% and bottom cell FASnI3 has
efficiency. [21] 30.85% conversion
efficiency and open circuit

10
 voltage 2.63V.
13 Investigation of lead-free The all perovskites tandem Optical 2022
MASnI3-MASnIBr2 solar cell with bottom cell materials
tandem solar cell: MASnI3 with 1.3 eV
Numerical simulation. bandgap and the top cell is
[22] MASnIBr2 with a bandgap
of 1.75 eV. The achieved
solar cell parameters are
15.66% conversion
efficiency and
13.09mA/Cm2 short-circuit
current.
14 Twenty-Two Percent The tandem solar cells using Nanomaterial 2022
Efficient Pb-Free All- (MAGeI3) as the top subcell s
Perovskite Tandem Solar with wide band gap of 1.9 eV
Cells Using SCAPS-1D. and FAMASnGeI3 as the
[23] bottom subcell narrow band
gap of 1.4 eV. The ETL
materials of top subcell
TiO2 and ZnSe gives 23.18%
and 22.04% of conversion
efficiency respectively.
15 Device Optimization of a The perovskite and silicon Energies 2021
Lead-Free based solar cell gives 24.4%
Perovskite/Silicon conversion efficiency and
Tandem Solar Cell with 1.76V open circuit voltage. It
24.4% Power Conversion is also revealed that lead
Efficiency. [24] based perovskite cells are
more affected in comparison
with lead free perovskite
cells to the increase in

11
 temperature.
16 A comprehensive review Different Types of Solar cell International 2019
of different types of solar and their details. Journal of
photovoltaic cells and Ambient
their applications. [35] Energy.
17 What is an air mass 1.5 Different Air Mass spectrum IEEE Xplore 1990
spectrum? (solar cell and why we use AM 1.5
performance calculations) Spectrum.
18 Lead-free mesoscopic Different ETL layers with Physica 2016
Cs2SnI6perovskite solar narrow band material Status Solidi
cells using different Cs2SnI6 for optimize
nanostructured ZnO performance.
nanorods as electron
transport layers. [38]
19 Optical-Vibrational Different HTL layers with  The Journal 2016
Properties of the narrow band material of Physical
Cs2SnX6 (X = Cl, Br, I) Cs2SnX6 (X = Cl, Br, I) for Chemistry
Defect Perovskites and optimize performance.
Hole-Transport Efficiency
in Dye-Sensitized Solar
Cells. [31]
20 Impact of work function Impact of work function on Current 2014
of back contact of back contact of perovskite Applied
perovskite solar cells solar cell to optimize the Physics
without hole transport performance.
material analyzed by
device simulation.[33]

12
2.2. Problem Statement

 To increase the efficiency of the solar cell.

 To make solar cell thin and flexible.
 To increase the solar cell usability.

2.3. Objectives

 To find 2 different narrow bandgap and 1 wide bandgap perovskite materials for
bottom cell and top cell of all perovskite tandem solar cell.
 Analyze APTSC for its parameters like VOC ,JSC, FF, Efficiency.
 Study the impact of temperature on the solar cell.
 Analyze the dependency of solar cell parameters on its metal contact work-
function.

13
 CHAPTER-3

Simulation Platform
(SCAPS-1D)
3.

3.1. Introduction

In this research, APTSC performance is observed and optimized using SCAPS-1D, a solar
cell capacitance simulator (version 3.3.09) [28]. SCAPS use the following 1D Poisson and
continuity equations for the semiconductor.
2
∂ φ −∂ E −ρ −ρ +¿ ( x )− N
−¿¿
¿
2 = = = [p-n+ N D (x)± N ¿ (x)] (1)
A

∂ x ∂x Es Es

Where q, E, NA(ND), N ¿, φ , E s, and ρ represent the elementary charge , electric field,

donor (acceptor) doping concentration, defect density, electrostatic potential, static
relative permittivity of the material and the charge density respectively. The steady state
electron and hole continuity equations are:
−∂ j p
+ G –Up(n,p)=0 (2)
∂x

∂ jn
+ G –Un(n,p)=0 (3)
∂x

Where Un,p, jn, jp and G is the the electron-hole generation rate, the electron current
densities, hole current densities and net recombination rate respectively.
SCAPS is a well-liked option for simulating perovskite solar cells because to its inherent
ability to imitate energy distributions (uniform, single, and gaussian) and defect
topologies (interface and bulk). It accepts user-defined parameters and studies the
physics of the model to explain each, including the carrier transport method, carrier

14
density, recombination patterns, and electric field distribution. Table 1 is a list of the
material specifications used in the device. Table 2 includes the parameters for interface
fault density.

