Rural water and Sanitation in Shallcross: A growing issue

Denisha Pillay

Research proposal for the degree of

Bachelor of Social Sciences: Geography and Environmental management
At the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal: Howard

[Geog 314]
Demi: Emma Baldwin
06/08/2020
 Introduction

According to a work put forward by the European Commission “the water and sanitation
sector covers infrastructure and services related to providing safe and quality drinking water
and sanitation services to households” (2015). This sector is highly important seeing as many
activities and daily functioning of society depend on it. For quite a while, access to clean
water and sanitation has been an exceptionally large issue around the globe. Many studies
show that numerous Communities throughout the world have a very limited access to clean
water and it’s supporting infrastructure. Moreover, many people have limited access to proper
Sanitation.

Access to clean water and proper sanitation has been a significant issue particularly in
developing nations. Therefore, this sector has gained much attention globally since it has
become a major threat to the lives of these people living there. To address these issues, many
international corporations and bodies have assisted in providing humanitarian help,
specifically in these nations, to help in providing safe drinking water and good sanitation for
all. According to Schlein, “The United Nations reports nearly 850,000 people die every year
from lack of access to good water, sanitation and hygiene” (2017). Since the human body
comprises of about 70% of water, going without it for a long period of time can lead to
dehydration and furthermore death. At the same time. a large intake of unclean or toxic water
can also lead to terminal illnesses.

The lack of access to sanitation can be linked to a global deficiency in hygienic toilets, poor
service provision and a low level of household income. Due to this lack of service provision,
the sewage wastewater that communities produce is left untreated and therefore cause many
diseases. This in turn can contribute to the death rates of a country. Schlein states that “the
joint report by the World Health Organization and U.N. Children’s Fund finds people living
in rural areas in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia are most at risk of disease and death from poor
water and sanitation-related sources.” (2017). The water and sanitation sector are both
affected by and affects the economic, political, social and socio-economic aspects of a
country. Gomez (2019) speaks of how water and sanitation is an irreplaceable commodity
that serves as a basic resource for economic activity, agriculture, industrial activities and
commercial activities. She talks about how this sector is one of the most important ones to
keep a country and its people functioning.
 The Study Area

The study area is located in the Kwa-Zulu Natal province, approximately 16 kilometres
southwest of the city centre, in the middle of Chatsworth and Malvern. Shallcross is an Indian
township located in the city of Durban. It consists of middle-class working individuals.
Shallcross has a humid subtropical climate which contributes to the wind and water erosion
that dominates the area. This township has a small shopping center that caters to the needs of
the community. There is also a major informal settlement just as you enter the suburban area.
This area is usually congested and busy with informal activities such as street vendors.
Further down south of Shallcross, there is a perennial river that usually floods with heavy
rains. The road over this river is under constant construction since it tends to collapse after
heavy downpours.

The figures below show a satellite map and a topo map of Shallcross:

Fig 1. Topo map Fig 2. Satellite map

 Problem Statement

The Water and Sanitation sector is highly unreliable and inadequate in the Shallcross district.
There have been no efforts over the last decade in improving the quality of water and sewage
disposal methods and its related plumbing issues. The households here are therefore forced to
rely on river water and the bucket system. Furthermore, there has also been no
implementation of temporary structures or devices such as communal taps and portable
toilets. This has led to an accumulation of toxic fumes that contribute to displeasing odors
and public health problems. According to Ngcobo, “Since the dawn of democracy in 1994,
water has been put at the center of the debate on all socio-economic development” (2019).
However, many communities are still suffering and being neglected their basic needs. This
study will critically assess the components of a well-functioning water and sanitation system
within the community.

Motivation

The water and sanitation sector are one of the most important sectors in society. This sector
ensures the daily functioning of life and its related activities. The motivation of the study was
to analyze and assess the water and sanitation issues and challenges faced by the individuals
living in the informal area of the Shallcross district. It also looks at the factors that contribute
to water and sanitation services and the solutions that can be implemented to improve them.
This is highly beneficial seeing as there is a lack of research on this topic in the area.

