HUMAN GENE THERAPHY
examples of this.
GENES AND THE HUMAN GENOME
Genome is a complete set of the genes in a cell or organism.
Human genome resides in 46 chromosomes that basically come in
pair in which 23 are from the father and another 23 from the
mother. These pairs of chromosomes dictate the characteristics of
an organism and can be determined as dominant or recessive A
chromosome is made up of two chromatids and each chromatid
contains sequence of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA
commonly found in the nucleus of every cell. The DNA strand,
when divided into portions, constitutes many genes. Genes are
made up of hundreds of thousands of chemical bases. This specific
portion of the DNA performs specific function specifically in the
production of hormone or enzymes. Not all the genes in the strand
of DNA are working at the same time. For example, the genes that
are "switched on" in the heart are different from those genes that
are 'switched on' in the eye. The genes or portion of the DNA
sequence that are coded to proteins are called exons and the non-
coding regions are called introns.
GENETIC DISORDERS
Genetic disorders diseases caused by abnormalities in the DNA
sequence an individual. These irregularities can happen in one gene
there an addition or subtraction of chromosomes. There more 4000
identified medical disorders that are caused defective genes.
Although genes are responsible for predisposition these diseases,
the environment, diet, lifestyle also factors that trigger diseases
These genetic disorders classified.
A. Single-Gene Disorder
Single gene disorders are caused by mutations in specific genes. In
humans, there are 50,000 to 100,000 estimated genes that are
responsible for coding proteins which are needed by cells and
tissues to perform its specific function.
Single-gene disorders classified into autosomal single-gene
disorder and X-linked disorders. The question that, how can we
determine if the disorder is autosomal or X-linked? Remember that
the human chromosomes always come in 23 i.e.22 pairs of
autosomes and a pair of sex chromosome. Autosomal gene disorder
happens in genes that can be found within the 22 pairs of non-sex
chromosomes while X-linked disorder originated from the genes of
sex chromosome. Haemophilia and Christmas Disease are example
of it.
B. Chromosomal Disorders
Chromosomal may happen under certain conditions. It might be an
excess or deficiency of the whole chromosome, chromosomal
rearrangement, and contiguous gene syndrome. There are many
structural abnormalities in the chromosomes and some of it are
related to cardiovascular disease that led to congenital heart
disease. Chromosomal rearrangement happens if there is breakage
and reconstruction but in abnormal form. Structural rearrangement
may lead to loss or gain of genetic material but typically gaining
human chromosomes is less harmful than the loss of genetic
materials. Examples of this are Superfemale (XXX), Turner’s
syndrome (XO), and Down’ syndrome(trisomy 21)
C. Multifactorial Inheritance
Multifactorial inheritance is not caused by some changes or
abnormalities in a single gene or chromosome. It is basically by the
combination of genetic changes that produces the disease.
Multifactorial inheritance might happen 5-10% in the first-degree
relatives with higher risk than that of 2nd degree relatives. Breast
cancer, Prostate cancer, anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia are
GENE THERAPY
Gene therapy is a method of treating or preventing diseases by
replacing. repairing, or turning on or off genes of a patient's cells.
The process in gene therapy includes the use of vectors and non-
viral method to move a DNA or genes to one cell or another. Some
of the vectors in gene therapy are retrovirus, adenovirus, adeno
associated virus, cis, and trans-acting elements, and herpes simplex
virus. Non-viral method, the other hand, has certain advantages
over vectors or viral methods since it can be produced in large
scale. Injection of naked DNA is the simplest method under non-
viral method. Cells, tissue and even organisms that undergone gene
therapy are considered transgenic or genetically modified. The two
main types of gene therapy are somatic gene therapy and
reproductive gene therapy.
1. Somatic gene therapy are those which are not related to
reproductive gene therapy. It is basically the introduction of genes
to cells in a target organ to produce enzymes which are needed by
the body to functions well. It means that, somatic gene therapy
helps the organ to function well but it doesn't alter the genetic
makeup of an organism. The changes in organisms caused by
somatic gene therapy are not transmitted to its offspring.
2. Reproductive gene therapy or germ-line cell therapy is
basically the introduction of corrective genes to sperm cells, egg
cells, or even zygotes (4-day old). The main goal or objective is to
eliminate the abnormalities that can possibly be transmitted to the
offspring. It is the alteration of genetic makeup of the offspring by
targeting the abnormal genes in the parent's sex cells.
However, gene therapy requires the identification of the correct
genes responsible in the progression of diseases. The most crucial
part of gene therapy is the delivery of the modified gene to the cell
or target organ and this should be done in accurate. controlled and
effective way. It can also be noted that modified genes are not
always accepted by the cells for the reason that our cells have its
natural defense mechanism and kills foreign bodies. Most failures
in gene therapy are caused by the rejection of the modified genes.