Fig.4 Homepage of Scaps-1D

15
 Fig.5 Layer Stacking page

Fig.6 Parameters adding page

16
 CHAPTER-4

Proposed Work
4.

4.1. Device Configurations

In this study, the performance of two different APTSCs with common CH3NH3GeI3 as a
top cell and Cs2SnI6 and CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 as bottom cells is examined. The first is
referred to as DE1, and the second as DE2. Figure 1 shows the material layer stack for DE1
and DE2. The top and bottom cells of the DE1 are made up of FTO/ZnO/
CH3NH3GeI3/Cu2O (T1) and FTO/GO/ Cs2SnI6/Cu2O (B1), respectively, while the top
and bottom cells of the DE2 are made up of FTO/ZnO/ CH3NH3GeI3/Cu2O (T1) and FTO/
Zn(O0.3S0.7)/ CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3/Nio/Au (B2). Figure 7 shows the thicknesses of the
device's several layers.

(a) (b)

17
 (c) (d)

Fig.7. Material layer stack of (a) DE1 (b) DE2 (c) DE3 (d) DE4

Table 1. Input parameters of absorber later materials and FTO

Materials PVK1 PVK2 PVK3 FTO Cu2O ZnO GO NiO Zn(O0.3S0.7)
Thickness(nm) Varied Varied Varied 200 350 70 100 350 50
Band-gap(eV) 1.9 1.48 1.5 3.5 2.17 3.3 3 3.6 2.8
Electron- 3.98 4.01 3.9 4 3.2 4.0 3.86 1.8 3.6
affinity
Dielectric 10 10 28 9 7.11 9 9 11.7 9
Permittivity 5
CB DOS (Nc) ( 1E+16 2.2E+18 3.1E+18 2.2E+18 2.02E 3.7E 2.2E 2.2E 3.1E+18
cm )
-3
+17 +18 +18 +18
VB DOS (Nv) 1E+16 1.8E+19 3.1E+18 1.8E+19 1.1E+1 1.8E 1.8E 1.8E 3.1E+18
(cm-3) 9 +19 +19 +19
ETV(cm/s x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
10 )
7

HTV (cm/s x 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

18
107)
µn(cm2/Vs) 1.62E+5 53 974 20 200 100 100 0.2 100
µp (cm2/Vs) 1.010E+5 3.1E-2 213 10 80 25 30 0.2 25
1E+9 0 0 1E+18 0 5E+1 1E+ 0 1E+18
ND(cm-3 )
7 15
1E+9 1E+14 1E+14 0 1E+18 0 0 1E+ 0
NA(cm-3)
18
Nt (cm ) -3
1E+15 1E+12 1E+15 1E+14 1E+14 1E+1 1E+ 1E+ 1E+15
4 15 15
References [1] [2] [3] [1] [1] [1] [2] [3] [3]
CH3NH3GeI3: PVK1; Cs2SnI6: PVK2; CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3: PVK3; CB DOS - Conduction Band Density of States; VB DOS - Valence Band
Density of States; ETV - Electron thermal velocity; HTV - Hole thermal velocity; Nt= Defect Density, µn-Electron Mobility; µp-Hole
Mobility

Table 2: Parameter for interface defect densities.

Parameters HTAL/PVK1 PVK1/ETAL HTAL/PVK2 PVK2/ETAL HTAL/PVK3 PVK3/ETAL
Ae (cm2) 1E-18 1E-15 1E-19 1E-19 1E-19 1E-19
Ah (cm2) 1E-16 1E-15 1E-19 1E-19 1E-19 1E-19
E (eV) 0.050 0.600 0.600 0.600 0.600 0.600
Total 1E+12 1E+11 1E+12 1E+11 1E+11 1E+11
density
(Cm-3)
Ae = Cross Section area of electrons; Ah = Cross Section area of holes, E = Energy with respect to reference

4.2. Validation of Simulation to experimental

The validation process involved calibrating the independent B1, B2, and T1 to relevant
experimental findings on current density-voltage measurement that were published in the
literature. Current density-voltage curves (J-V) for B1 and B2 are calibrated using findings
from related experiments mentioned in [2] and [3], respectively. The J-V of T1 and the
device described in [1] match similarly. Table 3 compares B1, B2, and T1's simulation and
experimental findings to those of the device described in [2], [3], and [1], respectively.

Table 3 : Performance parameters of all the devices under study.