According to Blackburn, there have been many cases of sewage leaks that have flowed into
people’s homes (2019). Blackburn’s article also states that many households lack a proper
water supply and sanitation services. This can lead us to believe that the basic needs of the
community are not been adequately met by the government. Therefore, the purpose of this
study is to also include the use of the research objectives as a guide to persevere the aim of
the study. These objectives include Analyzing The subcategories of the water and sanitation
sector, the political, economic and social factors that contribute to it and the solutions and
policies implemented.

The studies’ purpose is to also educate the community on underlying problems that they are
unaware of and to put forward ideas can aid them in uplifting their situation. Goal 6 of the
Sustainable Development Goals states that everyone should have access to water and
sanitation, therefore this study intends to emphasize this statement in context.

Aim: The aim of this research project is to analyse the factors that contribute to water
and sanitation services and how it affects rural areas, specifically in Shallcross

Research Objectives:
1. To overview and compare water and Sanitation works locally and globally.
2. To identify and describe the different sub-categories in the water and Sanitation
sector.
3. To expand on the social, economic and political causes and effects of water and
Sanitation
4. To identify solutions and alternatives that can be put in place
5. To draw on the contribution and policies of municipalities and other corporations
on the sector

Research Questions

1. What is the Water and Sanitation sector and how they are different around the
world?
2. What are the different subcategories within this sector?
3. What are the social, economic and political causes and effects of water and
Sanitation?
4. Have there been solutions and alternatives put in place to aid this Sector
5. What is the role of the municipality within this sector? Has the municipality
helped to aid this Sector and other corporations of this sector?
 Methodology

Introduction

The methodology will explain the precise and theoretical analysis of the methods used in
researching the objectives in water and sanitation sector in the Shallcross district. It will
include information on the research approach used, the sampling techniques, data collection,
sample size and data analysis.

Research Approach

This study will be using a mixed research approach in data collection. A mixed approach is
“a methodology for conducting research that involves collecting, analysing and integrating
quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys) and qualitative (e.g., focus groups, interviews)
research” (Foodrisc ,2016). With the integration of the data, this approach highlights and
provides greater understanding and in-depth knowledge.

A quantitative approach will be used to gain information about the study area through
generalized observations and surveys. Once the data is collected, provided it has numerical
value, it will be converted into numbers and displayed in graphs, models and tables. The
patterns of water collection and its related activities will be observed and documented as well
as the alternatives used for the lack of accessible toilets and sanitation devices.

When using the qualitative approach, this study will include a Qualitative document analysis.
“In QDA, researchers analyse document content, analysing the meaning and implications of
text, which distinguishes it from quantitative word analysis” (Le Gouais, A. and Wach, E,
2013). Le Gouais and Wach also explain that Qualitative document analysis is a meticulous
and thorough system to estimate specific subjects in themes and issues (2013). This method
will be used in analysing existing texts and articles on the topic of water and sanitation in
Shallcross. The qualitative approach will also make use of methods such as interviews, open-
ended questionnaires, documents, participant observation and ethnography.

This mixed approach is essential for this specific topic as the is very little information on it.
Foodrisc states that “when little is known about a topic and it is necessary to first learn about
what variables to study through qualitative research, and then study those variables with a
large sample of individuals using quantitative research” (2013).
 Data Collection

The next part of the paper will explain the process of primary and secondary data collection.

According to Statistic How To, “Primary data is data that is collected by a researcher from
first-hand sources, using methods like surveys, interviews, or experiments. It is collected with
the research project in mind, directly from primary sources” (2020). This research will use
data collection tools such as first-hand primary observation. The researcher will observe the
day to day activities in the study area and the water collection techniques used. The
researcher will also collect data on the number of households that don’t have access to clean
water and the number of households that do. Questionnaires, first-hand observations and
interviews were chosen under primary data collection as it promises easy access to the
individuals living in the study area.

The questionnaires will be used to gather information with the use of open and closed ended
questions. These set of questions will be presented to the heads of each households for them
to answer. The interviews will be carried out by randomly choosing individuals or groups to
answer the questions.