BENEFITS AND DISADVANTAGES OF GENE THERAPY
Benefits of Gene Therapy
1.It offers cure to several diseases like cancer. Parkinson's disease,
AIDS, asthma, diabetes, heart diseases as well as hereditary
diseases. 2.It can replace defective cells.
3.It has a promising potential not only in the field of medicine but
in some related fields like agriculture.
Disadvantages of gene therapy
1.Modifying organism means modifying its capabilities. 2.Viral
vectors could recover its ability to cause disease. 3.It can damage
the gene pool resulting to multigene disorder.
4.High cost.
ENERGY CRISIS AND ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
RESOURCES
Energy is the power to do work, energy is used to do many things.
It exists in various forms and can be converted from one form to
another. In your case, the energy you need is derived from the food
you eat. In plants, photosynthesis is a process wherein plants
manufacture their own food in the presence of sunlight. Light
energy is trapped in the process and energy is stored in the food.
During the breakdown process of food in our body the energy is
released, and you have the power to work or carry out different
activities. Energy is obtained from many sources for different
chemical processes. You may not be aware of it but you use
kerosene, firewood, electricity to cook in using these products
energy is released. The products are therefore sources of energy.
Coal, nuclear power, and other fossil fuels generate energy. When
any of this burn to release energy, there are usually byproducts like
carbon dioxide, methane, etc. These byproducts cause pollution.
SOURCES OF ENERGY
A. EXHAUSTIBLE ENERGY
Exhaustible energy sources are those that cannot be replaced once
they are used. There are basically two classifications of exhaustible
energy sources: fossil fuels and nuclear fuels. These energy sources
are being utilized at 90 percent of our present energy sources.
Major uses include transportation, heat, light and industrial power.
1. Fossil fuels are deposits of coal, petroleum (oil), and natural gas
found underground.
COAL- Solid, combustible (burnable) substance that is brown to
black in color obtained through mining operations. Coal is the most
abundant fossil fuel coal is mainly used to fuel electrical power
plants. These power plant use three-quarters of all the coal mined.
OIL (PETROLEUM)- Most common petroleum products are
gasoline and diesel fuel. Many homes and large buildings use oil as
an energy source for heating. Oil can be used also to generate
electricity. These uses, plus its use in transportation, have made oil
the world's most important fuel.
NATURAL GAS- Mixture of several types of gases: ethane,
propane, butane, and methane. Widely used for cooking and for
heating homes. It consists mostly of methane and is found near oil
deposits below Earth’s surface. Natural gas can be pumped out
through the same wells used for extracting crude oil.
2. Nuclear Fuels
Uranium is the most used nuclear fuel. Uranium is a heavy
substance that is found in many metal ores. There are two basic
types of uranium, called isotopes. One of these isotopes, uranium-
235 (U-235) is rare. Uranium ore are obtained through mining. At
processing plants, the uranium is separated from the ore. At other
plants, the uranium is separated into U-235 and U-238.
Plutonium is another substance that can be used to power nuclear
reactors. If the breeder reactor became widely used, the energy
available from our uranium supplies would increase sharply. It
would then be about three to four times the energy available from
our coal reserves. Breeder reactor uses uranium - 238 as its fuel.
This type of reactor converts uranium-238 into plutonium.
B. RENEWABLE ENERGY - Those that can be used indefinitely
if they are properly managed and maintained. Wood and plants are
renewable sources of energy.
GASOHOL- A mixture of nine-tenths unleaded gasoline and one-
tenth ethyl alcohol. It is used as a substitute for gasoline in cars and
trucks. By using gasohol, we can save 10 percent of the oil needed
to produce gasoline. Sources of ethyl alcohol include sugar beets,
and grain. At distilleries, these crops are processed into alcohol.
The alcohol is then mixed with gasoline.
METHANOL OR METHYL ALCOHOL is a clean-burning
liquid fuel. It can be made from natural gas and coal. These sources
are non-renewable. However, methanol can also be made from
renewable sources. These sources include wood, plants and waste
products from homes, farms, and industry.
BIOMASS- Bioconversion is the process of obtaining energy from
society's waste products. There are many sources of waste biomass:
food product waste, animal waste, paper, cardboard, and wood. All
of these can either be burned or converted into fuels such as
alcohol, oil and methane. Bioconversion, however, is not a very
efficient process. This energy source may add to other sources. It
will also help us dispose other unwanted waste.
WOOD is one of our oldest sources of energy. Wood is used for
cooking and heating. In pioneer days, wood was one of the major
sources of energy. Coal and oil later replaced it. As an energy
source, wood has one major disadvantage. It is not a clean-burning
fuel. It creates high levels of air pollution.
