Sok science chapter 4 – how science works ?

 The real process of science is complex, iterative and it can take many paths.
 One, in science needs to make observations and ask questions, share data
and ideas to conclude a thought.
 Scientific ideas can be tested through experiments and observations.

A hypothesis is a testable idea that leads to a scientific investigation/ between 2

variables for some observed phenomenon. A scientific method is a way to show
how scientific theories derive support from evidence but Feyerabend argues that
there is no scientific method for every experiment.
Falsification is the ability to disprove a statement .
 In order for science to process, researchers must share their findings
through scientific publication and journals should be peer-reviews
( evaluation of a scientific work)
 Scientific studies include repeating same steps each time, hence it relies on
creative people.
 Science circles back on itself for building more ideas and to learn on the
natural world.
 Tools like microscopes help to study the natural world.
 Testing ideas - do our observations match what we expected? – it will give
us a hypothesis (testable idea that leads to an investigation)
Scientific reasoning : hypothesis (idea), prediction(expectation), evidence(actual
observation)
 Scientific laws are based on empirical observations.
 Scientific Ideas can be tested through both observations and experiments.
 Albert Einstein made use of the ‘Thought Experiment’ – ‘what if?’
scenarios that would be difficult to conduct in a lab setting.
 Testing Ideas (Middle) – Raw data is basically the descriptions, observations
or measurements.
 Scientists aim for their studies to be replicable – another researcher could
perform an investigation and obtain the same basic results.
Topic 5: The History of the scientific method
1) Ancient Greek Philosophers – they explained science through nature
2) Baconian Revolution – development of inductive reasoning
3) 20th century developments – Karl Popper (falsification) + Thomas Kuhn
(paradigm shift)

 Aristotle is the father of deductive reasoning. He wrote that all men are
mortal and hence Socrates is a man so he is mortal.
Inductive Reasoning – bottom up approach( starts from the specific and goes to
general). It may be wrong if data is limited. – leaf observed under microscope
Deductive Reasoning – up bottom approach ( starts from general to specific).
Here if input is wrong, output is wrong if input is right, output is right.
(UNEXPECTED) – life is built from cells

Karl Popper (falsification) – the idea that when a hypothesis is studied it can be
deducted untrue . Thus researchers need to continue working on their studies
Thomas Kuhn (paradigm shift) – a new way of thinking that explains
inconsistencies with an original theory established.
 Example of Paradigm Shift – Ptolemy’s Model . Proposed that earth was
at the centre of the Solar System. Astronomers assumed that planets
moved in perfect circles ( Normal Science ).
Copernicus Universe – Proposed that earth and other planets revolved around the
sun. Simpler Model – Occam’s Razor. Anomalies and Crisis – Old model
(Geocentric Model ) no longer seemed to explain all observations.
Problems with Epicycles . Too complicated and had faults and not fully accurate
disproving Geocentric Model.
Copernicus’ Theory :
1) Kepler – He expanded on Copernicus’ theory and found out that the planets
didn’t travel in perfect circles but in ovals.
2) Galilei – He used the telescope to make observations in space in order to
prove the Copernican system.
3) Newton – Force keeping the moon in orbit with the earth was the force of
gravity. 3 Laws of Motion and explained how the planets were orbiting around the
sun proving Kepler’s theory

Examples of Paradigm Shift –

 Plate Tectonics – The crust is fixed and that continents had always been
in their current position.
 Discovery of Microscope
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 Pre-historic people made observations of the sun, moon, planets by the
naked eye ( Mnajdra temple is an evidence)- astronomically aligned so
spring and autumn light rays would pass from doorway.
Ancient Civilizations – Babylonians and Egyptians
 Observed the world around them to solve problems.
 Egyptians realised that the Nile floods when the bright star Sirius rose
before the sun.
 The early Greeks relied on mythology to explain the behaviour of the
Universe

 Socrates and the Socratic Method :

 Socrates focused more on morality and society rather than the universe.
The Socratic Method is a form of debate between individuals based on
asking and answering questions – Critical thinking.
 Plato – formed his theories from abstract thinking. He used a purely
deductive method in understanding the Forms. He continued that the
world consists of 2 realms – physical world and world of forms. Plato left
some complete work.
 Aristotle – Believed that we can only learn from detailed observations
(empirical evidence). He is the father of deductive reasoning. His aim
 was to develop this universal method of reasoning. He produced
descriptions of things in terms of their properties, states and activities 
Deductive reasoning.
Aristotle’s observations led him to the purpose of a geocentric model of the
cosmos with the earth in the middle. Aristarchus of Samos proposed a
Heliocentric model which was ultimately correct having the sun in the middle.