Secondary data refers to data that was already available. It is data that has already been
collected and evaluated by somebody else. In order to use secondary data, Various sources
need to be looked into so that the data can cross checked and analyzed. This method means
that there are less, or no issues found while using the data, in contrast to the primary data. To
be put simply, the data is accurate and without fault. This study will use the qualitative data
from the literature review as a source of collecting secondary data. It will include articles,
dissertations and journals about the topic on hand and integrate them with the local findings.

Sample Size

The population of Shallcross stands at 14 514 with about 11 percent living within the study
area. The target population is the residents living in the informal area in the Shallcross
district. These individuals make up the low-income sector as many of them earn below the
average wage. The sample size will include 4 groups from 4 different areas within the
informal area that consist of 10 individuals. The total sample size will therefore be 40
individuals. It will focus on individuals between the ages of 20-50 years old who ensure the
functioning of the household.

Sampling Techniques

According to Touvila “Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a

predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger population” (2019). This
study will aim to use a Probability sampling method. “Probability sampling means that every
member of the population has a chance of being selected” (McCombes, 2019). This method
uses a form of random selection to collect data. There are 4 types of probability sampling:
Simple random sampling, Systematic sampling, Stratified sampling and Cluster sampling.
This study will use Stratified sampling as a technique. The population will be divided into
strata based on characteristics such as age and income and thereafter, the data will be
collected.

Data Analysis

Data analysis is one of the most important parts of any research paper after data collection.
Jena states that data analysis “is the base on which the entire study will rely upon” (2012). It
involves breaking down the multidimensional research part by part and streamlining it into a
simpler context. The researcher will analyze the data in 2 parts: literature review analysis, and
primary data analysis (questionnaires, observation, interviews etc.)

In analyzing the literature review, all of the data collected will be summarized and the gaps
between texts and information will be bridged. Information collected globally and locally will
be compared and critiqued. Doing this will allow new findings to be added to the existing
texts on the topic, thus contributing to the development of the topic for future researchers to
use.

The interview analysis will be done through Microsoft excel. The data will be stored under
appropriate categories or headings and then stored in a data model. The data will be likely
represented in percentages and frequencies in bar graphs or pie charts for accurate
visualization. Observation analysis will include the researchers experience being put into
context. The culture and daily activities observed will be thoroughly explained along with
visual assistance such as pictures. From these analysis’, conclusions about the water and
sanitation sector in the informal area in Shallcross will be drawn.
 Literature Review
Introduction

The water and sanitation sector stand as one of the most important sectors in society. It
consists of a combination of our most basic human rights. This combination of a clean, steady
water supply and hygienic sanitation structures or facilities are essential for a functioning
society and a thriving economy. Ganter says that population growth, urban development,
farm production and climate change are increasing competition for fresh water and producing
shortages (2019). The sector is also highly important in the fight against poverty, hunger,
starvation and the countries high child mortality rate. According to UNICEF, “2.1 Billion
people lack access to safe water and 4.4 billion people lack basic sanitation” (2020). This can
cause a number of illnesses and deaths, as well as contribute to increasing poverty and an
economic decline. Therefore, it is imperative for solutions to be put into place before the
situation becomes too drastic.

According to the Western Sydney University, “The purpose of a literature review is to gain
an understanding of the existing research and debates relevant to a particular topic or area of
study, and to present that knowledge in the form of a written report.” (2017). Carrying out a
literature review helps the researcher understand research methods and how to apply them
when analyzing information and data. It will allow the researcher to:

→ compare and contrast each source to other relevant literature on the topic.

→ critically evaluate each source.

→ indicate how each source contributes to the body of knowledge about the topic

integrate your discussion of the sources into your argument about the state of knowledge
on the topic. (Western Sydney University, 2017).

This specific paper will review various works and literature put forward by other scholars and
researchers on the topic of water and sanitation. It will also include the researchers own
understandings and views on the topic at hand. It will include an explanation of water and
sanitation as separate entities as well as how they relate to each other. The researcher will
look at literature in the global north and south as well as locally and compare and contrast the
findings. Reviews on the different subjects under the topic will also be added, which includes
detailed information with reference to annotations and supporting diagrams.

