BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Unit 1
Set Theory

Sets and elements

Set theory is a basis of modern mathematics, and notions of set theory are used in all formal
descriptions.
Set: collection, group, aggregate.
Description:
A set is a collection of objects which are called the members or elements of that set. If we have a set
we say that some objects belong (or do not belong) to this set, are (or are not) in the set. We say
also that sets consist of their elements.

Examples:
The set of students in this room; the English alphabet may be viewed as the set of letters of the
English language; the set of natural numbers; etc

Well defined Set

Well-defined means, it must be absolutely clear that which object belongs to the set and which does
not.
Some common examples of well defined sets:
 The collection of vowels in English alphabets. This set contains five elements, namely, a, e, i,
o, u
 N = {1,2,3,…} is the set of counting numbers, or naturals.
 N = {1,2,3,…} is the set of counting numbers, or naturals.
 Z = {…,−3,−2,−1,0,1,2,3,…} is the set of integers.

Representation of a Set
There are two methods to represent a set.

Roster method (Tabular form)

In this method a set is represented by listing all its elements, separating these by commas and
enclosing these in curly bracket.

If V be the set of vowels of English alphabet, it can be written in Roster form as: V = { a, e, i, o, u}
(ii)If A be the set of natural numbers less than 7. Then
A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, is in the Roster form.
Note:
To write a set in Roster form elements are not to be repeated i.e. all elements are taken as distinct.
For example if A be the set of letters used in the word mathematics, then
A = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}

Set-builder form
In this form elements of the set are not listed but these are represented by some common property.
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Let V be the set of vowels of English alphabet then V can be written in the set builder form as:
V = {x: x is a vowel of English alphabet}
(ii) Let A be the set of natural numbers less than 7.
Then A = {x: x ∈N and 1<=x<=7}
Note:
Symbol ':' read as 'such that'

Types

Finite set: A set is said to be finite if its elements can be counted

Infinite set: it is said to be infinite if it is not possible to count up to its last element.

Empty set: There is exactly one set, the empty set, or null set, which has no members at all.

Singleton set: A set with only one member is called a singleton or a singleton set. (“Singleton of a”)

Disjoint set: Two sets are said to be disjoint if they do not have any common element

Equal sets: Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they contain the same elements. Every element
of A is an element of B and every element of B is an element of A.

Subsets
A set A is a subset of a set B iff every element of A is also an element of B. Such a relation between
sets is denoted by A⊆ B

If A⊆ B, and A B, then A is said to be a proper subset of B and it is denoted by A B

Universal set: A set which has all the elements in the universe of discourse is called a universal set.

Power set: The set of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A and denoted by 2A or (A) .

Venn diagram
British mathematician John Venn (1834−1883 AD) introduced the concept of diagrams to represent
sets. According to him universal set is represented by the interior of a rectangle and other sets are
represented by interior of circles.

Operations on Sets
 Union
 Intersection
 Difference
 Complement

Difference of Sets
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Consider the sets

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B= {2, 4, 6}.
A new set having those elements which are in A but not B is said to be the difference of sets A and B
and it is denoted by A−B.
∴A−B= {1, 3, 5}

Intersection of Sets
Consider the sets
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {2, 4, 6}
It is clear, that there are some elements which are common to both the sets A and B. Set of these
Common elements is said to be intersection of A and B and is denoted by A∩B
Here
A∩B= {2, 4 }

Complement of Sets
If U represents the Universal set and any set A is the subset of A then the complement of set A
(represented as A’) will contain ALL the elements which belong to the Universal set U but NOT to
set A.
Mathematically, A’ = U – A
Alternatively, the complement of a set A, A’ is the difference between the universal set U and the set
A.

Union of Sets
If A and B are only two sets then union of A and B is the set of those elements which belong to A or
B. it is denoted by A U B

The following are the important properties of set operations.

(i) COMMUTATIVE PROPERTY

(a) A U B = B U A (Set union is commutative)

(b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Set intersection is commutative)

(ii) ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY

(a) A U (B U C) = (A U B) u C (Set union is associative)

(b) A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C (Set intersection is associative)
(iii) DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY

(a) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C) (Intersection distributes over union)

(a) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C) (Union distributes over intersection)

Definition of De Morgan’s law:

BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

The complement of the union of two sets is equal to the intersection of their complements and the
complement of the intersection of two sets is equal to the union of their complements. These are
called De Morgan’s laws.