C. INEXHAUSTIBLE ENERGY
SOLAR ENERGY Can be used directly or indirectly. It can
provide both heating and electricity. Solar panels are devices that
collect solar energy to heat water. Solar energy can be controlled
by using mirrors.
HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY is simply electrical energy
produced from flowing water. Rain and snow sustain our streams,
rivers, lakes, and oceans. Reservoirs are built to trap the water.
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY -Heat that is generated within the
Earth. It is a renewable resource that can be harvested for human
use. Magma heats nearby rocks and underground aquifers. Hot
water can be released through geysers, hot springs, steam vents,
underwater hydrothermal vent, etc. Their heat can be captured and
used directly for heat, or their steam can be used to generate
electricity. Geothermal energy can be used to heat structures such
as buildings, parking lots, and sidewalks.
WIND ENERGY - Kinetic energy produced by the movement of
air, able to be converted to mechanical power. It is created using a
wind turbine, a device that channels the power of the wind to
generate electricity.
HYDROGEN ENERGY- Hydrogen is used as a clean-burning
fuel, leading to fewer pollutants and a cleaner environment. We
also use it for fuel cells. These are like batteries and are used to
supply power to electric motors.
TIDAL ENERGY- With the movement of the tides, we get tidal
energy when the kinetic energy of the water movement converts
into electrical energy. Tidal energy is renewable and produces large
amounts of energy even with low-speed tides.
WAVE ENERGY- Wave energy is an alternative energy source
derived from waves as they move across the water.
ENERGY CRISIS - is the concern that the world’s demands on
the limited natural resources that are used to power industrial
society are diminishing as the demand rises. These natural
resources are in limited supply. While they do occur naturally, it
can take hundreds of thousands of years to replenish the stores.
Energy crisis is a result of many different strains on our natural
resources, not just one.
CAUSES OF THE ENERGY CRISIS
1. Overconsumption. This is a result of too much use of fossil
fuels such as oil, gas, and coal.
2. Overpopulation. The human population steady increase leads to
more demands to energy resources.
3. Poor infrastructure. The continued use of outdated equipment's
in maintaining old infrastructures limits energy production.
4. Unexplored renewable energy options. Ignorance of other
renewable energy sources options will lead the people to greatly
depend in non-renewable energy resources.
5. Wastage of energy. The energy wasting habits at home such as
leaving the lights on or leaving electronic gadgets plugged adds
more problem with the energy shortage nowadays.
6. Poor distribution system. If the energy from plants has poor
distribution system, tripping and breakdowns will be more
frequent.
7. Major accidents and natural calamities. Energy supply
shortages may be caused by natural calamities, like volcanic
eruptions, floods and earthquakes, and major accidents. This may
result to greater increase in energy price in the global market.
8. Wars and attacks. Unsettled wars involving Middle East
countries may create major problems for energy consumers due to
global shortage.
9. Miscellaneous factors. These factors include Political Events,
Strikes, Tax hikes, Severe Weather Changes. If the problems will
arise from oil producing companies, it will directly cause energy
crisis.
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY RESOURCES
The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 is an example of the problems that
can occur as a result of using nuclear power and fossil fuels. In
developing nations biomass (energy which includes wood,
charcoal, crop residues, dung, and other organic materials) is a
source of energy apart from fossil fuels.
Alternative energy is energy that does not come from fossil fuels,
and thus produces little to no greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide
(CO2). This means that energy produced from alternative sources
does not contribute to the greenhouse effect that causes climate
change. Alternative energy sources include solar energy,
hydroelectric energy, geothermal energy, wind energy, bioenergy,
nuclear energy, hydrogen energy, tidal energy, and wave energy.
BENEFITS OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
1. Conserve fossil fuels: We generate renewable energy by tapping
into virtually inexhaustible resources.
2. Slow and reverse climate change:. Alternative energy sources
have a much lower carbon footprint than natural gas, coal, and
other fossil fuels. Switching to renewable energy sources to
produce electricity will help the planet by slowing and reversing
climate change.
3. Save lives: Making the switch to just hydropower, wind energy,
and solar energy can potentially save up to 7 million lives each
year by reducing air pollutants.
4. Reduce severe weather: By slowing the effects of climate
change and eventually reversing them, we can expect to see a
reduction in extreme weather like droughts, floods, and storms
caused by global warming.
5. Minimize fuel dependency: We can diversify our energy supply
by implementing the widespread use of large-scale renewable
energy technologies and minimizing our imported fuel dependency.