1.1. Water and Its Importance

Water is the vital life source for all living organism and creatures. This includes plants,
animals, microorganisms and humans. Water exists as a molecule of which each has two
hydrogen atoms joined to one oxygen atom. The chemical formula is therefore H2O. It covers
about 70% of the earth’s surface and is found mainly in the oceans, rivers, lakes and glaciers.
Water has many special properties such as: It exists in 3 different states that being solid,
liquid and gas. Water is most dense at 4 degrees Celsius. It has the ability to dissolve
substances such as salt and sugar. Water also has a very high surface tension which means
some insects and particles can walk or lay on it.

Water ensures that daily life is possible and that we are able to carry out all activities.
According to Krchnak and Sara, “you drink water from the faucet, brush your teeth, flush the
toilet, take a shower. And that’s just the water you see. Water also irrigated the cotton in your
pajamas and sheets, produced the energy that powers your bedside lamp, and helped mine the
filament in your light bulb. It’s in the coffee and the coffee pot. It’s in the milk and in the
alfalfa that fed the cow that produced the milk.” (2017). About 60% of the human body is
made up of water and helps to perform a number of processes. It aids in breaking down
nutrients, regulating the bodies temperature and protecting our joints and bones. Without the
availability and access to safe clean water, our bodies would not be able to do this.

To know the amount of water a county receives, one needs to understand a countries rainfall
pattern and in order to do this, you can study the water cycle. According to NASA, “The
water cycle is the path that all water follows as it moves around Earth in different states”
(2020). Water gets into our atmosphere in two ways: It evaporates from the oceans and rises
due to the heat from the sun and, through a process called transpiration where water enters
the atmosphere through plants and trees. To put it together, the water cycle is completed
when “water evaporates from the surface of the earth, rises into the atmosphere, cools and
condenses into rain or snow in clouds, and falls again to the surface as precipitation. The
water falling on land collects in rivers and lakes, soil, and porous layers of rock, and much of
it flows back into the oceans, where it will once more evaporate. The cycling of water in and
out of the atmosphere is a significant aspect of the weather patterns on Earth.” (NASA,
2020).

1.2 Sanitation

Sanitation is an aspect that goes hand in hand with a steady and safe water supply. The world
health organization states that sanitation refers to “the provision of facilities and services for
the safe management of human excreta from the toilet to containment and storage and
treatment onsite or conveyance, treatment and eventual safe end use or disposal” (2020). The
organization goes on to explain that sanitation also includes the management and containment
of solid waste and animal waste. (WHO, 2020).

There are many different types of sanitation such as: Improved sanitation, On-site sanitation,
Food sanitation, environmental sanitation, and ecological sanitation. Improved sanitation
involves the provision of sanitation facilities or structures that separate human waste from
human contact. This is supported by the millennium development goal (MDG) on sanitation.
Food sanitation, according to Sharma refers to “the exercise of subsequent measures to avoid
the microbial contamination of food processing” (2018). It includes the hygienic measures
used during the preparation, serving, storage and eating of food.

Environmental sanitation refers to the concerns about the environmental factors that
contribute to disease transmission. These factors include waste management, wastewater
management, noise and air pollution and chemical waste management. Ecological sanitation
can be described as a concept that views human waste and household waste (e.g. Water
waste) as a resource that can be reuse3d. In doing this, the process extracts the nutrients and
treats it, eliminating the bacteria, so that it can be used again.

Proper sanitation comes with many benefits, but the most important one being a healthy
functioning society. The wellbeing level of a community impacts the mortality rate of said
community immensely. Between 1.6 to 2.5 million deaths are caused by the lack of sanitation
annually. The leading disease that causes the death are diarrheal diseases followed closely by
intestinal helminths, Schistosomiasis and Trachoma. In sub-Saharan Africa specifically, 19%
of children aged 5 years and below die from diarrheal related diseases. The above-mentioned
diseases were found to be a result of poor human excreta disposal, unsafe drinking water,
poor hygiene practices and poor water resource developments. Other than contributing to the
mortality rate, poor sanitation also “contributes to stunting and impaired cognitive function
and impacts on well-being through school attendance, anxiety and safety with lifelong
consequences, especially for women and girls” (WHO, 2020).