For any two finite sets A and B;

(i) (A U B)' = A' ∩ B' (which is a De Morgan's law of union).
(ii) (A ∩ B)' = A' U B' (which is a De Morgan's law of intersection).

Proof of De Morgan’s law: (A U B)' = A' ∩ B'

Let P = (A U B)' and Q = A' ∩ B'

Let x be an arbitrary element of P then x ∈ P ⇒ x ∈ (A U B)'

⇒ x ∉ (A U B)

⇒ x ∉ A and x ∉ B

⇒ x ∈ A' and x ∈ B'

⇒ x ∈ A' ∩ B'

⇒x∈Q

Therefore, P ⊂ Q …………….. (i)

Again, let y be an arbitrary element of Q then y ∈ Q ⇒ y ∈ A' ∩ B'

⇒ y ∈ A' and y ∈ B'

⇒ y ∉ A and y ∉ B

⇒ y ∉ (A U B)

⇒ y ∈ (A U B)'

⇒y∈P

Therefore, Q ⊂ P …………….. (ii)

Now combine (i) and (ii) we get; P = Q i.e. (A U B)' = A' ∩ B'

Proof of De Morgan’s law: (A ∩ B)' = A' U B'

Let M = (A ∩ B)' and N = A' U B'

BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Let x be an arbitrary element of M then x ∈ M ⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B)'

⇒ x ∉ (A ∩ B)

⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B

⇒ x ∈ A' or x ∈ B'

⇒ x ∈ A' U B'

⇒x∈N

Therefore, M ⊂ N …………….. (i)

Again, let y be an arbitrary element of N then y ∈ N ⇒ y ∈ A' U B'

⇒ y ∈ A' or y ∈ B'

⇒ y ∉ A or y ∉ B

⇒ y ∉ (A ∩ B)

⇒ y ∈ (A ∩ B)'

⇒y∈M

Therefore, N ⊂ M …………….. (ii)

Now combine (i) and (ii) we get; M = N i.e. (A ∩ B)' = A' U B'

Exercise
1. Out of 60 student, 35 play hockey. 20 play both hockey and cricket. Find the number of
student who play only cricket? (Ans 25)
2. In a group of 50 persons 14 drink tea but no coffee and 30 drink tea. find:
(a) How many drink tea and coffee both
(b) How many drink coffee but not tea (Ans 16,20)
3. For the given sets A = { -10, 0, 1, 9, 2, 4, 5 } and B = {-1, -2, 5, 6, 2, 3, 4 }, verify that

(i) Set union is commutative. Also verify it by using Venn diagram.

(ii) Set intersection is commutative. Also verify it by using Venn diagram.

4. For the given sets A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }, B = { 3, 4, 5, 6 } and C = { 5, 6, 7, 8 }, verify that A u (B u
C ) = (A u B) u C. Also verify it by using Venn diagram.
5. In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks and 42 like hot drinks and each person likes at
least one of the two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea? (Ans. 9)
6. In a competition, a school awarded medals in different categories. 36 medals in dance, 12
medals in dramatics and 18 medals in music. If these medals went to a total of 45 persons
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

and only 4 persons got medals in all the three categories, how many received medals in
exactly two of these categories? (Ans 3 )
7. In a group of 100 persons, 72 people can speak English and 43 can speak French. How many
can speak English only? How many can speak French only and how many can speak both
English and French? (Ans 57, 28 )
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Unit-2
Linear equations in Two Variables
1. Simultaneous equations:

Simultaneous equations are two equations, each with the same two unknowns
and are "simultaneous" because they are solved together. In simple terms, the
solution to a pair of simultaneous equations is the x and y values of the
coordinates of the point at which the graphs cross or intersect. The example
below shows this.

Solving Graphically:

For each equation, find coordinates for two points on the graph. An easy way of
doing this is finding corresponding values when x = 0 and when y = 0. (Note:
this will give 2 sets of coordinates which, since the equation is linear, is enough
although it is a god idea to check at least one more point on the line.)