6. Economic and job development: Producing even more utility-
scale energy systems can create economic growth as well as jobs in
the installation and manufacturing industries, not to mention the
sustainable energy industry.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL
AWARENESS
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and
weather patterns. Climate change has immensely affected our
natural environment and our society in the past. It will continue to
do so if we permit. Globally, considerable efforts are made to
alleviate the negative effects of climate change and one of which is
reduction in carbon emissions. Each one of us plays a major role in
this cause. We can take part and contribute significantly to protect
our environment, our world against the devastating consequences
of this global phenomenon.
NATURAL CAUSE OF CLIMATE CHANGE
Volcanic eruptions release carbon dioxide, but they can also
release sulfur dioxide and aerosols like volcanic ash or dust.
Liquids and solids that float in the air are called aerosols. They
could also contain bacteria, viruses, salt crystals, dust, and soot.
Aerosols have a small cooling effect by diffusing solar energy that
is coming in. Volcanic aerosols can block a portion of the sun's
rays and result in cooling that could last between one and two
years.
Orbital Changes. Climate change can potentially result from
Earth's orbit. The Milankovitch theory suggested this. According to
the Milankovitch theory, fluctuations in the amount of solar energy
that reach Earth as the Earth orbits the Sun are caused by cyclical
variations in three aspects of the Earth-Sun geometry, the
eccentricity, obliquity, and precession. The interplay of the three
orbital cycles affects the amount of solar radiation received at
different latitudes over the year.
1. Obliquity refers to the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to its
orbital plane around the Sun. Changes in obliquity can have
significant effects on climate patterns and seasons, as it affects the
amount and distribution of solar radiation received at different
latitudes.
2. Eccentricity refers to the shape of the Earth's orbit around the
Sun. Instead of a perfect circle, the Earth's orbit is slightly elliptical
or elongated. Eccentricity is a measure of how elongated the orbit
is. When eccentricity is high, the Earth's orbit is more elongated,
leading to differences in the distance between the Earth and the
Sun at different points in its orbit.
3. Precession refers to the slow, wobbling motion of the Earth's
axis caused by gravitational interactions with other celestial bodies,
mainly the Sun and the Moon. Precession can affect the timing and
intensity of the seasons. It also influences the orientation of the
Earth's axis in relation to the stars, leading to a shift in the position
of the North Star over long periods.
Plate Tectonic Movements. Landmasses are transported to new
locations and latitudes as tectonic plates move over geological
timescales. The temperature of the continents is impacted by these
changes, as well as global air and ocean water circulation patterns.
Variation of Solar Radiation. The variation in solar radiation is
correlated with sunspot activity. As a result of the sunspots'
suppression of heat, heat moves to the regions around them,
making them brighter than usual and radiating more heat. Less
sunspots appear to be linked to a cooler global temperature, whilst
more sunspots may contribute to a warmer one.
ANTRHOPOGENIC CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped close to
Earth's surface by “greenhouse gases.” These heat-trapping gases
can be thought of as a blanket wrapped around Earth, keeping the
planet toastier than it would be without them. Greenhouse Gases
present in the atmosphere which includes carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (NO2), chlorofluorocarbon (CFC),
and water vapor (H2O).
Human Activities and the Greenhouse Effect. The natural
greenhouse effect of Earth is being altered by human activity.
Carbon dioxide levels in our atmosphere increase when fossil fuels
like coal and oil are used. Carbon dioxide and various other
greenhouse gases have been found to be present in our atmosphere
in greater quantities, according to NASA. The atmosphere of the
Earth could get warmer if certain greenhouse gases are present in
excess. The Earth warms as a result.
SOURCES OF GREENHOUSE GASES
The primary sources of greenhouse gas emissions in USA.
1. Electricity production. The largest amount of greenhouse gas
emissions is from electricity production.
2. Transportation. Majority of the fuel used by the vehicles are
petroleum based (gasoline and diesel).
3. Industry. Production of goods from raw materials in the
factories requires the use of fossil fuels that leads to emissions of
greenhouse gases.
4. Commercial and Residential. Handling wastes and burning
fossil fuels are common sources of greenhouse gases in homes and
commercials places like market and cities.
5. Agriculture. Livestock such as cows and goats, agricultural
soils and production of rice release greenhouse gases.
6. Land use and Forestry. Trees have been the primary absorber
of the CO2, in the atmosphere. Clearing of lands make it difficult
to control the increasing concentration of the top greenhouse gas,
CO2.
Deforestation. This stored carbon has the potential to be released
back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and contribute to
climate change when they are damaged or destroyed, for example
by fire - a process known as deforestation.
Evaporation-Evaporation is a method of cooling. Water in rural
areas might evaporate from these areas because it is absorbed into
the ground or runs off into rivers and lakes. There isn't much water
on the surface to evaporate in cities because it flows off into sewers
and drains.