End of Middle Ages  Scholars from all around Europe went to Spain to translate
the books that Muslims had preserved from Arabic to Latin. This blend of ideas
formed the Christian Scholasticism which ended the dark ages.
The Scientific Revolution :
The history of the scientific method :
1) Ancient Greek philosophers developed science from a naturalistic
standpoint.
2) Baconian Revolution in Science developed the Inductive Reasoning.
3) In the 20th Century, major developments happened by Karl Popper, Paul
Feyerabend and Thomas Kuhn.
The Renaissance  Thinkers started turning away from church and back to
ANTIQUITY for INSPIRATION. This is the rebirth of Greek Humanism. Thinkers
learnt to embrace the empirical approach (Inductive) but,
1) Art and Literature flourished
2) New ideas flourished
Nicholaus Copernicus  He proposes the Heliocentric model. This didn’t explain
everything about the path, but it was a simpler model ( Occar’s Razor ).
This Heliocentric Model was controversial since :
1) It was criticized as being in conflict with the Ptolemaic model.
Support for the Heliocentric Model  Tycho Brahe made observations that
continued to weaken the Geocentric Model. Many astronomers favoured him
since he made calculations easy and agreed with observations. When Brahe died,
he left his observations with Kepler.
Galileo Galilei – Telescope was invented and after building his own telescope, he
used it to observe the sky and noticed that :
1) The moon’s surface was rough and uneven.
2) Venus went through phases.
Therefore, these observations convinced him that the Ptolemaic theory could not
be correct.
Bacon criticized the Aristotelian-Scholastic Philosophy, emphasizing that nature
should be studied through experimentation. Bacon is the father of Empiricism and
of the Scientific Method.
Copernicus’ Theory 
1) Kepler expanded Copernicus’ theory and found out that the sun didn’t
travel in perfect circles but in ovals.
2) Galilei used his telescope to study the universe like the moon and other
planets to prove that the Copernican system was correct.
3) Newton discovered that the force keeping the moon in orbit with earth was
the force of gravity. He came up with 3 laws of motion and explained that
the planets were orbiting around the sun, once again proving Kepler’s
Theory.
Isaac Newton  Newton’s Laws are simply the basis of all physics.
Philosophers of Scientific Revolution :
1) Francis Bacon  Championed Inductive Reasoning, Practical and Empirical
Approach. Believes in making observations using the senses and also using
the Bottom-Up logic meaning starting from the observations.
2) Rene Descartes  Championed Deductive Reasoning, Theoretical and
Rational Approach. Doubts impressions of SENSE PERCEPTION and also
using the Top-Down logic meaning starting from the conclusion.
Positivism and Post-Positivism :
Positivism (true knowledge) stresses that scientific knowledge should be based on
Empiricism. Auguste Comte is the founder of Positivism.
Emile Durkheim wanted to predict the impacts of changes in society example a
sudden increase in crime.
Post-Positivism Philosophers:
1) Falsification  Karl Popper – Scientist should seek for contradictory
evidence.
2) Paradigm Shifts  Thomas Kuhn – History of Science divided into 2 :
Normal Science ( Experimentation to check the validity of a Paradigm ) and
Revolution ( Explaining of the anomalies and becoming widely accepted ).
Kuhn’s Phases : Development, Normal Science, Anomalies and Crisis,
Revolution and Normal Science Re-established.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Positivism –
1) Strength – May produce precise and accurate results.
2) Weakness – May be difficult to understand the subject being studied.
Post-Positivism  Scientific knowledge is not certain and is influenced by social
and cultural factors.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Post-Positivism –
1) Strength – Does not rely on a single method ( Triangulation ).
2) Weakness – May weaken the objectivity of science.