For 4x – 2y = 10 this gives (2.5, 0) and (0,-5) which we plot and then extend a
straight line through.

For x + y = 4 this gives (0, 4) and (4, 0) which we plot and then extend a
straight line through.
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Notice that the all the coordinates through which the lines pass are solutions
to each equation. And the coordinates of the point at which they cross, (3, 1) is
the solution to the pair of simultaneous equations.

Solving Algebraically

We can find solutions to simultaneous equations algebraically too. There are

three common methods. Which one you choose might depend on the values
involved or it might just be the method you like the most.

Elimination Method:

Follow the steps to solve the system of linear equations by using the
elimination method:

(i) Multiply the given equation by suitable constant so as to make the

coefficients of the variable to be eliminated equal.

(ii) Add the new equations obtained if the terms having the same coefficient are
opposite signs and subtract if they are of the same sign.

(iii) Solve the equation thus obtained.

(iv) Substitute the value found in any one the given equations.

(v) Solve it to get the value of the other variable.

Example:

4x – 2y = 10
x+y=4

(Multiply x + y = 4 by 2 to give )

2x + 2y = 8

4x – 2y = 10
2x + 2y = 8
6x = 18
x=3
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

We then add the two equations which "eliminates" the 2y (since -2y + 2y = 0)
and leaves 6x = 18 which, after dividing both sides by 6 leaves x = 3

3+y=4
y=1

We can then replace x in one of the equations with the value 3. (In this
example, doing this in x + y =4 is simpler than in 4x - 2y = 10)

Substitution Method:
Observe the steps how to solve the system of linear equations by using the
substitution method.
(i) Find the value of one variable in terms of the other from one of the given
equations.
(ii) Substitute the value of this variable in the other equation.
(iii) Solve the equation and get the value of one of the variables.
(iv) Substitute the value of this variable in any of the equation to get the value
of other variable.
Example:
4x – 2y = 10
x+y=4
Rearrange one equation to get make either x or y subject of the equation.
In this case it will be simpler to rearrange x + y = 4 which we can rearrange to
y = 4-x by subtracting x from each side
4x – 2y = 10
4x - 2(4 - x) = 10
4x - 8 + 2x = 10
6x - 8 (+8) = 10 (+8)
6x = 18
x=3
We then substitute 4 - x for y in the other equation.
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

3+y=4
y=1
As with the elimination method we then replace x in one of the equations with
the value 3. (In this example, doing this in x + y =4 is simpler than in
4x - 2y = 10).

Comparison Method:

Steps to solve the system of linear equations by using the comparison method
to find the value of x and y.

3x – 2y = 2 ---------- (i)

7x + 3y = 43 --------- (ii)

Now for solving the above simultaneous linear equations by using the method
of comparison follow the instructions and the method of solution.

Step I: From equation 3x – 2y = 2 --------- (i), express x in terms of y.

Likewise, from equation 7x + 3y = 43 -------- (ii), express x in terms of y.

from equation (i) 3x – 2y = 2 we get;

3x – 2y + 2y = 2 + 2y (adding both sides by 2y)
or, 3x = 2 + 2y
or, 3x/3 = (2 + 2y)/3 (dividing both sides by 3)
or, x = (2 + 2y)/3
Therefore, x = (2y + 2)/3 ---------- (iii)
From equation (ii) 7x + 3y = 43 we get;
7x + 3y – 3y = 43 – 3y (subtracting both sides by 3y)
or, 7x = 43 – 3y
or, 7x/7 = (43 – 3y)/7 (dividing both sides by 7)
or, x = (43 – 3y)/7
Therefore, x = (–3y + 43)/7 ---------- (iv)
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Step II: Equate the values of x in equation (iii) and equation (iv) forming the
equation in y
From equation (iii) and (iv), we get;

(2y + 2)/3 = (–3y + 43)/7 ---------- (v)

Step III: Solve the linear equation (v) in y

(2y + 2)/3 = (–3y + 43)/7 ---------- (v) Simplifying we get;

or, 7(2y + 2) = 3(–3y + 43)
or, 14y + 14 = –9y + 129
or, 14y + 14 – 14 = –9y + 129 – 14
or, 14y = -9y + 115
or, 14y + 9y = –9y + 9y + 115
or, 23y = 115
or, 23y/23 = 115/23
Therefore, y = 5
Step IV: Putting the value of y in equation (iii) or equation (iv), find the value
of x

Putting the value of y = 5 in equation (iii) we get;

x = (2 × 5 + 2)/3
or, x = (10 + 2)/3
or, x = 12/3
Therefore, x = 4.