19
 Various versions of B1.

Devices Voc Isc FF CE

FTO/n-ZnO/CS2SnI6/p-P3HT/Au (Exp.)[29] 0.32 3.20 51.50 0.857

FTO/n-ZnO/CS2SnI6/p-P3HT/Au (Simulation)[2] 0.88 3.43 35.15 0.9

FTO/n-ZnO/CS2SnI6/p-P3HT/Au (this work) 0.72 4.44 29.10 0.93

FTO/GO/CS2SnI6/Cu2O/Au [2] 1.17 27.13 66.68 22.59

FTO/GO/CS2SnI6/Cu2O/Au (Device B1) 1.14 27.16 71.12 22.03

Various versions of B2.

FTO/PCBM/ CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3/ spiro-OMeTAD/Au (Exp.) [27] 0.63 18.61 60.6 7.11

FTO/PCBM/ CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 / spiro-OMeTAD/Au (Simulation)[3] 0.66 16.16 67.3 7.22

FTO/PCBM/ CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 / spiro-OMeTAD/Au (this work) 0.61 17.67 72.79 7.93

FTO/ Zn(O0.3S0.7)/ CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 / Nio/Au [3] 0.87 27.05 79.25 18.79

FTO/ Zn(O0.3S0.7)/ CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 / Nio/Au (Device B2) 1.07 27 78 22.66

Various versions of T1 and T2.

FTO/STO/ CH3NH3GeI3/ Cu2O /Au (Simulation) [1] 1.36 15.58 77.88 16.59

FTO/STO/ CH3NH3GeI3/Cu2O /Au (this work) 1.35 15.15 78.04 15.96

FTO/ZnO/ CH3NH3GeI3/ Cu2O /Au (Device T1) 1.42 17.59 90.40 22.64

FTO/ZnO/ CH3NH3GeI3/Au (Work Function 5.3) (Device T2) 1.06 17.53 88.60 16.23
Exp. = Experimental.

4.3. Spectrums

Standard Spectrum(Air Mass 1.5): The relative path length of the direct sun beam
through the atmosphere is referred to as air mass. The path length is one when the sun is
directly overhead (at zenith) (AM 1.0). As the sun is typically not above at solar noon in
the majority of seasons and locations AM 1.0 is not the same as solar noon. Air mass
increases (approx. sec θ ) in proportion to the angle of the sun from the zenith(θ), so that
at around 48 degrees from vertical, air mass is 1.5, and at 60 degrees air mass is 2.0.[31]
Filtered Spectrum: The top cell receives AM 1.5, and the spectrum that emerges after
being filtered from the top cell is known as the filtered spectrum. It is calculated by using
following equation.
20
 i=n
S(λ) = S0(λ)× exp (∑ −(α material i ( λ ) × d materiali )) (4)
i=1

where S(λ) is the filtered spectrum, SO(λ) is the spectrum incident on the top subcell,
α material i ( λ ) is the absorption coefficient of the ith material and d material i is the thickness of the
ith material.
The filter spectrum generated by varying the top cell's absorber layer thickness from 100
nm to 1000 nm is shown in figure 8. On two different Cs-based bottom solar cells, such as
B1 and B2, the filtered spectrums are independently lighted.

Fig. 8 Filtered spectrums for different absorber thickness of T1 calculated using AM 1.5 spectrum.

4.4. Devices

Tandem DE1 Cells: The power spectrum AM 1.5 on T1 and filtered spectrum on B1 are
applied in the DE1 configuration to achieve APTSC current matching while the thickness
of the absorber layers is changed. For current matching, T1's absorber layer's thickness
varies from 100 nm to 1000 nm, and B1 is provided with the filtered spectrum
corresponding to that thickness. Fig. 9 (a) shows the J sc vs absorber thickness for both T1
and B1. For T1 and B1, the current matching is shown in at absorber thicknesses of 199.5
nm and 1000 nm, respectively. The DE1 tandem's matched current density is 14.6 mAcm-
2. The performance parameters after maintaining the absorber thickness at the current
density matching the tandem device are Jsc = 14.6 mA, Voc = 2.53V, fill-factor = 77%, and
CE = 28.7%. In Fig. 9(b), the J-V curves for T1, B1, and DE1 are illustrated.

21
 (a)
(b)

Fig.9 Plot of (a) JSC vs. thickness of CH3NH3GeI3 and CS2SnI6 and (b) J-V curve of T1, B1 and DE1 tandem solar cell.