Ozone Depletion. One of the major issues with our atmosphere is
ozone depletion.
Climate change has significantly influenced various areas in the
country including water resources, forestry, agriculture, coastal
resources, and health. This global phenomenon will continue to do
so if we allow our habits and not so environmentally friendly
practices to progress and contribute to the acceleration of global
warming. Impacts of the enhanced global warming have been
identified by various scientists.
More frequent hot days and fewer cool day , More intense heat
waves, Worsening storms, `floods and droughts , Intensified
Hurricanes, Warmer ocean surface temperatures, Rising sea levels,
More frequent coastal flooding , Island nations disappear,
Accelerated melting of ice sheets and glaciers ,Changes in the
growing season of plants ,Disruption of normal ecosystem ,Loss of
animal habitat, Possible extinction of animals
PROJECTED HEALTH IMPACTS of CLIMATE CHANGE
 Increase malnutrition and consequent disorders.  Increase
in the number of people dying and suffering from disease and
injury due to heat waves, floods, storms, fires, and droughts. 
Continue change range of some infectious disease vectors.  Have
mixed effects on malaria  Increase the burden of diarrheal
diseases.  Increase cardio-respiratory morbidity and mortality
associated with ground-level ozone.
Environmental awareness refers to the consciousness and
understanding of the importance of the environment and the need
to protect and preserve it. It involves recognizing the
interdependence between human activities and the natural world, as
well as the impacts of those activities on ecosystems, biodiversity,
climate, and overall planetary health. Environmental awareness
encompasses knowledge about environmental issues, their
causes, and potential solutions, as well as the promotion of
sustainable practices and behaviors that minimize harm to the
environment. It also involves raising public consciousness,
fostering environmental education, and advocating for policies and
actions that prioritize environmental protection and sustainability.
By increasing environmental awareness, individuals and
communities can contribute to positive environmental change and
work towards a more sustainable future.
MEASURES TO MITIGATE NEGATIVE IMPACT OF
CLIMATE CHANGE
Some key measures to address climate change and reduce its
negative impact include:
1. Transitioning to renewable energy sources 2. Energy
efficiency and conservation 3. Reforestation and
afforestation 4. Sustainable agriculture and
land management 5. Waste management and recycling
6. Climate-resilient infrastructure
7. Promoting sustainable lifestyles and consumer choices
8. Education and awareness 9.
International cooperation and policy frameworks 10. Research
and innovation
Environmental protection laws are essential tools in addressing
the challenges posed by environmental degradation and the impacts
of climate change. These laws aim to regulate human activities,
promote sustainable practices, and ensure the preservation of
ecosystems and natural resources.
INTERNATIONAL LAWS :
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC): Adopted in 1992, the UNFCCC is a global treaty that
aims to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere
and prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate
system.
2. Kyoto Protocol: An extension of the UNFCCC, the Kyoto
Protocol was adopted in 1997 and sets binding emission reduction
targets for developed countries. It introduced mechanisms such as
emissions trading and Clean Development Mechanism to promote
mitigation efforts.
3. Paris Agreement: Adopted in 2015, the Paris Agreement builds
upon the UNFCCC and aims to limit global warming to well below
2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to
limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. It emphasizes
nationally determined contributions and promotes adaptation and
climate finance.
4. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): The CBD, adopted
in 1992, is an international treaty that aims to promote the
conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components, and
fair sharing of benefits derived from genetic resources. Climate
change and environmental protection laws are essential tools in
addressing the challenges posed by environmental degradation and
the impacts of climate change. These laws aim to regulate human
activities, promote sustainable practices, and ensure the
preservation of ecosystems and natural resources. By setting legal
frameworks, establishing standards, and enforcing compliance,
these laws seek to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, protect
biodiversity, conserve habitats, and promote the transition to a
more sustainable and resilient future. Such laws play a crucial role
in promoting environmental stewardship, fostering global
cooperation, and safeguarding the well-being of present and future
generations.
5. Basel Convention: The Basel Convention, adopted in 1989, is
an international treaty that aims to control the transboundary
movement of hazardous waste and ensure its environmentally
sound management.
6. Montreal Protocol: The Montreal Protocol, adopted in 1987, is
an international environmental treaty that aims to protect the ozone
layer by phasing out the production and consumption of substances
that deplete it, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
PHILIPPINE LAWS:
Climate Change Act of 2009 (Republic Act No. 9729):
establishes a framework for the country's response to climate
change. It aims to mainstream climate change considerations into
various sectors, promote climate resilience, and reduce greenhouse
gas emissions.