Step V: Required solution of the two equations

Therefore, x = 4 and y = 5

Therefore, we have compared the values of x obtained from equation (i) and (ii)
and formed an equation in y, so this method of solving simultaneous equations
is known as the comparison method. Similarly, comparing the two values of y,
we can form an equation in x.
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Cross-Multiplication Method:

The formula for cross-multiplication and its use in solving two simultaneous
equations can be presented as:

𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 ----------- (i)

𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0 ----------- (ii)

we get, by the cross-multiplication method:

𝑥 𝑦 1
= = ---------- (A)
𝑏1 𝑐2 −𝑏2 𝑐1 𝑐1 𝑎 2 −𝑐2 𝑎 1 𝑎 1 𝑏2 −𝑎 2 𝑏1

𝑏1 𝑐2 −𝑏2 𝑐1 𝑐1 𝑎 2 −𝑐2 𝑎 1
That means, 𝑥= and 𝑦= .
𝑎 1 𝑏2 −𝑎 2 𝑏1 𝑎 1 𝑏2 −𝑎 2 𝑏1

This relation informs us how the solution of the simultaneous equations, co-
efficient x, y and the constant terms in the equations are inter-related, we can
take this relation as a formula and use it to solve any two simultaneous
equations. Avoiding the general steps of elimination, we can solve the two
simultaneous equations directly.

Note:

If the value of x or y is zero, that is, 𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 = 0 or 𝑐1 𝑎2 − 𝑐2 𝑎1 = 0, it is not

proper to express in the formula for cross- multiplication, because the
denominator of a fraction can never be 0.

At first, express the co-efficient of the two equations as in the following form:
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Now multiply the co-efficient according to the arrow heads and subtract the
upward product from the downward product. Place the three differences under
x, y and 1 respectively forming three fractions; connect them by two signs of
equality.

1. Solve the two variables linear equation:

8x + 5y = 11

3x – 4y = 10

Solution:

On transposition, we get

8x + 5y – 11 = 0

3x – 4y – 10 = 0

writing the co-efficient in the following way, we get:

Note: The above presentation is not compulsory for solving.

By cross-multiplication method:
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

𝑥 𝑦 1
= = ,
5 −10 − −4 (−11) −11 3 − −10 (8) 8 −4 − 3 (5)

𝑥 𝑦 1
or, = = ,
−50−44 −33+80 −32−15
𝑥 𝑦 1
or, = = ,
−94 47 47
−94 47
𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦= ,
47 47
−2 1
or, 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦= .
1 1
Therefore, required solution is x = -2, y = 1.

Practice Questions
1. Find the value of x and y by using the using cross-multiplication method:
3x + 4y – 17 = 0
4x – 3y – 6 = 0
2. Solve the system of equation 2x + y = -4 and 5x – 3y = 1 by the method of
elimination.
3. Solve the system of equation 2x + 3y = 11, x + 2y = 7 by the method of
elimination.
4. Solve the system of equation by the method of Substitution.
7x – 3y = 31
9x – 5y = 41.
5. Solve the system of linear equation by the method of comparison.
3x – 9y = 20
4x – 7y = 7
6. Solve the system of linear equation by Graphical method.
4x – 5y = 8
3x – 7y =9
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

2. Quadratic Equation

In algebra, a quadratic equation is any equation having the form:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0,
where x represents an unknown, and a, b, and c represent known numbers,
with a ≠ 0. If a = 0, then the equation is linear, not quadratic, as there is
no 𝑎𝑥 2 term. The numbers a, b, and c are the coefficients of the equation and
may be distinguished by calling them, respectively, the quadratic coefficient,
the linear coefficient and the constant or free term.
The values of x that satisfy the equation are called solutions of the equation,
and roots or zeros of its left-hand side. A quadratic equation has at most two
solutions i.e. a quadratic equation has always two roots.