Tandem DE2 Cells: A method identical to that used for DE1 is used to obtain the
current matching of DE2 tandem solar cells. Current matching is done after applying the
filtered spectra from T1 for absorber thicknesses of 100 nm to 1000 nm to B2. At a
maximum matching current density of 14.7 mAcm-2, the absorber thickness for T1 and B2
is 209 nm and 1000 nm, respectively. Fig. 10(a) displays the J SC for T1 and B2 against
absorber thickness. Figure 10(b) depicts the J-V curve for the T1, B2, and DE2 tandem
solar cell. For the DE2 tandem setup, the photovoltaic parameters are J SC = 14.7 mA, Voc
= 2.38V, fill-factor = 81.18%, and CE = 28.40%.

(a) (b)

Fig. 10 Plot of (a) J SC vs. thickness of CH3NH3GeI3 and CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 and (b) J-V curve of T1, B2 and DE2 tandem
solar cell.

Standalone HTAL free top cell: By eliminating Cu2O from the material stack and
providing a compatible metal contact on the same side, the top cell T1, which was
employed in the preceding sections, is transformed into an HTAL-free device (T2). Figure
11 depicts the relevant photovoltaic characteristics for a metal contact material with a

22
work function varying from 4 eV to 7 eV in T2. The CE, FF, JSC, and VOC can increase to
27.51%, 92.2%, 17.52 mAcm-2, and 1.70V, respectively, with a work function increase
from 4 eV to 6 eV. All the performance metrics are almost constant above 6eV. The work
function of the carbon-based contact materials (C) is almost 5.3eV, and the corresponding
CE, FF, JSC, and VOC of the T2 are 17.52 percent, 88.60 percent, and 17.53 mAcm-2,1.06
V, respectively. In DE1 and DE2 arrangements, the T2 utilizing C contact material is
employed as the top cell for further research.
Tandem between T2 and B1 (DE3): An approach identical to that used for DE1 is used to
obtain the current matching of DE3 tandem solar cells. Figure 12 shows the computed
filtered spectrum for absorber thicknesses between 100 nm and 1000 nm while the
Standard AM 1.5 spectrum is lit on T2. The current matching is carried out once these
spectra are applied to B1. At the maximum matching current density of 15.09 mAcm-2,
the absorber thickness for T2 and B1 is 233.3 nm and 1000 nm, respectively. Fig. 13(a)
illustrates the JSC vs. absorber thickness for T2 and B1. Fig. 13 (b) presents the J-V curve
of T2, B1, and DE3 cells. Jsc = 15.09 mA, Voc = 2.07V, fill-factor = 78.77%, and CE =
24.6% are the photovoltaic parameters for the DE3 configuration.

(a) (b)

23
 (d)
(c)

Fig. 11 Plot of Work function vs (a) Voc (b) Jsc (c) FF (d) CE for T2

Fig.12 Filtered spectrums for different absorber thickness of T2 calculated using AM 1.5 spectrum.

(a) (b)

Fig. 13(a) Current matching profile of HTAL free Top Cell with bottom absorber layer CS 2SnI6 (b) J-V curve of Top
HTAL free cell, Bottom cell and DE3.

24
Tandem between T2 and B2 (DE4): A method identical to that used for DE1 is used to
obtain the current matching of DE4 tandem solar cells. Figure 7 shows the filtered
spectrum for absorber thicknesses of 100 nm to 1000 nm when the Standard AM 1.5
spectrum lighted on T2. The present matching is carried out after applying these
spectrums to B2. For T2 and B2, the absorber thickness is 240.5 nm and 1000 nm,
respectively, at the highest matching current density of 15.08 mAcm-2. Fig. 14(a) shows
the JSC vs. absorber thickness for T2 and B1. Fig. 14(b) depicts the J-V curve of the T2, B2
standalone, and 2T of the T2+B2 tandem solar cell. For the tandem structure, the
photovoltaic parameters are Jsc = 15.08 mA, Voc = 1.79V, fill-factor = 82.9%, and CE =
22.8%.

(a) (b)

Fig. 14(a) Current matching profile of HTAL free Top Cell with bottom absorber layer CsSn 0.5Ge0.5I3 (b) J-V
curve of T2, B2, and DE4.

4.5. Comparison of different tandem configurations

Table 4 is a list of all the tandem devices' performance parameters. The table also includes
several comparable devices from the literature for comparison. The DE1 tandem
configuration has the highest CE of the four tandem configurations, at 28.7%. DE2 follows
closely behind with a CE of 28.4%. In contrast to HTAL-based tandem devices, the CE
provided by the top cell-based tandem devices DE3 and DE4—specifically, 24.6% and
22.8%, respectively is rather low.