1.3. Water and Sanitation In The Global North And South

As the population of the world rises, so does the need to sustain societies through economic
activities. This means that the global use of freshwater increases through agricultural
production, industrial activities and household usage. Ritchie and Roser states that “Global
freshwater use since 1900 is disaggregated by broad regional groupings — OECD nations;
BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa); and Rest of the World
(ROW)”. OECD stands for “Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development” and
includes 35 nations from Europe, North and South America and the Pacific. The OECD
provides these countries with policies to manage, use and solve water related issues. Data
shows that these nations use about 20-25 % of the world’s freshwater. The BRICS countries
involves developing countries that have a similar level of economic advancement and use
about 45% of the worlds freshwater source. The rest of the world (ROW) was found to use
30-33%.

It was found that countries in the North, such as America, Canada, Russia and Sweden have
the most access to safe, clean water. This however contrasts to the countries in the south.
Countries such as South Africa, New Guinea, Madagascar, Indonesia and Peru are some of
the most water poor countries in the world. These countries may have access to a portion of
the worlds water supply, but due to many inequalities relating to distribution and sanitation
structures, they are disadvantaged.

During the apartheid era, the government payed no attention to the water and sanitation sector
in South Africa and hence made no moves to provide the basic facilities to support it. This
continued until a new government took the stand in 1994 and appointed the Department of
Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) with the responsibility of providing clean and safe water
to all South African citizens. For quite some time, the DWAF managed to keep to this up
until recent years when the situation began to worsen. According to the Water Project,
“climate change has affected water supplies within the region. Rains that usually come and
supply the country's water has come infrequently. For example, in Durban the Dams are 20
percent lower than at the start of 2010” (2019). Apart from these, the government also fails
to provide adequate sanitation structures in rural areas, water is “stolen” through illegal
connections. All these disadvantages put individuals at risk of being subjected to waterborne
diseases an d related issues.

1.4 The Elements of Public Water Distribution

A proper water supply system can be described of constituting of three components or

elements. These components include: the source of the water supply, the treatment process
the water goes through and its distribution to the public or individuals. The water from the
source is transported to the treatment are or treatment plant through channels or ducts. This is
moved by assisted pressure or natural channel flow. Thereafter, the water reaches the
distribution systems and is distributed manually or automatically.

1.4.1. The Source

The National Academy of Sciences states that “for a public water supply, the raw water
source must provide a quantity sufficient to meet all municipal, institutional, and industrial
uses as well as the fire-fighting demand” (1982). The raw water source can be surface water
(rivers, lakes or reservoirs) or groundwater (aquifers or boreholes). “Surface water is
constantly replenished through precipitation and lost through evaporation and seepage into
ground water supplies” (NCEZID, 2009). Ground water, on the other hand, is collected by
drilling holes into rocks underground and obtaining water from the rock pores. Usually,
larger populated areas, such as urban areas, rely on surface water as their main source of
water whereas smaller populated areas, like rural areas, depend on ground water.

1.4.2. Treatment Process

Surface water quality varies in different states and in different places. They may contain
many types of microorganisms and bacteria. It can also consist of organic and inorganic
matter within its particle. Surface water is also subjected to sewage waste and pollution from
communities. Because of this, the water has to undergo thorough treatment process to
eliminate all bacteria and particulate matter so that it becomes safe for consumption and use.
Groundwater also has to go through treatment , but it requires less work and a quicker
process as “they are often clear, colorless, and possess lower concentrations of organic matter
and microorganisms than does surface water because of the natural filtration effected by the
percolation of water through soil, sand, or gravel.” (The National Academy of Sciences,
1982).
Ground water also has a higher mineral content than surface water. This, however, is
dependent on the type of soil overlying the surface and the rock type present underground.

The water treatment process typically is made up of 8 essential steps. These steps include:
Collection, Screening and Straining, Chemical Addition, Coagulation and Flocculation,
Sedimentation and Clarification, Filtration, Disinfection and Storage.

Collection involves the municipality obtaining water for the community, usually from a lake,
river, dams or reservoirs. The water is transported to the place where the treatment plant is
located through pipelines and pumps. In some cases, the water is transported through the river
channel if its flowing in the direction of the treatment plant. Here in South Africa, “Albert
Falls is one of five dams and one weir that make up the combined Mgeni system that supplies
water to at least 5million people in the Durban-Pietermaritzburg region.” (Carnie, 2017).
Once the water reaches the treatment location, large pumps are used to transfer the water
inside the treatment facility. “Many water treatment plants utilize water from more than one
source. Blending groundwater with surface water is a method often used to improve the
quality of the final product.” (Combest, n.d).