2. Clean Air Act of 1999 (Republic Act No. 8749): focuses on
improving air quality and reducing air pollution. It sets emission
standards for various industries, promotes the use of clean
technologies, and establishes mechanisms for monitoring and
enforcement.
3. Clean Water Act of 2004 (Republic Act No. 9275): aims to
protect and manage the country's water resources. It sets water
quality standards, regulates water pollution sources, and promotes
sustainable water management practices.
4. Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (Republic
Act No. 9003): promotes proper waste management practices,
including waste segregation, recycling, and the establishment of
materials recovery facilities. It aims to minimize the generation of
solid waste and promote resource conservation.
5. Environmental Awareness and Education Act of 2009 (RA
9512): promotes environmental awareness and education. This law
highlights the integration of environmental education into formal
and non-formal education systems, emphasizing the importance of
raising public awareness and understanding of environmental
issues.
THE NANOWORLD
Nanotechnology is a very promising field of scientific activity that
continues to inspire and propel our scientists to explore its vast
application in our society. This field of study has been
revolutionizing our society and will continue to do so as
nanotechnologists prove the flexibility and durability of
nanoparticles in various applications. Nanotechnology refers to the
scientific study and utilization of very small structures whose size
ranges between 1 nanometer (nm) up to 100 nanometers. The term
"nano" originated from the Greek word nanos which means dwarf.
Nano denotes 10° or one-billionth of a meter. Various fields of
study contribute to nanotechnology, including materials science,
molecular physics, chemistry, biology, computer science, electrical
science, and mechanical engineering. Unique phenomena occur at
the nanoscale that is why scientists are so interested at imaging,
measuring, manipulating, modeling, and utilizing nanoparticles.
UNIQUE FEATURES OF NANOSCALE
1. Scale at which biology occurs
Various activities of the cells take place at the nanoscale. The
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) serves as the genetic material of the
cell and is only about 2 nanometers in diameter. Furthermore, the
hemoglobin that transports oxygen to the tissues throughout the
body is 5.5 nanometers in diameter. A good number of modern
research focus on advancing procedures, therapies, tools, and
treatments that are more accurate and custom-made than traditional
methods and cause no adverse effects on the body. An example of
this is the bio-barcode assay, which is an inexpensive approach for
identification of specific disease markers in the blood despite their
small number in a particular specimen.
2. Scale at which quantum effects dominate properties of
material - Particles with dimensions of 1-100 nanometers have
properties that are significantly discrete from particles of bigger
dimensions. Quantum effects direct the behavior and properties of
particles in this size scale. The properties of materials are highly
dependent on their size. Among the essential properties of
nanoscale that change as a function of size include chemical
reactivity, fluorescence, magnetic permeability, melting point, and
electrical conductivity. An example of this mechanism is the
nanoscale gold, which is not only the yellow-colored element we
usually see in pieces of jewelry, but it can actually be red or purple.
Gold's electrons display restricted motion in the nanoscale.
Practically, nanoscale gold particles selectively build up in tumors,
where they permit both precise imaging and targeted laser
destruction of the tumor while avoiding damage on healthy cells. 3.
Scale at which surfaces and interfaces play a large role in materials
properties and interactions as we increase the surface area per mass
of a particular material, a greater amount of the material meets
another material and can affect its reactivity.
HOW TO VIEW NANOSCALE?
1. Electron Microscope
2. Atomic Force Microscope
3. Scanning Tunneling Microscope
NANOMANUFACTURING
1.Bottom-up fabrication It manufactures products by building them
up from atomic and molecular-scale components. However, this
method can be time-consuming. Scientists and engineers are still in
search for effective ways of putting up together molecular
components that self-assemble and from the bottom-up to
organized structures.
2. Top-down fabrication It trims down large pieces of materials
into nanoscale. This process needs larger amounts of materials and
discards excess raw materials.
Advantages of Nanotechnology
1. Miniaturization: Nanotechnology allows the creation of smaller
and more efficient devices and materials, leading to miniaturization
and increased performance in various applications, such as
electronics, medicine, and energy storage.
2. Improved Materials: Nanomaterials exhibit unique properties
due to their small size and high surface area-to-volume ratio. These
materials can be stronger, lighter, and more flexible than
conventional materials, enhancing the performance of products.
3. Medical Applications: Nanotechnology has significant potential
in medicine, enabling targeted drug delivery, early disease
detection, and personalized treatments. It offers the possibility of
more effective and less invasive medical interventions.
4. Environmental Benefits: Nanotechnology can contribute to
environmental sustainability by enabling more efficient energy
production and storage, improved water purification processes, and
pollution remediation.
5. Information Technology: Nanotechnology has the potential to
revolutionize information technology, leading to faster and more
efficient computing, high-density data storage, and improved
communication systems.