Method of solving quadratic equations:

There are three main methods of solving adfected quadratic equation or simple
quadratic equation:
1. Factorization method.
2. Completing the square method.
3. Sridharacharya’s method.

Factorization method:
Steps:
1. Transpose all terms of a quadratic equation to one side.
2. Find the linear factors of the expression on the LHS in the form
𝑥 − 𝛼 𝑥 − 𝛽 = 0. To do this we get two factors of 𝑎 × 𝑐 such that their
sum or difference is equal to b.
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3. The product of two factors is zero only when either one of them is equal
to zero. Equate each factor equal to zero and get the required roots or
solution of the equation.

Example:

Solve 𝒙𝟐 + 5x + 6 = 0, and check.

This equation is already in the form "(quadratic) equals (zero)" but this isn't yet
factored. We must factor the quadratic first, because it is only when we
multiply and get zero that I can say anything about the factors and solutions.
We can't conclude anything about the individual terms of the nonfactor
quadratic (like the 5x or the 6), because I can add lots of stuff that totals to
zero.

So the first thing I have to do is factor:

x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)

Now I can restate the original equation in terms of a product of factors, with
this product being equal to zero:
(x + 2)(x + 3) = 0

Now I can solve each factor by setting each one equal to zero and solving the
resulting linear equations:
x + 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0

x = –2 or x = – 3

These two values are the solution to the original quadratic equation. So my
answer is:
x = –3, –2
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Completing the square

The process of completing the square makes use of the algebraic identity which
represents a well-defined algorithm that can be used to solve any quadratic
equation. Starting with a quadratic equation in standard form, ax2 + bx + c = 0

1. Divide each side by a, the coefficient of the squared term.

2. Shift the constant term c/a to the right sides.
3. Add the square of one-half of b/a, the coefficient of x, to both sides. This
"completes the square", converting the left side into a perfect square.
4. Write the left side as a square and simplify the right side if necessary.
5. Produce two linear equations by equating the square root of the left side
with the positive and negative square roots of the right side.
6. Solve the two linear equations.
We illustrate use of this algorithm by solving 2x2 + 4x − 4 = 0
Step 1: Divide each side by 2, the coefficient of the squared term.
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 2 = 0,

Step 2: Shift the constant term 2 to the right side.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 2,

Step 3: Add the square of one-half of b/a, the coefficient of x, to both sides.
This "completes the square", converting the left side into a perfect square.

𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = 2 + 1,

Step 4: Write the left side as a square and simplify the right side if necessary.

2
𝑥+1 = 3,

Step 5: Produce two linear equations by equating the square root of the left side
with the positive and negative square roots of the right side.

𝑥 + 1 = ± 3,

Step 6: Solve the two linear equations,

𝑥 = −1 ± 3,
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Therefore, the solution of the given quadratic equation is: −1 + 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1 − 3.

Sreedhar Acharya’s Method:

The given quadratic equation

Move c to the right hand side

Divide by a

Add a term to both sides for

completing square

Complete square,
Join the terms on right hand
side

Take square root

Solve for x

Solve the quadratic equation 6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2 = 0 by applying quadratic formula.

Solution: 6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2 = 0

First we need to compare the given equation 6𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 2 = 0with the general

form of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, (where a ≠ 0) we get,

a = 6, b = -7 and c =2

Now apply Sreedhar Achary’s formula:

−𝑏± 𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= ,
2𝑎
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

−(−7)± (−7)2 −4×6×2

𝑥= ,
2×6

7± 49−48
𝑥= ,
12

7±1
𝑥= ,
12

8 6
𝑥= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ,
12 12

2 1
or 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 .
3 2

Hence the solution.

BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

Unit III

Basic Definitions
Matrix -

A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers (real or complex) or

objects which may be represented as

matrix is enclosed by [ ] or ( ) or | | | | Compact form the above matrix is

represented by [aij]m x n or A = [aij].

1. Element of a Matrix - The numbers a11, a12 … etc., in the above matrix are
known as the element of the matrix, generally represented as aij , which denotes
element in ith row and jth column.
2. Order of a Matrix -In above matrix has m rows and n columns, then A is of
order m x n.