Table 4: Performance parameters of different device configurations.

25
 Top absorber Bottom absorber Voc(V) Jsc(mAcm-2) FF(%) CE(%) References
Cs2AgBi0.75Sb0.25Br6 FACsPb0.5Sn0.5I3 1.83 14.9 63.57 17.35 [19]
Cs2AgBi0.75Sb0.25Br6 CH3NH3SnI3 1.94 15.55 68.48 24.86 [20]
MAGeI3 FASnI3 2.63 14.7 79.80 30.85 [21]
MASnIBr2 MaSnI3 1.89 13.94 60.57 15.66 [22]
MAGeI3 FAMASnGeI3 0.94 29.36 83.2 22.4 [25]
Cs3Sb2Br9 CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 2.19 10.64 88.17 20.63 [19]
CH3NH3GeI3 CS2SnI6 2.53 14.6 77 28.70 DE1
CH3NH3GeI3 CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 2.38 14.7 81.18 28.4 DE2
CH3NH3GeI3 CS2SnI6 2.07 15.09 78.77 24.6 DE3
CH3NH3GeI3 CsSn0.5Ge0.5I3 1.79 15.08 82.9 22.8 DE4

4.6. Impact of temperature on tandem performance

In this part, the effect of temperature on T2, B1, and DE3 (top absorber: 233.3 nm, bottom
absorber: 1000 nm thick). is examined using temperature ranges of 200 K to 1000 K. The
effect of an increase in temperature on the performance of a solar cell is linked to the
decline in Voc, which is caused by the rise in the density of reverse saturation current (J0).
The relationship between JO and Voc is as follows.

nkT Jl
VOC = ln ( +1) (5)
q J0

Where Jl, JO,n,k and T are light generated current density, reverse saturation current
density, ideality factor, Boltzmann constant, and temperature respectively.

JO is directly proportional to IO and IO is directly proportional to n2i as equation no.6:

2
Dn i
I O=qA (6)
L ND
Where q is the electronic charge given in the constants page , A is the area, D is the
diffusivity of the minority carrier, L is the minority carrier diffusion length, N D is the
doping, and ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration. The intrinsic carrier concentration ni,
has the biggest impact on the equation above, even though several of the components are
somewhat temperature-dependent. The intrinsic carrier concentration is dependent on

26
the energy of the bandgap (lower band-gaps result in greater intrinsic carrier
concentrations) and the energy of the carriers (higher temperatures result in higher
intrinsic carrier concentrations).
ni =¿9.38e 19 ¿ (7)
Equation 5, 6, and 7 show V OC is inversely proportional to temperature. As a result, the
figure 15 (a) illustrates a monotonic decrease in the VOC of T2, B1, and DE3.Maintaining
the absorber thickness in DE3, the temperature rise from 200K to approximately 700K
demonstrates consistent current density, as shown in figure 15(b). However, at 700K the
Jsc of T2 decreases more abruptly than B1 despite the same absorber thickness is
maintained. At such a high temperature, T2 appears to be a limiting cell in terms of Jsc in
DE3. The reduction of both VOC and JSC in all devices results in a decrease in CE, as
shown in figure 15 (c). Figure 15 (d) depicts how the FF of devices decreases as the
temperature rises to 1000 K.

(a) (b)

(c)
(d)

Fig.15 Plot of temperature Vs (a) Voc (b) Jsc (c) CE (d) FF for DE3

27
 CHAPTER-5

Conclusion and future work

5.

In this research, four distinct APTSCs (DE1, DE2, DE3, DE4) are compared to accomplish
the best performance. The device configurations are classified as top cell with HTAL and
top cell without HTAL. The former has a CE of more than 28%, whereas the other has a
CE of more than 24%. The APTSC HTAL free top cell is analyzed, and it is discovered that
metals with work functions greater than 6eV are suitable for CE as high as 28% in
standalone conditions. With a work function of 5.3eV, the carbon-based metal contact can
provide CE up to 16.3%. The impact of temperature on an APTSC with a top cell without
an HTAL was investigated, and it was discovered that while the condition of current
matching is maintained up to about 700K, after that point the top cell has a lower current
density than the bottom cell, it leads to sudden decrease of short circuit current.

In future we can increase the number of junctions by adding one more absorber layer that
absorb the unabsorbed spectrum of sun and increase overall performance of solar cell.

28
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