Disadvantages of Nanotechnology
1. Health and Safety Concerns: The potential toxicity of certain
nanomaterials and nanoparticles raises concerns about their impact
on human health and the environment. More research is needed to
understand the risks fully.
2. Ethical and Social Issues: Nanotechnology raises ethical
questions regarding privacy, security, and potential misuse of
advanced materials and technologies. The responsible development
and use of nanotechnology must be carefully managed.
3. Cost: Nanotechnology research and development can be
expensive, which may limit its
accessibility and implementation in certain industries and
countries.
4. Regulation and Standards: The rapid development of
nanotechnology has outpaced the establishment of comprehensive
regulations and standards, leading to uncertainties in the industry
and concerns about product safety.
5. Unintended Consequences: Manipulating materials at the
nanoscale may have unforeseen consequences for the environment
and human health. Ensuring the responsible use of nanotechnology
is essential to avoid unintended negative impacts.
6. Public Perception: Lack of public awareness and understanding
of nanotechnology may lead to misconceptions and fear, hindering
its acceptance and potential benefits.
In the country, there are currently few Filipino experts working on
nanotechnology development who have successfully integrated it
in biotechnology and materials science. There is a need for more
expert and willing scientists who will contribute in the expansion
of this emerging field of science. Under the national
nanotechnology roadmap, DOST whittled down its priority
projects to ICT and semiconductors, agriculture and food, energy,
medicine, and environment due to the modest research and
development fund.
1. Electronics
Projects that are being worked out under the program include ICT
and semiconductors that have ongoing research and development
on GaAs nanorods, CNTs, and quantum dots, tiny crystals used in
the production of medical sensors and solar cells. Fabrication of
nanodevices is also being considered in support of domestic ICT
industry.
2. Agriculture
In agriculture, nanotechnology can be applied on chemical sensors
and biosensors for precision agriculture. Mesoporous silica
nanoparticles (MSNs) are also utilized to deliver DNA to animal
and plant cells in order to facilitate gene transformation and
expression. Standards setting for fertilizers, cost effective
pesticides and other agrochemicals that contain nanomaterials, and
intelligent sensor actuator system are also being explored to
improve the agriculture sector of the country.
3. Food Processing
For food processing, several promising ventures are being done
including edible coats for agriculture and food exports, regulated
atmosphere storage for prepared commodities, and biodegradable
food packaging with barrier properties and enhanced strength.
DOST also invests in nanosensors which are very promising
products of nanotechnology. These technologies can be used to
detect and control pests in food and agriculture.
4. Energy- Meanwhile, solar energy devices that use
nanostructures are being pursued through collaborative approach
by research groups from the of the Philippines, Ateneo de Manila
University, and De La Salle University. These devices focus on
solid state-based, and dye sensitized based solar cells.
5. Medicine Many experts believe that nanotechnology can be
integrated in medicine for early detection and prevention, improved
diagnostics, treatment, and follow-ups on diseases. Nanomedicine
is expected to soar in billions of dollars as an industry globally.
6. Environment - Scientists would like to work on water
purification by nano filters, environmental remediation, and
development of green composites including forest products.
Nanoparticles are explored to remove pollutants and toxic products
present in soil or water.
PRODUCTS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Nanoparticles have several applications and advantages in various
fields. In the Philippines, scientists are exploring its notable
applications in the field of agriculture. Among the products that
were already developed especially in the University of the
Philippines Los Baños include
Nanosilica-based fertilizer that promotes the germination and
growth rate of tomatoes
Fruitect coating technology which improves the shelf life of
premium fruits primarily mango and papaya
Nano-encapsulated plant growth regulators that promote
germination and development of the roots of high value plants such
as coffee, cassava, and banana
Robotics focuses on the creation, maintenance, and use of
machines that can replace workers and do similar tasks. A robot is
an autonomous machine capable of sensing its environment,
carrying out computations to make decisions, and performing
actions in the real world. Robots can be utilized in hazardous
situations like bomb detection and deactivation, production
operations, or in places where people cannot exist, like space,
under water, in extreme heat, or under radiation.
Roles played by Robotics:
A. Laws governing Robotics
The Three Laws of Robotics also known as Asimov’s Laws are a
set of rules devised by the science fiction author Isaac Asimov
introduced in his 1942 short story "Runaround". Isaac Asimov
argued that intelligent robots should all be programmed to obey the
following three laws:
1. A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction,
allow a human being to come to harm.
2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except
where such orders would conflict with the First Law
3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection
does not conflict with the First or Second Law
B. Kinds of Robots
1. Aerospace: This is a broad category. It includes all sorts of flying
robots—the SmartBird robotic seagull and the Raven surveillance
drone, for example—but also robots that can operate in space, such
as Mars rovers and NASA's Robonaut, the humanoid that flew to
the International Space Station and is now back on Earth.