The water that is collected is bound to have a lot of particulate matter, microorganism,
chelates and debris. Therefore, it has to undergo a screening process. Screening and straining
rids the water of all large sediments. When the water reaches the treatment facility, a large
screen called a “bar screen” is placed in front of the source that lets in the water. This allows
the bigger sediments to be caught by the screen, making it unable to pass through.

After the water is screened and received into the treatment facility, the next process it goes
through is chemical addition. Chemicals are added to the water so that the tiny and minute
sediments or particles can form heavy clumps called “floc”. “In this process, a chemical is
added that reacts with the natural alkalinity in solution to form an insoluble precipitate”
(Combest, n.d). Chemicals called “coagulates” are used during this process. They allow
liquids to change to a more solid state which hence helps the flocs to form.
After Chemical addition, the next step is Coagulation and Floccation. During this step, the
coagulates are added to the water and thoroughly mixed in a tank called the floccator. This
speed of the mixing is moderate so that the floc can become bigger in size. This process
carries on until the flocs become heavy enough and big enough.

After this step is completed, the water flows through the floccator and into the clarification
and sedimentation basin.

Sedimentation and Clarification involves the water travelling to the middle of the clarifier
which has a lining of a “saw-tooth weir”. The purpose of sedimentation is to prevent large
clumps from being sent to the filtration devices. Combest says that “as the water makes its
way towards the weir, the large floc particles are allowed to settle out to the bottom of the
clarifier. A rake continuously travels across the bottom of the clarifier and scrapes the settled
floc to the centre of the unit” (2017). Water pumps are then used to separate out the sludge
and thereafter send it to the sedimentation raft. The water that goes through the weir is then
transferred to the filtration devices.

In filtration, the now clarified and sedimented water pours into the filters from above and is
captured in a drainage system at the bottom. Materials such as sand and gravel are used to
filter out organic compounds that affect taste and smell.

The next step is disinfection. Although the water has already been through the screening and
clarification process, there is still bacteria present that’s invisible to the naked eye. Chlorine
is added to the water to kill all germs and bacteria. The amount of chlorine is controlled so
that it does not affect taste and odour.

After this is done, the last step is storage. “Storage usually takes place in an underground
storage tank called a “clear well”, and also in elevated storage tanks that are visible around
town. There must always be an ample supply of water available in the event of emergencies.”
(Combest, 2017).

1.4.3. Distribution
The last component of public water supply is distribution. Distribution involves transporting
the treated water from the treatment facility to the individuals in a community. The water
quality depends on the physical facilities and infrastructures used to transport it. Because of
its complex nature, this element is one of the costliest ones in the process. “To avoid possible
contamination and because it is delivered to the consumers under pressure, treated or finished
water is transported in conduits or pipes rather than by open channels. In addition to a
network of interconnecting mains or pipes, water distribution systems normally include
storage facilities, valves, fire hydrants, service connections to user facilities, and perhaps
pumping facilities” (National Research Council, 1982).

1.5. Water, Sanitation and Infrastructure

For water to be accessible in households and industries, it “must be diverted from its basin of
origin to the basin of use. This may involve transporting the water over great distances,
and/or across geographic impediments such as hills and mountains (Phoenix & Atkins, 2020).
Therefore, the municipality must design pipe and pumping systems that can transport the
water to the users.