Types of Matrices

1. Row Matrix- A matrix having only one row and any number of columns is
called a row matrix.
2. Column Matrix -A matrix having only one column and any number of rows is
called column matrix.
3. Rectangular Matrix- A matrix of order m x n, such that m ≠ n, is called
rectangular matrix.
4. Horizontal Matrix -A matrix in which the number of rows is less than the
number of columns, is called a horizontal matrix.
5. Vertical Matrix -A matrix in which the number of rows is greater than the
number of columns, is called a vertical matrix.
BBA I Year Subject: Business mathematics

6. Null/Zero Matrix- A matrix of any order, having all its elements are zero, is
called a null/zero matrix. i.e., aij = 0, ∀ i, j
7. Square Matrix A matrix of order m x n, such that m = n, is called square matrix.
8. Diagonal Matrix- A square matrix A = [aij]m x n, is called a diagonal matrix, if all
the elements except those in the leading diagonals are zero, i.e., aij = 0 for i ≠ j. It
can be
represented as A = diag[a11 a22… ann]
9. Scalar Matrix- A square matrix in which every non-diagonal element is zero and
all diagonal elements are equal, is called scalar matrix.
i.e., in scalar matrix aij = 0, for i ≠ j and aij = k, for i = j
10. Unit/Identity Matrix -A square matrix, in which every non-diagonal element is
zero and every diagonal element is 1, is called, unit matrix or an identity matrix.

11. Upper Triangular Matrix -A square matrix A = a[ij]n x n is called a upper

triangular matrix, if a[ij], = 0, ∀ i > j.
12. Lower Triangular Matrix -A square matrix A = a[ij]n x n is called a lower
triangular matrix, if a[ij], = 0, ∀ i < j.
13. Submatrix- A matrix which is obtained from a given matrix by deleting any
number of rows or columns or both is called a submatrix of the given matrix.
14. Equal Matrices -Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, if both having
same order and corresponding elements of the matrices are equal.
15. Principal Diagonal of a Matrix- In a square matrix, the diagonal from the first
element of
the first row to the last element of the last row is called the principal diagonal of a
matrix.

16. Singular Matrix- A square matrix A is said to be singular matrix, if determinant

of A denoted by det (A) or |A| is zero, i.e., |A|= 0, otherwise it is a non-singular
matrix.
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Operations on Matrix

Equality

Two matrices are equal if and only if

 The order of the matrices are the same.

 The corresponding elements of the matrices are the same.

Addition

 Order of the matrices must be the same

 Add corresponding elements together
 Matrix addition is commutative
 Matrix addition is associative

Example-
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Subtraction

 The order of the matrices must be the same

 Subtract corresponding elements
 Matrix subtraction is not commutative (neither is subtraction of real
numbers)
 Matrix subtraction is not associative (neither is subtraction of real numbers)

Example1:

Let

Then,
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Example 2:

Scalar Multiplication

A scalar is a number, not a matrix.

 The matrix can be any order

 Multiply all elements in the matrix by the scalar
 Scalar multiplication is commutative
 Scalar multiplication is associative
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Example

Matrix Multiplication

Am×n × Bn×p = Cm×p

 The number of columns in the first matrix must be equal to the number of
rows in the second matrix. That is, the inner dimensions must be the same.
 The order of the product is the number of rows in the first matrix by the
number of columns in the second matrix. That is, the dimensions of the
product are the outer dimensions.
 Since the number of columns in the first matrix is equal to the number of
rows in the second matrix, you can pair up entries.
 Each element in row i from the first matrix is paired up with an element in
column j from the second matrix.
 The element in row i, column j, of the product is formed by multiplying
these paired elements and summing them.
 Each element in the product is the sum of the products of the elements from
rows i of the first matrix and column j of the second matrix.
 There will be n products which are summed for each element in the product.

Example 3: If
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and . Find product of AB.

Solution: This is a 2*2 matrix in which each entry in the sum of the product across
some row of the A with the corresponding entries down some columns of B. These
four computations is:

Entry in first row first column =

Entry in first row second column =

Entry in second row first column =

Entry in second row second column = Thus

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