2. Consumer: Consumer robots are robots you can buy and use just
for fun or to help you with tasks and chores. Examples are the
robot dog Aibo, the Roomba vacuum, AI-powered robot assistants,
and a growing variety of robotic toys and kits.
3. Disaster Response: These robots perform dangerous jobs like
searching for survivors in the aftermath of an emergency. For
example, after an earthquake and tsunami struck Japan in 2011,
Packbots were used to inspect damage at the Fukushima Daiichi
nuclear power station.
4. Drones: Also called unmanned aerial vehicles, drones come in
different sizes and have different levels of autonomy. Examples
include DJI’s popular Phantom series and Parrot’s Anafi, as well as
military systems like Global Hawk, used for long-duration
surveillance.
5. Education: This broad category is aimed at the next generation
of roboticists, for use at home or in classrooms. It includes hands-
on programmable sets from Lego, 3D printers with lesson plans,
and even teacher robots like EMYS.
6. Entertainment: These robots are designed to evoke an emotional
response and make us laugh or feel surprise or in awe. Among
them are robot comedian RoboThespian, Disney’s theme park
robots like Navi Shaman, and musically inclined bots like Partner.
7. Exoskeletons: Robotic exoskeletons can be used for physical
rehabilitation and for enabling a paralyzed patient walk again.
Some have industrial or military applications, by giving the wearer
added mobility, endurance, or capacity to carry heavy loads.
8. Humanoids: This is probably the type of robot that most people
think of when they think of a robot. Examples of humanoid robots
include Honda’s Asimo, which has a mechanical appearance, and
also androids like the Geminoid series, which are designed to look
like people.
self-driving Toyota Prius, later spun out to form Waymo. 14.
Telepresence: Telepresence robots allow you to be present at a
place without actually going there. You log on to a robot avatar via
the internet and drive it around, seeing what it sees, and talking
with people. Workers can use it to collaborate with colleagues at a
distant office, and doctors can use it to check on patients.
15. Underwater: The favorite place for these robots is in the water.
They consist of deep-sea submersibles like Aquanaut, diving
humanoids like Ocean One, and bio-inspired systems like the
ACM-R5H snakebot.
ETHICAL DILEMMAS FACED BY ROBOTICS
1. SAFETY
Robotics are ethical, but only if they faithfully adhere to the rules
laid out in Asimov's laws for robots. They are moral primarily
because Asimov's laws guarantee the safety of not only the
technology's users but also others nearby. The safety of everyone
living in the house, not just the technology owner, should come
first above everything else. However, if the agent using the
technology abuses the robot to further personal goals, the agent
should unquestionably be held responsible for any negative effects
it may have. It's vital to note that this is presuming that the robot
complied with all applicable laws without deviating in any way.
Furthermore, if the robot is given the capacity to think for itself,
the robot along with its inventor is held responsible for any
casualties.
2. EMOTIONAL COMPONENT- If robots are given the capacity
to think and feel different emotions, should they also be given
rights? In the earlier times, animals did not have any rights but thru
further studies they were able to find out that they can also feel
emotions. Thus, the human society gave them rights that are due to
them. Similarly, if robots are given the capacity to think and feel
emotions, they should also be given the rights that are due to them
and laws should be developed taking into consideration the rights
of the robots as well as humanity.

9. Industrial: The traditional industrial robot consists of a

manipulator arm designed to perform repetitive tasks. An example
is the Unimate, the grandfather of all factory robots. This category
includes also systems like Amazon's warehouse robots and
collaborative factory robots that can operate alongside human
workers.

10. Medical: Medical and health-care robots include systems such

as the da Vinci surgical robot and bionic prostheses, as well as
robotic exoskeletons. A system that may fit in this category but is
not a robot is Watson, the IBM question-answering supercomputer,
which has been used in healthcare applications.

11. Military & Security: Military robots include ground systems

like Endeavor Robotics' PackBot, used in Iraq and Afghanistan to
scout for improvised explosive devices, and BigDog, designed to
assist troops in carrying heavy gear. Security robots include
autonomous mobile systems such as Cobalt.

12. Research: The vast majority of today’s robots are born in

universities and corporate research labs. Though these robots may
be able to do useful things, they’re primarily intended to help
researchers do, well, research. So although some robots may fit
other categories described here, they can also be called research
robots.

13. Self-Driving Cars: Many robots can drive themselves around,

and an increasing number of them can now drive you around. Early
autonomous vehicles include the ones built for DARPA’s
autonomous-vehicle competitions and also Google’s pioneering