1.5.1 Pipe Infrastructure

The system of piping infrastructures that transports the water is often grouped according to
size. These range from the largest being Transmission Mains and the smallest being Premise
Plumbing. In between these there are distribution mains and service lines. Transmission
Mains refer to large infrastructure that carries the water from the treatment plant to the
storage tanks. The distribution mains are smaller in size and diameter compared to the
transmission mains. These refers to the pipes found underneath the roads in cities. Service
lines refer to the pipes that carry the water from the distribution mains to the building in use.
“Service lines can be of any size depending on how much water is required to serve a
particular customer and are sized so that the utility’s design pressure is maintained at the
customer’s property for the desired flows” (National Research Council, 2006). Lastly,
Premise plumbing refers to the pipes in the walls of one’s home or factory etc. It is the
plumbing that transports the water to the tap or spout.
1.5.2. Pipe Networks

According to the National Research Council, “the two basic configurations for most water
distribution systems are the branch and grid/loop” (2006). The branch system is shaped like
tree branches and each smaller pipe branch off the larger ones in the service lines. This way,
the water flows along a single path directly to the user. The branch system is typically used in
rural areas. Figure 1 shows the branch vs Loop system below.

In areas with larger populations, a loop system is used. This is a system of connected pipes in
loops along the entire piping system. It incorporates many different pathways that can
accommodate the flow of water to many destinations throughout the area. This system is
more advantageous because if there’s a break in the pipe, there are other pathways that the
water can take. This break can also be easily repaired and prevents users from water cut-offs.
The loops in the pipes also prevent problems associated with water stagnation from rising.

1.5.3. Pumps and Valves

In the water distribution system, pumps are used to exert energy onto the water so that it has
enough pressure to reach places of high elevations. These pumps are made with strong cast
iron and or steel. They are one of the costliest parts of the water distribution process. “Most
pumps used in distribution systems are centrifugal in nature, in that water from an intake pipe
enters the pump through the action of a “spinning impeller” where it is discharged outward
between vanes and into the discharge piping” (National Research Council, 2006).

“Water valves are designed to handle and control hot water, cold water, ground water,
potable water, saltwater and/or wastewater” (Engineering 360, 2019). Isolation valves and
control valves are the most common types used. Isolation valves are also known as stop or
shutoff valves. These are used when parts of the system are undergoing repairs and those
parts need to be isolated. This way, it limits the inconvenience of everyone not having water
by only isolation small sections.

Control valves are used to regulate the rate of the water flow and its pressure in the system.
The sizes of the valves are based on the flow rates, the stream pressure and the flow velocity.
“Control valves are among the most important aspects of processing, yet they are sometimes
neglected. This is a crucial mistake, because it can easily harm on a plant’s bottom line.
Control valves should be thoroughly inspected during maintenance checks, and it’s helpful to
have control valve software to detect problems before they happen and assist in selecting the
correct valve for a job” (Ask The Experts, 2018).

Figure 1: A above shows a Branch system whilst B shows a Loop System.

Conclusion

The first part of the proposal focuses on a brief overview of the topic. It introduces the water
and sanitation sector and touches on its importance. It then goes on to introduce the study
area as a predominately Indian township with a humid subtropical climate. Shallcross is
known to have poor water and sanitation, hence the aim of the study is to analyse the factors
that contribute to water and sanitation services and how it affects the community. Using the
research objectives as a guide, the data collection process will be carried out as mentioned in
the methodology.

The second part of the proposal focuses on the literature review. To summarize the literature
review, the first part introduces the topic of water and sanitation. Water and sanitation is a
factor that affects the lives of all people in society. Water and sanitation is the most important
sector in the economy and people wouldn’t function without it. The paper explained the
importance of water and what its components are. Water is a body of molecules with a unique
and varying structure. It has many properties and many purposes. Through research it was
found that water and sanitation are different throughout the world. In the global north, the is
an adequate and safe water supply system and the sanitation structures and devices provided
are that of high quality. In the global south on the other hand, studies show that the water
supply and sanitation devices provided are usually inadequate or unequally distributed.
Through research, the user found that there were three crucial elements of the public water
distribution system. These include the water source, the treatment process and water
distribution. The water source refers to the point of origin from where the water is obtained
form. This place is usually a river or reservoir. The treatment process consists of various
steps that ensure the water is pure and safe for consumption. It rides the water of bacteria and
debris. Lastly, the distribution of the water refers to transporting it to the users. This last step
was found to have a high cost factor, especially with the infrastructure required. These
infrastructures involved many intricate pipes, valves, pumps and taps. These all had its own
purposes in aiding the transporting of water from the source to your home. Therefore, it is
important to understand the concept of water and sanitation sector and not take its role in
society for granted.

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